Chapter 5

Bridge Deck Slabs

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Basic types of bridge decks
„ In-situ reinforced concrete deck- (most
common type)
„ Pre-cast concrete deck (minimize the use of
local labor)
„ Open steel grid deck
„ Orthotropic steel deck
„ Timber deck

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In-situ reinforced concrete deck

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Pre-cast concrete deck

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Open steel grid deck

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Orthotropic-steel deck

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Timber deck

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Bridge Deck Slab
„ Background
„ A) AASHTO 1.3.24, Distribution of Loads and
Design of Concrete Slabs
„ Main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic
⎛ S +2⎞
M =⎜ ⎟ P20 ;2 ≤ S ≤ 24, ft ft-lb/ft or
⎝ 32 ⎠
⎛ S + 0.61 ⎞
M =⎜ ⎟ P18 ;0.61 ≤ S ≤ 7.315, m kN-m/m
⎝ 9.74 ⎠
Where P20 is 16,000 lb for H20 or HS20 loading, P18
is 72 kN for M18 or MS18 loading and S is the
effective span length

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Distribution reinforcement

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Bridge Deck Slab
„ Main reinforcement parallel to traffic
„ Distribution of wheel loads E=4+0.06S or
(1.219+0.06S) maximum 7.0 ft (2.134m)
„ HS20 (MS18) loading
„ Span up to and including 50 ft (15.24 m)
„ LLM = 900 S ft-lb (13.14 S kN-m)
„ Span 50 ft to 100 ft (15.24 to 30.48 m)
„ LLM= 1000(1.30S-20.0) ft-lb 14.6(1.3 S-6.1)
kN-m

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Bridge Deck Slab

„ .

„ The above design method developed based on

Westergaard theory, (Ref. below)
„ “Computation of Stresses in Bridge Slabs Due to

Wheel Loads”, Public Roads, March, 1930

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Bridge Deck Slab
„ B) CSA-CAN3-S6-M78 CAN/CSA-S6-88
„ Similar to AASHTO
„ Above methods very conservative
„ Substantial strength enhancement
„ Arching action developed in system
„ C) CHBDC – Limit States Design
„ 1) Serviceability limit states
„ i) deformations (8.13.1)
„ ii) vibration (3.4.4)

„ iii) control of cracking (8.12.3)

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Bridge Deck Slab
„ 1) Serviceability limit states
„ i) deformations (8.13.1)
„ Deflections and rotations occurring

immediately upon the application of

loads shall be determined by elastic
methods using the value of Ec at
the time of loading and considering
the effects of cracking and
reinforcement.

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Bridge Deck Slab
„ 1) Serviceability limit states
„ ii) vibration (3.4.4)
„ Superstructures, other than for long span

bridges, shall be proportioned so that the

maximum deflection due to the factored traffic
load, including the dynamic load allowance, does
not exceed the limit given in Figure (A) for the
anticipated degree of pedestrian use. The
deflection limit state shall apply at the centre of
the sidewalk or, if there is no sidewalk, at the
inside face of the barrier.

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Bridge Deck Slab
„ An approved method shall be used to ensure
that vibration likely to occur in normal use will
not cause discomfort or concern to users of a
pedestrian bridge.

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Figure (A)

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Bridge Deck Slab
„ 1) Serviceability limit states
„ iii) control of cracking (8.12.3)

„ .

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Bridge Deck Slab
„ 2) Fatigue limit state, reinforcing bars (8.5.3.1)
„ Stress range in straight bars shall not exceed
125MPa
„ Stress range at anchorages, connections and bends
shall not exceed 65 MPa
„ Tack welding of primary reinforcement shall not
permitted
„ Stress range in the vicinity of welds shall not exceed
100 MPa
„ For other types of welded splices, the stress range
shall not exceed 65 MPa

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The ultimate limit state – strength (or stability)

„ All sections of the slab shall be proportioned to

have factored resistance that are at least equal to
the sum of the force effects of the factored loads.
„ Besides satisfying equilibrium and compatibility,
the following assumptions are considered
„ i) strains in bars and concrete proportional to the
distance from neutral axis
„ ii) maximum usable strain at the extreme
compression fiber is 0.0035
„ iii) Stress in steel, 1) E times steel strain if stress
s

is less than f y 2) f y if strain is more than yield

strain

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The ultimate limit state – strength (or stability)

„ iv) Concrete has negligible tensile strength in

calculation of flexural and axial tensile resistance
„ v) stress-strain distribution pattern is as follows

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The ultimate limit state – strength (or stability)

„ For reinforced concrete slabs, the factored

resistance may be calculated by:
⎡ ⎛ a ⎞⎤
M u = Φ ⎢ As f y ⎜ d − ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
„ Where,
As f y
a=
α1 f c'b
As f y
C = T → α f ba = As f y → a =
'

α1 f c'b
1 c
Φ c=0.75

Φs =0.90
} Material resistance factors

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Methods of analysis
„ Yield line method
„ Westergaard theory
„ Influence line
„ Grillage analogy
„ Orthotropic plate theory
„ Folded plate method
„ Finite element and finite strip method

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Yield Line Method
„ The principal is similar to that of the plastic design
theory of steel frames
„ Reflects the true behavior at ultimate limit state
„ Especially for existing bridges
„ It is a crack in a reinforced bridge, along which the
reinforcement has yielded
„ The section must be under-reinforced (as required by
bridge design codes)
„ Helps find
„ Moments at the plane of failure
„ Load at which the slab fails
„ Gives an upper bound solution

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Yield Line Method
„ Characteristics:
„ Yield lines are straight.
„ Axes of rotation pass along lines of support
„ Axes of rotation pass over columns.
„ A yield line dividing two slab parts must pass through
the point of intersection of the axes of rotation of the
two parts.
„ Yield lines must end at slab boundary
„ Simple supports attract positive or sagging yield lines
while continuous supports do the opposite.
„ Equilibrium or virtual work method

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Yield Line Method
„ Virtual work method
„ Upper bound
„ Study many failure patterns
„ Choose the pattern with highest moment or least load
„ Energy dissipation at yield line D (l , θ , M )
„ External work by loads E ( p, V )
„ Where, l is the length of yield line, θ is the rotation of
the yield line and M is the moment of resistance per unit
length. P represents the external load and V is the
volume between the deflected surfaces and the original
plane of the slab.

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Yield Line Method

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 Yield Line Method
We = ∑ ∫∫ pδdxdy = ∑ (P∆ e )

Wi = ∑ (mblθ )

∑ (P∆ ) = ∑ (m lθ )
c b

The virtual work gives an upper bound to the failure load P or lower
bound to resistance moment M. So, try many patterns and select
the lowest P or highest M.

Reference:
Wood, R.H. “Plastic and Elastic Analysis of Slabs and Plates”
, Thames and Hudson, London, 1961.

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Behavior of a restrained slab
„ When subjected to a concentrated load,
a restrained slab goes through these
stages:
„ 1) Development of fixed boundary action
„ 2) Cracking
„ 3) Development of compressive membrane
action, if the slab is unreinforced, or
superposition of the latter action and fixed
action if the slab is reinforced
„ 4) Failure

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Behavior of a restrained slab

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Behavior of a restrained slab

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Empirical method - background
„ Conventional design of deck slabs based on
flexure and shear can be quite conservative
„ And significant increase in strength is possible
from internal arching action developed within the
slab and the supporting beam system
„ Consequently, it is possible to reduce the amount
of reinforcement in such slabs quite considerably,
without undermining the level of safety.
„ Restraints at the edges of simply supported slabs
increase their load bearing capacity

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Empirical method - background
„ Development of fixed boundary action and
compressive membrane action are grouped
and named as arching action.
„ Arching action leads to increase in slab
strength.
„ This fact is reflected in CHBDC by suggesting
minimal reinforcement in the deck slab,
provided certain conditions are met.

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Empirical method – Conditions (CHBDC)

„ Slab of uniform thickness, bounded by exterior

supporting beams and:
„ (a) Slab is composite with parallel supporting
beams, for which the lines of support are also
parallel
„ (b) The ratio of the supporting beams spacing
and thickness is less than 18.0. The spacing of
the supporting beams in calculating this ratio is
taken parallel to the direction of the transverse
reinforcement.

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Empirical method - Criteria
„ (c) Spacing of the supporting beams not to
exceed 4.0 m. The slab extends beyond
external beams wide enough for the
development length of bottom transverse bars
„ (d) Provide longitudinal rebars in the deck slab
in the negative moment regions of continuous
composite beams.

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General and specific Criteria for empirical method

„ General criteria

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Minimum concrete cover and tolerances

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Minimum concrete cover and tolerances

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Minimum concrete cover and tolerances

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Minimum concrete cover and tolerances

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Minimum concrete cover and tolerances

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Minimum concrete cover and tolerances

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General and specific Criteria for empirical method

„ General criteria, continued

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Empirical method - Criteria
„ Negative reinforcement on supports is
provided accordingly
„ If the general criteria plus the specific ones are
fulfilled, then empirical method is applicable
„ Decks normally need 4 layers of re-bars
„ Main top and bottom re-bars to transfer live
load to supporting girders
„ Distribution bars on the top of lower main
bars and bottom of upper main bars to aid
distribution of wheel loads and act as temp.
shrinkage re-bars

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Empirical method - Criteria

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Empirical method

For skew angle of

more than 20

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Empirical method

„ Transverse reinforcing bars are placed on a

skew, the reinforcement ratio for these bars is
not less than
ρ
cos 2 θ
where θ is the skew angle
„ The spacing of reinforcement in each direction

does not exceed 300 mm

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Deck reinforcement
„ 4 layers

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Bridge deck deterioration

„ Chloride-containing deicing salt causes

corrosion of rebars and later damage to
concrete
„ In US, over 200 million/year on highway
bridge deck repair
„ In Canada, Ontario, over 20 million/year
on bridge repairs

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Spalling

Basic spalling mechansim

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Deck protection methods

„ Protection systems
„ Bituminous waterproofing
„ Pre-fabricated sheeting
„ Thin adhesive films
„ Galvanized Rebars
„ Epoxy coating of rebars
„ Stainless steel
„ Cathodic protection

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Cathodic protection
„ Developed by California Department of
Transportation

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Thicker Cover

„ Use thicker cover and denser concrete

„ IOWA method
„ Slump 12.5 ~ 25 mm
„ Air content 6%

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Composites
„ CFRP, GFRP (bars, sheets)
„ Fiber
„ Matrix
„ FRP vs. steel
„ Lighter, more durable, stronger, lower E,
brittle, more initial cost, less life-cycle cost?

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Composites, Matrix
„ Thermoset
„ Polyester
„ Vinyl Resin

„ Epoxy

„ Phenoic

„ Polyurethane

„ Thermoplastic
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Composites, Fibers
„ Aramid
„ Boron
„ Carbon/graphite
„ Glass
„ Nylon
„ Polyester
„ Polyethylene
„ Polypropylene
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Composite – Carbon fiber bars

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Composites – Glass fiber bars

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Composites, Surface roughness

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Composites
„ Domain of application
„ Construction of new structures
„ Renovation, repair of existing bridges

„ Retrofit of existing bridges

„ Embedded or externally applied rods

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Composites
„ Important issues:
„ Design to be consistent with limit states design
principles
„ Rigorous material testing procedures
„ Design provisions for reinforced and pre-
stressed components
„ Site preparation and construction procedure
„ Fire resistance
„ Long term durability
„ Ultraviolet rays, temp., humidity

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Composites
„ Testing
„ FRP internal reinforcement
„ Cross sectional area
„ Anchor for testing FRP specimens
„ Tensile properties
„ Development length
„ Bond strength
„ Surface bonded FRP reinforcement
„ Direct tension pull-out

„ Tension of flat specimens

„ Overlap splice tension test

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Composites
„ Design
„ Flexure
„ Deformability condition to ensure concrete crushes
first
„ Crack limitations less severe than for steel bars
„ Deflection limitation similar to conventional
members
„ Shear
„ Stirrups fail in corners due to premature fracture at
the bends
„ Few tests show shear resistance is less than
predicted

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Composites
„ Design
„ Thermal stress
„ Expansion of FRP very different than concrete
„ Large thermal stresses in harsh climates
„ Must consider thermal stress in the design
„ Fire resistance depends on
„ Critical temperature of FRP varies for various types
„ Thickness of concrete cover, aggregates
„ Ultraviolet rays
„ Not concern in embedded bars
„ Use protective coatings, additives to the resin

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