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Joseph L. Cox
U. S. Air Force
Space and Missile Systems Center
Los Angeles, CA
Henry Zmuda
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL
Rebecca J. Bussjaeger
Reinhard K. Erdmann
Michael L. Fanto
Michael J. Hayduk
John E. Malowicki
Sensors Directorate
Air Force Research Laboratories
Rome, NY
ABSTRACT
Herein is described a novel approach of performing adaptive photonic beam forming of an array of optical fibers with the
expressed purpose of performing laser ranging. The beam forming technique leverages the concepts of time reversal,
previously implemented in the sonar community, and wherein photonic implementation has recently been described for
use by beamforming of ultra-wideband radar arrays. Photonic beam forming is also capable of combining the optical
output of several fiber lasers into a coherent source, exactly phase matched on a pre-determined target. By implementing
electro-optically modulated pulses from frequency chirped femtosecond-scale laser pulses, ladar waveforms can be
generated with arbitrary spectral and temporal characteristics within the limitations of the wide-band system. Also
described is a means of generating angle/angle/range measurements of illuminated targets.
KEYWORDS: Photonics, Adaptive Beamforming, Phased Array Antennas, Time Reversal, Ladar, Arbitrary Waveform
Generation
1 INTRODUCTION
Enabling Photonics Technologies for Defense, Security, and Aerospace Applications III, edited by M.J. Hayduk, A.R. Pirich,
P.J. Delfyett Jr., E.J. Donkor, J.P. Barrios, R.J. Bussjager, M.L. Fanto, R.L. Kaminski, G.Li, H.Mohseni, E.W. Taylor,
Proc. of SPIE Vol. 6572, 657209, (2007) · 0277-786X/07/$18 · doi: 10.1117/12.723749
I S Extraneous
S Desired
Desired Desired Target(s) Target
T rg et S Target
Extraneous Extraneous
Target(s) Target(s)
Figure 1: Sequence of events to implement time reversal. (a) An interrogation signal is transmitted from one
antenna element. (b) The interrogation signal is scattered from the target(s) and received by all the array
elements. (c) A time reversal processor is used to time gate the received signal, time reverse them, and amplify
then retransmit these signals resulting in maximum target fluence.
2 PHOTONIC IMPLEMENTATION
in optical channels [16], but in our application the dispersive effects are made use of by inverting a chirped pulse in time.
If a pulse chirped with the shortest wavelength first is sent to a properly constructed fiber Bragg grating, it will be
inverted in time so that the longest wavelength is sent first and the shortest wavelength last. Therefore, the signal would
be time reversed.
___ II Output
''
Pulsed Dispersive EOM Beam
Laser Element Expander
It t
Figure 3: Generation of interrogation pulse. A pulsed laser is used to generate a comb of fsec class pulses which
are passed through dispersive fiber to increase the temporal width of the frequency chirp. An electro-optical
modulator is activated on each pulse, altering the spectra as desired. Beam shaping optics may or may not be used
to output the interrogation pulse and receive energy from the target. At the bottom of the diagram are the
chirped Bragg grating and optical amplifier used during receive mode. The spectral diagrams on the right
demonstrate the output pulse, top, and energy reflected off of the target, bottom.
Pu sea
I EOM
F
Dispersive
Laser Element
j ttoutput
iirpeiptica?'°eam
Bragg Amplifier Expander
Input
Grating
Figure 4: The time reversal module consists of a chirped Bragg grating and an optical amplifier. The spectral
characteristics of the chirped input and output pulses are described on the right.
Receive
Modules
Figure 5: A small linear array of four receive elements and one transmit element (in green). The time reversed
output from the receive modules is described on the right.
0.55 0.55
1603
0.54 0.54
t 0.53 2' 1553 0.53
0.52 = 0.52
0.51 1503
0.51
0.50 0.50
1453
0.49
0.49
0.46
1403 0.46
Figure 6: The optical signature of Bradford pear bark [15], (a), can be transmitted from the ladar by modulating
the chirped pulse, (b), with the RF signal in (c).
Another application of the spectral modification technique is shown in Figure 7. Figure 7(a) is spectral
reflectance data obtained of soil from Eglin Air Force Base in the identical spectral band and resolution as the Bradford
pear bark in Figure 6(a) [15]. Identical Bradford pear bark data is shown next to Eglin soil as Figure 7(b). If the
interrogation pulses were incident on Eglin soil and modulated such that the spectral output was as shown in Figure 7(c),
the Eglin soil would irradiate with an optical signature identical to Bradford pear bark. The laser intensity plot of Figure
7(c) was obtained by dividing the reflectance of Bradford pear bark at each data point in the spectral band by the
corresponding reflectance of Eglin soil.
aOe2
loll,
__________________ or—•lradford Fur laY La"r ISnl
!.eo-- A.
0.56 —
0.55
•
- ta40
6.60
_______________• 5 6.20
0.50 5.60
0.49 5.40
0.48 5.20
Figure 7: The optical signature of Bradford pear bark [15], (b), can be generated on reflection from Eglin soil
[15], (a), by modulating the interrogation pulses to have the output in (c).
2.00 2.00
1.50 1.50
/\RAA1 I
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.00 7V1
Wave' elloill (c) Wave' elloill
Figure 8: Three types of RF waveforms are shown modulated onto a time-stretched (to 1 µsec) optically chirped
pulse: (a) a sinusoid, (b) an RF chirp, and (c) a code modulated waveform.
ir
Delay
X-t-7+Tn)
Target
I
Figure 9: A portion of the signal returned from the target is removed from the optical train and combined with a
similar intensity of signal from the chirped Bragg grating. The collision of the return pulse with its phase
conjugated counterpart generates a brief spike in optical intensity.
after the interrogation pulse that is prior to the time reversed pulse reaching the target. Because the intensity of the time
reversed pulse at the target is expected to be much greater than the intensity of the interrogation pulse, the probability of
detection of the target should be much greater after the return from the time reversed pulse is received.
This process can be extended to mixing of signals within a subsection of the array. Figure 10 is a depiction of
nine elements of an array cross-mixing the conjugated pulses with the original receive pulses. For each array element a
pulse is returned from the target and energy deposited down a length of fiber. Residual energy from the return pulse is
time-reversed by the receive module and some of the reversed energy is propagated down the fiber of a neighboring
receive element. As the pulses received from the target are identical in phase, the conjugation of a pulse with its
neighbor is identical to the same process with only one receive element. The choice of which elements to cross-mix is
made such that the propagation distances between each pair of elements is identical compared to the center of the array
subsection. In Figure 10 the top-most element is cross-mixed with the bottom-most element, the second to top element is
cross mixed with the second from the bottom, and so on. Further description of this pairing is shown in Figure 11(a),
showing the “focal plane” of a single quad cell whereby each element is numbered with respect to its pair. Each of the
pairs are equidistant from the center of the subarray labeled “A”. The center receive element would have its conjugated
pulse mixed with itself and is represented in Figure 10 by the middle element whose phase conjugated pulse does not
cross over to any neighboring element.
j'Target 0
CrossMixingofTime
Reversed Pulses I Signals Are Generated
Simultaneously
Figure 10: Cross mixing of the return pulses with the phase conjugated pulses of equidistant neighboring receive
modules will generate optical intensity spikes simultaneously across the subarray.
.rc.
Zy=acsmI-R!A—t)+!c—tn)jI
A C
Equally [2D, J
Spaced (c)
Cells Cross Mixing
(b)
Figure 11: Cross mixing of conjugated pulses is shown within the subarray labeled “single quad cell” on the left
(a) representing one fourth of the larger detector on the right (c). The simultaneous optical spike corresponds
with the distance from the center of the cell to the target. This characteristic enables angle/angle calculations (b)
to be performed at the quad cell detector.
Because each of the elements is cross-mixed with a pair that is equidistant from the center of the array
subsection, regardless of the position of the target with respect to the array, all of the signals generated by combination of
conjugated with original pulses will occur at the same time. The timing of this signal “spike” is dependent upon the
distance of the center of the subarray, designated by the letter A in Figure 11(a), to the target. By concentrating these
fibers in such away that all pulses from a subarray are equidistant from a detector, the detector will receive all of the
energy from each paired element simultaneously. A device suggested to accomplish this is to place a detector within as
small as possible transparent cylinder, and wrap the fibers around the cylinder. This way the signals, though potentially
generated at any location along the fiber, will be equidistant from the detector at the center. The signal received by a
detector at a single quad cell is enough for the system to measure range to target. But by gathering the signal from four
separate quad cells aligned as shown in Figure 11(c), the timing offset from the received signals can be interpreted into
angle/angle measurements [23]. This is typically an untenable process as the time differential between the cells of a quad
cell detector is very short compared to the pulse width of the reflected pulse. But in a quad cell detector as shown if
Figure 11 (c) of SMF-28 fibers (245 µm thick coating), the distance between the center of the cells is on the order of a
picosecond (10-12) which is still far larger than the femtosecond (10-15) class pulses generated by the interrogation source.
As a stressing case, assuming the quad cell consisted of only 10 by 10 array of fiber elements, 245 µm thick, and a
relatively long 20 fsec pulse is used by the interrogator, the quad cell should be able to distinguish angles of at least 60
mrad (3.4 deg). The authors anticipate fielding arrays of many more elements and use of much shorter pulses for
interrogation. The equations to derive angle/angle measurements are well known and provided in Figure 11(b).
3 ANTICIPATED PERFORMANCE
4 CONCLUSIONS
A novel method has been presented that extends the concepts of time reversal as applied to ultra-wideband radar
to laser ranging and imaging ladar. This paper addressed the concept of beam forming for power combining and beam
steering of a laser to providing time-of-flight ranging to a target as well as angle/angle determination. It did not address
the added complexity of multiple targets within a field of view. There are many advantages to using a system based
upon supercontinua than conventional laser sources. Within the paper are described the utility of added spectral
information within a pulse and the discrimination of targets based upon their perceived spectra. Included is a unique
ability to correct for spectrally resolved atmospheric attenuation. Also, the ability to modulate many varieties of
waveforms onto the interrogation pulse and receive these pulses by the array provides an unprecedented operational
flexibility to ladar.
Because time reversal process is independent of the distance of any single element to the target, it is inherently
capable of application to conformal arrays and the beamforming will be independent of any thermal, vibrational, or
alignment considerations. In a leap beyond application to conformal arrays, the use of photonic fibers readily lends this
type of ladar to construction in spaces and structure previously not considered for ladar systems. Upon placing the front
end “beam shaping” component of the detectors on the surface of a structure, the fibers, time reversal units, and
interrogation system can all be placed remotely from the surface to any place within the body of the structure. In
addition to the compact size, the lightweight characteristic of fibers lends this system to implementation on micro and
nano-structures. The ability for quad cell detection to accurately determine the angle/angle measurements to a target may
be adversely affected by the mechanical environment and would have to be studied by a system designer.
The time reversal process is independent of the index of refraction of the medium through which the ladar is
propagating. Therefore, it is well suited for use in inhomogeneous media: large temperature gradients, smoke, and
battlefield induced contaminants. From large turbulent eddies in the atmosphere that create beam wander in the
propagation of a laser pulse to small turbulent eddies that create distorted wavefronts [23], all effects are negated in the
time reversal process. Unlike conventional ladar systems, the time-reversed ladar will not suffer from variation in beam
sizing, beam breathing and scintillation effects. Applications of this system are possible in fire, rescue, and combat
operations where conventional ladar is unusable today.
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