c


c
, also called   or   

 (see the terminology below), is the tendency
of a force to rotate an object about an axis,[1] fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull,
a torque can be thought of as a twist.

Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the turning force on an object such as a bolt or a
flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt
produces a torque (turning force) that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt.

The terminology for this concept is not straightforward: In the US, in physics it is usually called
"torque" and in mechanical engineering it is called "moment".[2] However outside the US this
varies. In the UK for instance, most physicists will use the term "moment". In mechanical
engineering, the term "torque" means something à

,[3] described below. In this article the
word "torque" is always used to mean the same as "moment".

The symbol for torque is typically , the Greek letter . When it is called moment, it is
commonly denoted .

The magnitude of torque depends on three quantities: First, the force applied; second, the length
of the
 [4] connecting the axis to the point of force application; and third, the angle
between the two. In symbols:

where

G is the torque vector and  is the magnitude of the torque,

is the displacement vector (a vector from the point from which torque is measured to
the point where force is applied), and  is the length (or magnitude) of the lever arm
vector,
= is the force vector, and = is the magnitude of the force,
× denotes the cross product,
is the angle between the force vector and the lever arm vector.

The length of the lever arm is particularly important; choosing this length appropriately lies
behind the operation of levers, pulleys, gears, and most other simple machines involving a
mechanical advantage.

c
  
See also: Couple (mechanics)

In mechanical engineering (unlike physics), the terms "torque" and "moment" are not
interchangeable. "Moment" is the general term for the tendency of one or more applied forces to
rotate an object about an axis (the concept which in physics is called torque).[3] "Torque" is a
special case of this: If the applied force vectors add to zero (i.e., their "resultant" is zero), then
the forces are called a "couple" and their moment is called a "torque".[3]

For example, a rotational force down a shaft, such as a turning screw-driver, forms a couple, so
the resulting moment is called a "torque". By contrast, a lateral force on a beam produces a
moment (called a bending moment), but since the net force is nonzero, this bending moment is
not called a "torque".

This article follows physics terminology by calling all moments by the term "torque", whether or
not they are associated with a couple.

h


The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes
on levers. The rotational analogues of force, mass, and acceleration are torque, moment of
inertia, and angular acceleration, respectively.

  
   
 

A particle is located at position
relative to its axis of rotation. When a force = is applied to the
particle, only the perpendicular component =ë produces a torque. This torque G =
× = has
magnitude  = |
|Õ|=ë| = |
|Õ|=|Õsin and is directed outward from the page.

Torque is defined about a point not specifically about axis as mentioned in several books.

A force applied at a right angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the lever's fulcrum (the
length of the lever arm) is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two metres from the
fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six metres from
the fulcrum. The direction of the torque can be determined by using the right hand grip rule: if
the fingers of the right hand curl in the direction of rotation and the thumb points along the axis
of rotation, then the thumb also points in the direction of the torque.[5]
More generally, the torque on a particle (which has the position
in some reference frame) can
be defined as the cross product:

where
is the particle's position vector relative to the fulcrum, and = is the force acting on the
particle. The magnitude  of the torque is given by

where  is the distance from the axis of rotation to the particle, = is the magnitude of the force
applied, and is the angle between the position and force vectors. Alternatively,

where =ë is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle. Any
force directed parallel to the particle's position vector does not produce a torque.[6]

It follows from the properties of the cross product that the torque vector is perpendicular to both
the position and force vectors. It points along the axis of rotation, and its direction is determined
by the right-hand rule.[6]

The unbalanced torque on a body along axis of rotation determines the rate of change of the
body's angular momentum,

where r is the angular momentum vector and  is time. If multiple torques are acting on the
body, it is instead the net torque which determines the rate of change of the angular momentum:

For rotation about a fixed axis,

where  is the moment of inertia and - is the angular velocity. It follows that
where D is the angular acceleration of the body, measured in rad·sí2.This equation has limitation
that torque equation is to be only written about instantaneous axis of rotation or center of mass
for any type of motion-either motion is pure translation,pure rotation or mixed motion.I=Moment
of inertia about point about which torque is written(either about instantaneous axis of rotation or
center of mass only). If body is in translatory equilibrium then torque equation is same about all
points in plane of motion.


 
   
  

 
 

The definition of angular momentum for a single particle is:

where "×" indicates the vector cross product and  is the particle's linear momentum. The time-
derivative of this is:

This result can easily be proven by splitting the vectors into components and applying the
product rule. Now using the definitions of velocity  = à
·à, acceleration  = à·à and linear
momentum  =  (if mass is constant),

The cross product of any vector with itself is zero, so the second term vanishes. Hence with the
definition of force = =  (Newton's 2nd law),

Then by definition, torque G =
× =.

If multiple forces are applied, Newton's second law instead reads =net = , and it follows that

The proof relies on the assumption that mass is constant; this is valid only in non-relativistic
systems in which no mass is being ejected.


Torque has dimensions of force times distance. Official SI literature suggests using the unit
  (N·m) or the unit 
à .[7] The unit   is properly denoted
 or  .[8] This avoids ambiguity with , millinewtons.

The joule, which is the SI unit for energy or work, is dimensionally equivalent to a newton
metre, but it is not used for torque. Energy and torque are entirely different concepts, so the
practice of using different unit names for them helps avoid mistakes and misunderstandings.[7]
The dimensional equivalence of these units, of course, is not simply a coincidence: A torque of 1
N·m applied through a full revolution will require an energy of exactly 2ʌ joules.
Mathematically,

where  is the energy,  is magnitude of the torque, and is the angle moved (in radians). This
equation motivates the alternate unit name 
à .[7]

In British unit, "pound-force-feet" (lbf x ft), "foot-pounds-force", "inch-pounds-force", "ounce-

force-inches" (oz x in) are used, and other non-SI units of torque includes "metre-kilograms-
force". For all these units, the word "force" is often left out,[9] for example abbreviating "pound-
force-foot" to simply "pound-foot" (in this case, it would be implicit that the "pound" is pound-
force and not pound-mass).

Sometimes one may see torque given units that don't dimensionally make sense. For example: g
x cm . In these units, g should be understood as the force given by the weight of 1 gram at the
surface of the earth. The surface of the earth is understood to have an average acceleration of
gravity (approx. 9.80665 m·sec2).



 
 


 



Moment arm diagram

A very useful special case, often given as the definition of torque in fields other than physics, is
as follows:

The construction of the "moment arm" is shown in the figure to the right, along with the vectors

and = mentioned above. The problem with this definition is that it does not give the direction
of the torque but only the magnitude, and hence it is difficult to use in three-dimensional cases. If
the force is perpendicular to the displacement vector
, the moment arm will be equal to the
distance to the centre, and torque will be a maximum for the given force. The equation for the
magnitude of a torque, arising from a perpendicular force:

For example, if a person places a force of 10 N on a spanner (wrench) which is 0.5 m long, the
torque will be 5 N m, assuming that the person pulls the spanner by applying force perpendicular
to the spanner.

The torque caused by the two opposing forces =g and í=g causes a change in the angular
momentum r in the direction of that torque. This causes the top to precess.





For an object to be in static equilibrium, not only must the sum of the forces be zero, but also the
sum of the torques (moments) about any point. For a two-dimensional situation with horizontal
and vertical forces, the sum of the forces requirement is two equations: Ȉh = 0 and Ȉ = 0, and
the torque a third equation: Ȉ = 0. That is, to solve statically determinate equilibrium problems
in two-dimensions, we use three equations.






When the net force on the system is zero, the torque measured from any point in space is the
same. For example, the torque on a current-carrying loop in a uniform magnetic field is the same
regardless of your point of reference. If the net force is not zero, and is the torque measured
from , then the torque measured from is





Torque curve of a motorcycle ("BMW K 1200 R 2005"). The horizontal axis is the speed (in
rpm) that the crankshaft is turning, and the vertical axis is the torque (in Newton metres) that the
engine is capable of providing at that speed.

Torque is part of the basic specification of an engine: the power output of an engine is expressed
as its torque multiplied by its rotational speed of the axis. Internal-combustion engines produce
useful torque only over a limited range of rotational speeds (typically from around 1,000±6,000
rpm for a small car). The varying torque output over that range can be measured with a
dynamometer, and shown as a torque curve. The peak of that torque curve occurs somewhat
below the overall power peak. The torque peak cannot, by definition, appear at higher rpm than
the power peak.

Understanding the relationship between torque, power and engine speed is vital in automotive
engineering, concerned as it is with transmitting power from the engine through the drive train to
the wheels. Power is a function of torque and engine speed. The gearing of the drive train must
be chosen appropriately to make the most of the motor's torque characteristics. Power at the
drive wheels is equal to engine power less mechanical losses regardless of any gearing between
the engine and drive wheels.

Steam engines and electric motors tend to produce maximum torque close to zero rpm, with the
torque diminishing as rotational speed rises (due to increasing friction and other constraints).
Reciprocating steam engines can start heavy loads from zero RPM without a clutch.
 
  



If a force is allowed to act through a distance, it is doing mechanical work. Similarly, if torque is
allowed to act through a rotational distance, it is doing work. Mathematically, for rotation about
a fixed axis through the center of mass,

where u is work,  is torque, and 1 and 2 represent (respectively) the initial and final angular
positions of the body.[10] It follows from the work-energy theorem that u also represents the
change in the rotational kinetic energy rot of the body, given by

where  is the moment of inertia of the body and  is its angular speed.[10]

Power is the work per unit time, given by

where  is power, G is torque, - is the angular velocity, and · represents the scalar product.

Mathematically, the equation may be rearranged to compute torque for a given power output.
Note that the power injected by the torque depends only on the instantaneous angular speed ± not
on whether the angular speed increases, decreases, or remains constant while the torque is being
applied (this is equivalent to the linear case where the power injected by a force depends only on
the instantaneous speed ± not on the resulting acceleration, if any).

In practice, this relationship can be observed in power stations which are connected to a large
electrical power grid. In such an arrangement, the generator's angular speed is fixed by the grid's
frequency, and the power output of the plant is determined by the torque applied to the
generator's axis of rotation.

Consistent units must be used. For metric SI units power is watts, torque is newton metres and
angular speed is radians per second (not rpm and not revolutions per second).

Also, the unit newton metre is dimensionally equivalent to the joule, which is the unit of energy.
However, in the case of torque, the unit is assigned to a vector, whereas for energy, it is assigned
to a scalar.
! 
   


A conversion factor may be necessary when using different units of power, torque, or angular
speed. For example, if rotational speed (revolutions per time) is used in place of angular speed
(radians per time), we multiply by a factor of 2ʌ radians per revolution.

Adding units:

Dividing on the left by 60 seconds per minute and by 1000 watts per kilowatt gives us the
following.

where rotational speed is in revolutions per minute (rpm).

Some people (e.g. American automotive engineers) use horsepower (imperial mechanical) for
power, foot-pounds (lbf·ft) for torque and rpm for rotational speed. This results in the formula
changing to:

The constant below in, ft·lbf·min, changes with the definition of the horsepower; for example,
using metric horsepower, it becomes ~32,550.

Use of other units (e.g. BTU·h for power) would require a different custom conversion factor.


 

For a rotating object, the

à  covered at the circumference in a radian of rotation is
the product of the radius with the angular speed. That is: linear speed = radius × angular speed.
By definition, linear distance=linear speed × time=radius × angular speed × time.

By the definition of torque: torque=force × radius. We can rearrange this to determine

force=torque ÷ radius. These two values can be substituted into the definition of powe

r:
The radius r and time t have dropped out of the equation. However angular speed must be in
radians, by the assumed direct relationship between linear speed and angular speed at the
beginning of the derivation. If the rotational speed is measured in revolutions per unit of time,
the linear speed and distance are increased proportionately by 2ʌ in the above derivation to give:

If torque is in lbf·ft and rotational speed in revolutions per minute, the above equation gives
power in ft·lbf·min. The horsepower form of the equation is then derived by applying the
conversion factor 33000 ft·lbf·min per horsepower:

because



  

The Principle of Moments, also known as Varignon's theorem (not to be confused with the
geometrical theorem of the same name) states that the sum of torques due to several forces
applied to  
 point is equal to the torque due to the sum (resultant) of the forces.
Mathematically, this follows from:

c



A torque multiplier is a gear box, which works on the principle of epicyclic gearing. The given
load at the input gets multiplied as per the multiplication factor and transmitted to the output,
thereby achieving greater load with minimal effort.[  àà]

Language
c
 


 English
Français

Torque motors are a special class of brushless permanent-magnet servo motors commonly
referred to as permanent-magnet synchronous motors or brushless DC motors. Since the payload
is directly mounted on the rotor without the use of transmission elements, torque motors are
classified as direct drives.

Depending on your viewpoint, a torque motor is either a rolled-up linear motor or a classic servo
drive with a large number of poles. It is the large number of poles that enables torque motors to
attain high torque at moderate speeds. Another attractive feature is their compact design that
includes a narrow lamination stack and a large hollow shaft.

As with linear motors, torque motors are a type of "frameless" motor. This means that the motor
does not include a housing, bearings, or feedback device. These components can be selected by
the machine builder and optimized according to the required performances, or purchased as part
of an assembly.

Torque motors produce high torque at moderate speeds or when the motor is stationary or stalled.
Contrary to traditional drives, the sizing of a torque motor is based purely on torque, not power.
The peak torque determines the maximum torque that the motor physically produces. Continuous
torque defines the amount of torque the motor can continuously supply when all three phases
equally share the load. The duty cycle of the application will define the dependency on peak or
continuous torque.

ü


 


An 


 
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors
operate through interacting magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force,
although electrostatic motors use electrostatic forces. The reverse process, producing electrical
energy from mechanical energy, is done by generators such as an alternator or a dynamo. Many
types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa. For example a starter·generator
for a gas turbine, or traction motors used on vehicles, often perform both tasks. Electric motors
and generators are commonly referred to as electric machines.

Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps,
machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by
direct current (e.g., a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating current
from a central electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors may be found in electric
wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide
convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for
propulsion of ships, pipeline compressors, and water pumps with ratings in the millions of watts.
Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal construction,
by their application, or by the type of motion they give.

The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric current
and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were
constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of electric motors on a
large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical distribution networks.

Some devices, such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers, although they generate some
mechanical power, are not generally referred to as electric motors, and are usually termed
actuators and transducers,[1] respectively.

h
 

‰


  

The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by an electromagnetic means was
demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped
into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed. When a current was passed
through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a
close circular magnetic field around the wire.[3] This motor is often demonstrated in school
physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the
simplest form of a class of devices called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's
wheel. These were demonstration devices only, unsuited to practical applications due to their
primitive construction.[  àà]

Jedlik's "electromagnetic self-rotor", 1827 (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest. The historic
motor still works perfectly today.[4])

In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with devices he called
"electromagnetic self-rotors". Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828
Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three main components of practical direct
current motors: the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets,
as the magnetic fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by
the currents flowing through their windings

c 
   




The first commutator-type direct current electric motor capable of turning machinery was
invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832.[11] Following Sturgeon's work, a
commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was
built by Americans Emily and Thomas Davenport and patented in 1837. Their motors ran at up
to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools and a printing press.[12] Due to the
high cost of the zinc electrodes required by primary battery power, the motors were
commercially unsuccessful and the Davenports went bankrupt. Several inventors followed
Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same cost issues with primary
battery power. No electricity distribution had been developed at the time. Like Sturgeon's motor,
there was no practical commercial market for these motors.[  àà]

In 1855 Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in his electromagnetic self-
rotors that was capable of useful work.[5][7] He built a model electric motor-propelled vehicle that
same year.[13] There is no evidence that this experimentation was communicated to the wider
scientific world at that time, or that it influenced the development of electric motors in the
following decades.[  àà]

The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Zénobe Gramme connected the
dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor. The Gramme machine
was the first electric motor that was successful in the industry.[  àà]

In 1886 Frank Julian Sprague invented the first practical DC motor, a non-sparking motor
capable of constant speed under variable loads. Other Sprague electric inventions about this time
greatly improved grid electric distribution (prior work done while employed by Thomas Edison),
allowed power from electric motors to be returned to the electric grid, provided for electric
distribution to trolleys via overhead wires and the trolley pole, and provided controls systems for
electric operations. This allowed Sprague to use electric motors to invent the first electric trolley
system in 1887±88 in Richmond VA, the electric elevator and control system in 1892, and the
electric subway with independently powered centrally controlled cars, which was first installed
in 1892 in Chicago by the South Side Elevated Railway where it became popularly known as the
"L". Sprague's motor and related inventions led to an explosion of interest and use in electric
motors for industry, while almost simultaneously another great inventor was developing its
primary competitor, which would become much more widespread.

In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the polyphase power
transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in the years to follow at the
Westinghouse company.
The development of electric motors of acceptable efficiency was delayed for several decades by
failure to recognize the extreme importance of a relatively small air gap between rotor and stator.
Efficient designs have a comparatively small air gap.[14]

The St. Louis motor, long used in classrooms to illustrate motor principles, is extremely
inefficient for the same reason, as well as appearing nothing like a modern motor. Photo of a
traditional form of the St. Louis motor: [4]

Application of electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes were no longer

limited by power transmission using shaft, belts, compressed air or hydraulic pressure. Instead
every machine could be equipped with its own electric motor, providing easy control at the point
of use, and improving power transmission efficiency. Electric motors applied in agriculture
eliminated human and animal muscle power from such tasks as handling grain or pumping water.
Household uses of electric motors reduced heavy labor in the home and made higher standards of
convenience, comfort and safety possible. Today, electric motors consume more than half of all
electric energy produced.[15][16]

!
"  


 


The classic division of electric motors has been that of Alternating Current (AC) types vs Direct
Current (DC) types. This is more a à
 convention, rather than a rigid distinction. For
example, many classic DC motors run on AC power, these motors being referred to as universal
motors.

Rated output power is also used to categorize motors, those of less than 746 Watts, for example,
are often referred to as fractional horsepower motors (FHP) in reference to the old imperial
measurement.

The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as modern drivers
have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor, driver circuits
are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some approximation thereof. The
two best examples are: the brushless DC motor and the stepping motor, both being poly-phase
AC motors requiring external electronic control, although historically, stepping motors (such as
for maritime and naval gyrocompass repeaters) were driven from DC switched by contacts.

Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism between a moving
magnetic field and a moving current sheet for average torque production, there is a clearer
distinction between an asynchronous motor and synchronous types. An asynchronous motor
requires slip between the moving magnetic field and a winding set to induce current in the
winding set by mutual inductance; the most ubiquitous example being the common AC induction
motor which must slip to generate torque. In the synchronous types, induction (or slip) is not a
requisite for magnetic field or current production (e.g. permanent magnet motors, synchronous
brush-less wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine).
c
 


A torque motor (also known as a limited torque motor) is a specialized form of induction motor
which is capable of operating indefinitely while stalled, that is, with the rotor blocked from
turning, without incurring damage. In this mode of operation, the motor will apply a steady
torque to the load (hence the name).

A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape
drive. In this application, driven from a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a
relatively constant light tension to be applied to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding
tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the
torque motors can also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any
additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer gaming world, torque motors are
used in force feedback steering wheels.

Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion engine in
conjunction with an electronic governor. In this usage, the motor works against a return spring to
move the throttle in accordance with the output of the governor. The latter monitors engine speed
by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system or from a magnetic pickup[22] and,
depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current applied to the motor.
If the engine starts to slow down relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased, the
motor will develop more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle.
Should the engine run too fast, the governor will reduce the current being applied to the motor,
causing the return spring to pull back and close the throttle.

c

  


When optimally designed within a given core saturation constraint and for a given active current
(i.e., torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed),
and air-gap flux density, all categories of electric motors or generators will exhibit virtually the
same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given air-gap area with
winding slots and back-iron depth, which determines the physical size of electromagnetic core.
Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum operating torque, such as short
bursts of torque to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core
saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond
the maximum operating torque differs significantly between categories of electric motors or
generators.

Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with field weakening capability inherent in
fully electromagnetic electric machines (Permanent Magnet (PM) electric machine are
excluded). Field weakening, which is not available with PM electric machines, allows an electric
machine to operate beyond the designed frequency of excitation.

Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as Field-Wound (i.e.,

electromagnet) or Permanent Magnet (PM) Synchronous electric machines cannot realize bursts
of torque higher than the maximum designed torque without saturating the magnetic core and
rendering any increase in current as useless. Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly of PM
synchronous electric machines can be irreparably damaged, if bursts of torque exceeding the
maximum operating torque rating are attempted.

Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as Induction (i.e., asynchronous)
electric machines, Induction Doubly-Fed electric machines, and Induction or Synchronous
Wound-Rotor Doubly-Fed (WRDF) electric machines, exhibit very high bursts of torque because
the active current (i.e., Magneto-Motive-Force or the product of current and winding-turns)
induced on either side of the transformer oppose each other and as a result, the active current
contributes nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, which would
otherwise lead to core saturation.

Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles short-circuit one port of the
transformer circuit and as a result, the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit becomes
dominant as slip increases, which limits the magnitude of active (i.e., real) current. Still, bursts of
torque that are two to three times higher than the maximum design torque are realizable.

The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric machine with a truly dual ported
transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port).
The dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and requires a multiphase
slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. If a precision
means were available to instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous operation
during motoring or generating while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor
winding set (see Brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine), the active current of the
Synchronous WRDF electric machine would be independent of the reactive impedance of the
transformer circuit and bursts of torque significantly higher than the maximum operating torque
and far beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric machine would be realizable.
Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been calculated.

!  c


The continuous torque density of conventional electric machines is determined by the size of the
air-gap area and the back-iron depth, which are determined by the power rating of the armature
winding set, the speed of the machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core
saturation. Despite the high coercivity of neodymium or samarium-cobalt permanent magnets,
continuous torque density is virtually the same amongst electric machines with optimally
designed armature winding sets. Continuous torque density should never be confused with peak
torque density, which comes with the manufacturer's chosen method of cooling, which is
available to all, or period of operation before destruction by overheating of windings or even
permanent magnet damage.

!   


The continuous power density is determined by the product of the continuous torque density and
the constant torque speed range of the electric machine.
 



The following are major design and manufacturing standards covering electric motors:

`Y International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 60034 Rotating Electrical Machines

`Y National Electrical Manufacturers Association (USA): NEMA MG 1 Motors and
Generators
`Y Underwriters Laboratories (USA): UL 1004 - Standard for Electric Motors



Electric motors are used in many, if not most, modern machines. Obvious uses would be in
rotating machines such as fans, turbines, drills, the wheels on electric cars, locomotives and
conveyor belts. Also, in many vibrating or oscillating machines, an electric motor spins an
irregular figure with more area on one side of the axle than the other, causing it to appear to be
moving up and down.

Electric motors are also popular in robotics. They are used to turn the wheels of vehicular robots,
and servo motors are used to turn arms and legs in humanoid robots. In flying robots, along with
helicopters, a motor causes a propeller or wide, flat blades to spin and create lift force, allowing
vertical motion.

Electric motors are replacing hydraulic cylinders in airplanes and military equipment.[26][27]

In industrial and manufacturing businesses, electric motors are used to turn saws and blades in
cutting and slicing processes, and to spin gears and mixers (the latter very common in food
manufacturing). Linear motors are often used to push products into containers horizontally.

Many kitchen appliances also use electric motors. Food processors and grinders spin blades to
chop and break up foods. Blenders use electric motors to mix liquids, and microwave ovens use
motors to turn the tray food sits on. Toaster ovens also use electric motors to turn a conveyor to
move food over heating elements.

c
ü


#
  


Torque is the turning force through a radius and the units is rated in -   in the SI-system and
in -

 - in the imperial system.

The torque developed by asynchronous induction motors varies with the speed of the motor
when its accelerate from full stop or zero speed, to maximum operating speed.
r
$ 


 c


The r
$ 
c
 or 
 c
 is the torque the electrical motor develop when
its starts at rest or zero speed.

A high Starting Torque is more important for application or machines hard to start - as positive
displacement pumps, cranes etc. A lower Starting Torque can be accepted in applications as
centrifugal fans or pumps where the start load is low or close to zero.

%c


The %c
 is the minimum torque developed by the electrical motor when it runs from
zero to full-load speed (before it reaches the break-down torque point)

When the motor starts and begins to accelerate the torque in general decrease until it reach a low
point at a certain speed - the pull-up torque - before the torque increases until it reach the highest
torque at a higher speed - the break-down torque - point.

The pull-up torque may be critical for applications that needs power to go through some
temporary barriers achieving the working conditions.

&
$% c


The &
$% c
 is the highest torque available before the torque decreases when the
machine continues to accelerate to the working conditions.
=% '(c

&
$ c


The Full-load Torque is the torque required to produce the rated power of the electrical motor at
full-load speed.

In imperial units the Full-load Torque can be expressed as

c !"#$

 

c



à%"

$

 à 

à 

à"! & $

In metric units the rated torque can be expressed as

c'()u!"$

 

cà%" $

)uà")u$

à 

à" $

ü
  ü  




c
 

The torque of a (  motor rotating at #* can be expressed as:

c

(" $&!#*" $

#+,*



ü) 

NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) have classified electrical motors in four
different NEMA designs where torques and starting-load inertia are important criterions.

IEC·NEMA Standard Torques "


$
 2 Pole 4 Pole

Power (hp) Locked Locked

Pull Up Break Down Pull Up Break Down
Rotor Rotor
Torque Torque Torque Torque
Torque Torque

3 170·160 110·110 200·230 180·215 120·150 200·250

5 160·150 110·105 200·215 170·185 120·130 200·225

7.5 150·140 100·100 200·200 160·175 110·120 200·215

10 150·135 100·100 200·200 160·165 110·115 200·200

15 - 20 140·130 100·100 200·200 150·150 110·105 200·200


 c


Accelerating Torque = Available Motor Torque - Load Torque


*   



Reduced Voltage Soft Starters are used to limit the starting current and reducing the Locked
Rotor Torque or Starting Torque and are common in applications which is hard to start or must
be handled with care - as positive displacement pumps, cranes, elevators and similar.

c
%+
$  



+
$  






+
$ 

Work done is force multiplied with the distance moved by the force and can be expressed as

u="#$

 

u)à"-& $

=
"$

à  à.
"$

For an angular motion

the work done can be expressed as

u= 

c "$

 

u)"-
$


"à $

à " $

c%  " $

 



Power is the ratio between work done and time taken and can be expressed as

u!à

c !à

c

/c"0$

 
"u$

à )"$

 !à/

 ."à!$

à"!$

ü%
 


A machine rotating with speed 0(((! " $ consumes )u. The torque at the shaft can
be calculated by modifying (3) to

c!/

")u$"#(((u!)u$!/"0(((! $!"()! $

#,' 

^


A 
or more correctly a "gear wheel" is a rotating machine part having cut  , or ,
which  with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gears working in
tandem are called a    and can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio
and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed, magnitude,
and direction of a power source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another
gear, however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby producing
translation instead of rotation.

The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a pulley. An advantage of gears is that
the teeth of a gear prevent slipping.

When two gears of unequal number of teeth are combined a mechanical advantage is produced,
with both the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in a simple relationship.

In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles and cars, the term 
, as in

, refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term is used to describe
similar devices even when gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does
not actually contain any gears, as in a continuously variable transmission.[1]

The earliest known reference to gears was circa A.D. 50 by Hero of Alexandria,[2] but they can
be traced back to the Greek mechanics of the Alexandrian school in the 3rd century B.C. and
were greatly developed by the Greek polymath Archimedes (287±212 B.C.).[3] The Antikythera
mechanism is an example of a very early and intricate geared device, designed to calculate
astronomical positions. Its time of construction is now estimated between 150 and 100 BC.
! 
  




The definite velocity ratio which results from having teeth gives gears an advantage over other
drives (such as traction drives and V-belts) in precision machines such as watches that depend
upon an exact velocity ratio. In cases where driver and follower are in close proximity gears also
have an advantage over other drives in the reduced number of parts required; the downside is that
gears are more expensive to manufacture and their lubrication requirements may impose a higher
operating cost.

The automobile transmission allows selection between gears to give various mechanical
advantages.

Types

`Y 1 External vs. internal gears

`Y 2 Spur
`Y 3 Helical
`Y 4 Double helical
`Y 5 Bevel
`Y 6 Hypoid
`Y 7 Crown
`Y 8 Worm
`Y 9 Non-circular
`Y 10 Rack and pinion
`Y 11 Epicyclic
`Y 12 Sun and planet
`Y 13 Harmonic drive
`Y 14 Cage gear


$ 
A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large
radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a rack with a pinion: the
pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to
convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s). Racks also
feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an interchangeable
set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite radius), and the tooth shapes for gears of
particular actual radii then derived from that. The rack and pinion gear type is employed in a rack
railway.
 



^
 



A , also called a

 or
   has cylindrical rods for teeth, parallel to
the axle and arranged in a circle around it, much as the bars on a round bird cage or lantern. The
assembly is held together by disks at either end into which the tooth rods and axle are set.

 


Main article: Gear nomenclature

^
 



Rotational frequency, n

Measured in rotation over time, such as RPM.

Angular frequency, Ȧ
 Measured in radians per second. 1† = ʌ · 30 rad·second

Number of teeth, N

How many teeth a gear has, an integer. In the case of worms, it is the number of thread
starts that the worm has.

Gear, wheel

The larger of two interacting gears or a gear on its own.

Pinion

The smaller of two interacting gears.

Path of contact

Path followed by the point of contact between two meshing gear teeth.

Line of action, pressure line

Line along which the force between two meshing gear teeth is directed. It has the same
direction as the force vector. In general, the line of action changes from moment to
moment during the period of engagement of a pair of teeth. For involute gears, however,
the tooth-to-tooth force is always directed along the same line²that is, the line of action
is constant. This implies that for involute gears the path of contact is also a straight line,
coincident with the line of action²as is indeed the case.

Axis

Axis of revolution of the gear; center line of the shaft.

Pitch point, p

Point where the line of action crosses a line joining the two gear axes.

Pitch circle, pitch line

Circle centered on and perpendicular to the axis, and passing through the pitch point. A
predefined diametral position on the gear where the circular tooth thickness, pressure
angle and helix angles are defined.

Pitch diameter, d

A predefined diametral position on the gear where the circular tooth thickness, pressure
angle and helix angles are defined. The standard pitch diameter is a basic dimension and
cannot be measured, but is a location where other measurements are made. Its value is
 based on the number of teeth, the normal module (or normal diametral pitch), and the
helix angle. It is calculated as:

in metric units or in imperial units.[15]

Module, m

A scaling factor used in metric gears with units in millimeters who's effect is to enlarge
the gear tooth size as the module increases and reduce the size as the module decreases.
Module can be defined in the normal ( ), the transverse ( ), or the axial planes ( )
depending on the design approach employed and the type of gear being designed.[15]
Module is typically an input value into the gear design and is seldom calculated.

Operating pitch diameters

Diameters determined from the number of teeth and the center distance at which gears
operate.[4] Example for pinion:

Pitch surface

In cylindrical gears, cylinder formed by projecting a pitch circle in the axial direction.
More generally, the surface formed by the sum of all the pitch circles as one moves along
the axis. For bevel gears it is a cone.

Angle of action

Angle with vertex at the gear center, one leg on the point where mating teeth first make
contact, the other leg on the point where they disengage.

Arc of action

Segment of a pitch circle subtended by the angle of action.

Pressure angle, ș

The complement of the angle between the direction that the teeth exert force on each
other, and the line joining the centers of the two gears. For involute gears, the teeth
always exert force along the line of action, which, for involute gears, is a straight line;
and thus, for involute gears, the pressure angle is constant.

Outside diameter, 1
 Diameter of the gear, measured from the tops of the teeth.

Root diameter

Diameter of the gear, measured at the base of the tooth.

Addendum, a

Radial distance from the pitch surface to the outermost point of the tooth.  = (1 í 1) · 2

Dedendum, b

Radial distance from the depth of the tooth trough to the pitch surface.  = (1 í
à  ) · 2

Whole depth, 

The distance from the top of the tooth to the root; it is equal to addendum plus dedendum
or to working depth plus clearance.

Clearance

Distance between the root circle of a gear and the addendum circle of its mate.

Working depth

Depth of engagement of two gears, that is, the sum of their operating addendums.

Circular pitch, p

Distance from one face of a tooth to the corresponding face of an adjacent tooth on the
same gear, measured along the pitch circle.

Diametral pitch, à

Ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch diameter. Could be measured in teeth per inch or
teeth per centimeter.

Base circle

In involute gears, where the tooth profile is the involute of the base circle. The radius of
the base circle is somewhat smaller than that of the pitch circle.

Base pitch, normal pitch, 

In involute gears, distance from one face of a tooth to the corresponding face of an
adjacent tooth on the same gear, measured along the base circle.
Interference

Contact between teeth other than at the intended parts of their surfaces.

Interchangeable set

A set of gears, any of which will mate properly with any other.

h
 
 


Helix angle, ȥ

Angle between a tangent to the helix and the gear axis. It is zero in the limiting case of a
spur gear, albeit it can considered as the hypotenuse angle as well.

Normal circular pitch, 

Circular pitch in the plane normal to the teeth.

Transverse circular pitch, p

Circular pitch in the plane of rotation of the gear. Sometimes just called "circular pitch".
 = cos(ȥ)

Several other helix parameters can be viewed either in the normal or transverse planes. The
subscript n usually indicates the normal.

+
 
 



Lead

Distance from any point on a thread to the corresponding point on the next turn of the
same thread, measured parallel to the axis.

Linear pitch, p

Distance from any point on a thread to the corresponding point on the adjacent thread,
measured parallel to the axis. For a single-thread worm, lead and linear pitch are the
same.

Lead angle, Ȝ

Angle between a tangent to the helix and a plane perpendicular to the axis. Note that it is
the complement of the helix angle which is usually given for helical gears.

Pitch diameter, à

Same as described earlier in this list. Note that for a worm it is still measured in a plane
perpendicular to the gear axis, not a tilted plane.
Subscript w denotes the worm, subscript g denotes the gear.

Point of contact
Any point at which two tooth profiles touch each other.
Line of contact
A line or curve along which two tooth surfaces are tangent to each other.
Path of action
The locus of successive contact points between a pair of gear teeth, during the phase of
engagement. For conjugate gear teeth, the path of action passes through the pitch point. It
is the trace of the surface of action in the plane of rotation.
Line of action
The path of action for involute gears. It is the straight line passing through the pitch point
and tangent to both base circles.
Surface of action
The imaginary surface in which contact occurs between two engaging tooth surfaces. It is
the summation of the paths of action in all sections of the engaging teeth.
Plane of action
The surface of action for involute, parallel axis gears with either spur or helical teeth. It is
tangent to the base cylinders.
Zone of action (contact zone)
For involute, parallel-axis gears with either spur or helical teeth, is the rectangular area in
the plane of action bounded by the length of action and the effective face width.
Path of contact
The curve on either tooth surface along which theoretical single point contact occurs
during the engagement of gears with crowned tooth surfaces or gears that normally
engage with only single point contact.
Length of action
The distance on the line of action through which the point of contact moves during the
action of the tooth profile.
Arc of action, Qt
The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from the beginning to the
end of contact with a mating profile.
Arc of approach, Qa
The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from its beginning of
contact until the point of contact arrives at the pitch point.
Arc of recess, Qr
The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from contact at the pitch
point until contact ends.
Contact ratio, mc, İ
The number of angular pitches through which a tooth surface rotates from the beginning
to the end of contact.In a simple way, it can be defined as a measure of the average
number of teeth in contact during the period in which a tooth comes and goes out of
contact with the mating gear.
Transverse contact ratio, mp, İĮ
 The contact ratio in a transverse plane. It is the ratio of the angle of action to the angular
pitch. For involute gears it is most directly obtained as the ratio of the length of action to
the base pitch.
Face contact ratio, mF, İȕ
The contact ratio in an axial plane, or the ratio of the face width to the axial pitch. For
bevel and hypoid gears it is the ratio of face advance to circular pitch.
Total contact ratio, mt, İȖ
The sum of the transverse contact ratio and the face contact ratio.
İȖ = İĮ + İȕ
t = p + F
Modified contact ratio, mo
For bevel gears, the square root of the sum of the squares of the transverse and face
contact ratios.

Limit diameter
Diameter on a gear at which the line of action intersects the maximum (or minimum for
internal pinion) addendum circle of the mating gear. This is also referred to as the start of
active profile, the start of contact, the end of contact, or the end of active profile.
Start of active profile (SAP)
Intersection of the limit diameter and the involute profile.
Face advance
Distance on a pitch circle through which a helical or spiral tooth moves from the position
at which contact begins at one end of the tooth trace on the pitch surface to the position
where contact ceases at the other end.
Circular thickness

Length of arc between the two sides of a gear tooth, on the specified datum circle.

Transverse circular thickness

Circular thickness in the transverse plane.

Normal circular thickness

Circular thickness in the normal plane. In a helical gear it may be considered as the
length of arc along a normal helix.

Axial thickness

In helical gears and worms, tooth thickness in an axial cross section at the standard pitch
diameter.

Base circular thickness

In involute teeth, length of arc on the base circle between the two involute curves forming
the profile of a tooth.
Normal chordal thickness

Length of the chord that subtends a circular thickness arc in the plane normal to the pitch
helix. Any convenient measuring diameter may be selected, not necessarily the standard
pitch diameter.

Chordal addendum (chordal height)

Height from the top of the tooth to the chord subtending the circular thickness arc. Any
convenient measuring diameter may be selected, not necessarily the standard pitch
diameter.

Profile shift

Displacement of the basic rack datum line from the reference cylinder, made non-
dimensional by dividing by the normal module. It is used to specify the tooth thickness,
often for zero backlash.

Rack shift

Displacement of the tool datum line from the reference cylinder, made non-dimensional
by dividing by the normal module. It is used to specify the tooth thickness.

Measurement over pins

Measurement of the distance taken over a pin positioned in a tooth space and a reference
surface. The reference surface may be the reference axis of the gear, a datum surface or
either one or two pins positioned in the tooth space or spaces opposite the first. This
measurement is used to determine tooth thickness.

Span measurement

Measurement of the distance across several teeth in a normal plane. As long as the
measuring device has parallel measuring surfaces that contact on an unmodified portion
of the involute, the measurement will be along a line tangent to the base cylinder. It is
used to determine tooth thickness.

Modified addendum teeth

Teeth of engaging gears, one or both of which have non-standard addendum.

Full-depth teeth

Teeth in which the working depth equals 2.000 divided by the normal diametral pitch.

Stub teeth
 Teeth in which the working depth is less than 2.000 divided by the normal diametral
pitch.

Equal addendum teeth

Teeth in which two engaging gears have equal addendums.

Long and short-addendum teeth

Teeth in which the addendums of two engaging gears are unequal.


 




 is the distance between a point on one tooth and the corresponding point on an adjacent
tooth.[4] It is a dimension measured along a line or curve in the transverse, normal, or axial
directions. The use of the single word   without qualification may be ambiguous, and for this
reason it is preferable to use specific designations such as transverse circular pitch, normal base
pitch, axial pitch.

`Y

Pitch

`Y

Tooth pitch

`Y

Base pitch relationships

 `Y

Principal pitches

Circular pitch, 

Arc distance along a specified pitch circle or pitch line between corresponding profiles of
adjacent teeth.

Transverse circular pitch, t

Circular pitch in the transverse plane.

Normal circular pitch, n, e

Circular pitch in the normal plane, and also the length of the arc along the normal pitch
helix between helical teeth or threads.

Axial pitch, x

Linear pitch in an axial plane and in a pitch surface. In helical gears and worms, axial
pitch has the same value at all diameters. In gearing of other types, axial pitch may be
confined to the pitch surface and may be a circular measurement. The term axial pitch is
preferred to the term linear pitch. The axial pitch of a helical worm and the circular pitch
of its worm gear are the same.

Normal base pitch, N, bn

An involute helical gear is the base pitch in the normal plane. It is the normal distance
between parallel helical involute surfaces on the plane of action in the normal plane, or is
the length of arc on the normal base helix. It is a constant distance in any helical involute
gear.

Transverse base pitch, b, bt

In an involute gear, the pitch on the base circle or along the line of action. Corresponding
sides of involute gear teeth are parallel curves, and the base pitch is the constant and
fundamental distance between them along a common normal in a transverse plane.

Diametral pitch (transverse), d

Ratio of the number of teeth to the standard pitch diameter in inches.

Normal diametral pitch, nd

Value of diametral pitch in a normal plane of a helical gear or worm.

Angular pitch, șN, IJ

Angle subtended by the circular pitch, usually expressed in radians.

degrees or radians

^


Numerous nonferrous alloys, cast irons, powder-metallurgy and even plastics are used in the
manufacture of gears. However steels are most commonly used because of their high strength to
weight ratio and low cost. Plastic is commonly used where cost or weight is a concern. A
properly designed plastic gear can replace steel in many cases because it has many desirable
properties, including dirt tolerance, low speed meshing, and the ability to "skip" quite well. [17]
Manufacturers have employed plastic gears to make consumer items affordable in items like
copy machines, optical storage devices, VCRs, cheap dynamos, consumer audio equipment,
servo motors, and printers.




A 
is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be
read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer converts
the measured temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a
calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be
read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, most sensors are calibrated against known standards.



Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and
lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are also innumerable applications for
sensors of which most people are never aware. Applications include cars, machines, aerospace,
medicine, manufacturing and robotics.

A sensor is a device which receives and responds to a signal. A sensor's sensitivity indicates how
much the sensor's output changes when the measured quantity changes. For instance, if the
mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, the sensitivity is
1 cm·°C (it is basically the slope Dy·Dx assuming a linear characteristic). Sensors that measure
very small changes must have very high sensitivities. Sensors also have an impact on what they
measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the
liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors need to be designed to have a small effect
on what is measured, making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other
advantages. Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a
microscopic scale as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor
reaches a significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches.

! 
  





A good sensor obeys the following rules:

`Y Is sensitive to the measured property

`Y Is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application
`Y Does not influence the measured property

Ideal sensors are designed to be linear or linear to some simple mathematical function of the
measurement, typically logarithmic. The output signal of such a sensor is linearly proportional to
the value or simple function of the measured property. The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio
between output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature
and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant with the unit [V·K]; this sensor is linear
because the ratio is constant at all points of measurement.


 

If the sensor is not ideal, several types of deviations can be observed:

`Y The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity
error, but the sensor is still linear.
`Y Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually
reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full
scale range defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.
`Y If the output signal is not zero when the measured property is zero, the sensor has an
offset or bias. This is defined as the output of the sensor at zero input.
`Y If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is called nonlinearity.
Usually this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full
range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full range.
 `Y If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the measured property over time, there is a
dynamic error. Often, this behaviour is described with a bode plot showing sensitivity
error and phase shift as function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.
`Y If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined
as drift (telecommunication).
`Y Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor properties over a long
period of time.
`Y Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.
`Y Hysteresis is an error caused by when the measured property reverses direction, but there
is some finite lag in time for the sensor to respond, creating a different offset error in one
direction than in the other.
`Y If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the
measured property. The approximation error is also called digitization error.
`Y If the signal is monitored digitally, limitation of the sampling frequency also can cause a
dynamic error, or if the variable or added noise noise changes periodically at a frequency
near a multiple of the sampling rate may induce aliasing errors.
`Y The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being
measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their
environment.

All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors. Systematic errors
can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy. Noise is a
random error that can be reduced by signal processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of
the dynamic behaviour of the sensor.

  

The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is measuring.
Often in a digital display, the least significant digit will fluctuate, indicating that changes of that
magnitude are only just resolved. The resolution is related to the precision with which the
measurement is made. For example, a scanning tunneling probe (a fine tip near a surface collects
an electron tunnelling current) can resolve atoms and molecules.

c
Main article: List of sensors





Further information: Sense

All living organisms contain biological sensors with functions similar to those of the mechanical
devices described. Most of these are specialized cells that are sensitive to:

`Y Light, motion, temperature, magnetic fields, gravity, humidity, vibration, pressure,

electrical fields, sound, and other physical aspects of the external environment
`Y Physical aspects of the internal environment, such as stretch, motion of the organism, and
position of appendages (proprioception)
`Y Environmental molecules, including toxins, nutrients, and pheromones
`Y Estimation of biomolecules interaction and some kinetics parameters
`Y Internal metabolic milieu, such as glucose level, oxygen level, or osmolality
`Y Internal signal molecules, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and cytokines
`Y Differences between proteins of the organism itself and of the environment or alien
creatures.