Geological Society, London, Special Publications

Introduction: new insights into structural interpretation and

modelling
D. A. Nieuwland

Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2003; v. 212; p. 1-5

doi: 10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.212.01.01

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 Introduction: new insights into structural
interpretation and modelling
D. A. N I E U W L A N D
Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Tectonics, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085,
1081HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands (e-mail: dick.nieuwland@falw, vu.nl)
This book is a follow-up to a Geological Society
of London conference with the same title, held in
Burlington House, London, in February 2000. Fol-
lowing the conference it was decided to compile a
Special Publication based in part on papers
presented at the conference and in part on papers
that were added later to form a balanced content.
The content of New Insights into Structural
Interpretation and Modelling presents a balanced
overview of what the title promises. It is intended
as a book that will serve the experienced pro-
fessional as well as more advanced students in
Earth sciences with a wide range of topics
described in high quality publications. Some chap-
ters are by leaders in the field, other chapters are
written by young authors with fresh ideas.
Structural interpretation and modelling go hand
in hand in structural geology. Interpretation needs
to be based on data. These data can be found on
many scales and involve direct observations of
natural phenomena based on fieldwork, and
indirect observations of natural data by such means
as seismic or stress measurements. Interpretation is
no longer limited to drawing lines along fault
planes in cross-sections or to constructing horizon
maps. New methods and techniques have
developed in many fields of acquisition processing
and interpretation. Modelling relies on two comp-
lementary approaches: analogue models using
physical materials as analogues to rocks, and
numerical models that are based on mathematical
algorithms to mimic rocks and deformation pro-
cesses with computer programs.
These approaches to solving complex structural
problems have their specific advantages and limi-
tations. Significant progress in structural geology is
therefore to be expected due to improved integrated
methods. In this book a collection of papers has
been compiled with the intention to provide the
reader with a comprehensive overview of state-of-
the-art approaches and techniques in structural
interpretation and modelling. The chapters are
organized following the view that the topics that
are closest to the natural world appear first, fol-
From: NmUWLAND,D. A. (ed.) New Insights into StructuralInterpretationand Modelling. Geological Society, Lon-
don, Special Publications, 212, 1-5. 0305-8719/03/515
© The Geological Society of London 2003.
lowed by gradually more 'artificial' approaches.
Although the multidisciplinary nature of many pap-
ers makes a straightforward order of appearance
according to topic difficult, the chapters dealing
with natural geological data appear in principle
early, interpretation precedes modelling and ana-
logue modelling precedes numerical modelling.
Since the publication of the predecessor of this
Special Publication (Buchanan & Nieuwland 1996)
much progress has been made. This has been prim-
arily thanks to the continuously increasing comput-
ing speed and computer memory capacity, which
has positively affected all fields in structural
interpretation, seismics and modelling, directly or
indirectly.
Interpretation
Natural data sets have the obvious advantage that
they are real, however strange they may appear to
be. The data result directly from natural defor-
mation processes that have deformed natural rocks
in natural time. However, data from outcrops also
have problems associated with them. It is often dif-
ficult or even impossible to observe and measure a
feature (fault, fold or fracture) completely in 3D.
Commonly some elements need to be estimated
because they cannot be observed. Another problem
with natural data is the time factor. Deformation
processes that took place over geological time-
scales cannot be observed in a human lifetime.
What we see in outcrop is a static end result of a
very dynamic process. The 3D problem with natu-
ral data is in part resolved when 3D seismic can
be applied. Unfortunately the method is costly and
therefore almost exclusively used for commercial
purposes, preferably on offshore locations where
the acquisition is so much better and easier than in
the mountainous areas where field geologists often
like to work because of the abundance of outcrop-
ping rocks. The quality of 3D seismic has
improved significantly over the last ten years or so.
It has become a standard tool for geologists and
2 D.A. NIEUWLAND
is no longer the exclusive domain of the trained
geophysicist/seismic interpreter.
The section on interpretation begins with a chap-
ter by Cello et al. The work relies on a large data-
base collected in the Apennines. The project was
based on collaboration between industry and acad-
emia, a combination that may become more com-
mon in the near future. Industry has decreased its
own research efforts and relies more heavily on
university projects, focused on geological problems
that are of interest to the industry. The chapter by
Cello et al. illustrates that for fracture systems,
fieldwork is still the most important source of
information.
Details of complex fault structures can be inter-
preted very well from high-resolution 3D seismic,
as demonstrated by the examples in the chapter by
Schroot & de Haan. However, faults with an offset
smaller than some 20 m cannot be interpreted
reliably and tension fractures cannot be observed
at all. Nine-component seismic may be able to
identify tension fracturing (joints), but cannot dis-
tinguish between a few large fractures and many
small fractures. Orientations of tension fracture
systems derived from seismic data are also uncer-
tain because conjugate fractures tend to become
averaged along the bisectrix of the acute angle.
Nevertheless, without 3D seismic there would be
no hope of interpreting the vast and complex sub-
surface structures that form reservoirs for natural
resources such as oil and gas. The message is
again, integration of fieldwork, modelling and seis-
mics, to combine full 3D and intricate fault geo-
metries at all scales is the key to reliable struc-
tural interpretation.
Next to fault geometries, the kinematics of fault-
ing processes is just as important, presenting a
problem in another dimension - time. One
approach to the kinematics problem is that of pal-
inspastic reconstruction, which presents problems
of its own. Traditionally, palinspastic reconstruc-
tion (or section balancing) can only be performed
on dip sections of strata that were deformed in
plain strain. As many deformations take place in
3D, a palinspastic reconstruction requires a 3D
approach also. In order to reconstruct faults cor-
rectly in 3D, one needs to know the complete
strain-path. Preservation of line length and area is
necessary, but not sufficient to perform a mechan-
ically correct palinspastic reconstruction; the strain
path needs to be incorporated as well.
Rutten & Verschuren have worked out a 3D
approach to this problem. They apply their tech-
nique on the scale of a delta. To attack this problem
on the much larger scale of mountain belts, Hindle
has developed a technique that can be seen as simi-
lar to that used by Rutten & Verschuren in that
it is also based on displacement paths. However,
Hindle's approach is specifically suitable for the
reconstruction of displacements on a much larger
scale. In his example he uses displacement fields
rather then vectors to reconstruct movements on
the scale of mountain belts rather than along indi-
vidual faults.
Projects in the oil and gas industry and in civil
engineering routinely require accurate structural
interpretations of complicated fault systems and the
related stress fields. Accurate definition of the
present-day tectonic stress is a fundamental
requirement to perform such tasks correctly and
reliably. The reliability of the results depends to a
large extent on the quality assurance of the data.
The requirements for this quality assessment and
implementation have been laid down in a program
called TENSOR. The program is the basic tool for
the World Stress Map but also has other appli-
cations in the field of stress inversion. Delvaux &
Sperner explain more about this widely used pro-
gram. The World Stress Map provides the data in
the form of a freely accessible global database as
described in the chapter by Sperner et al.
A different field of structural interpretation with
relevance for modern society is that of earthquake
mechanics. Predicting earthquakes has been
attempted for decades if not longer, but so far pre-
dictions have not been very successful. In a new
unconventional approach to earthquake prediction,
Volti & Crampin present an application of seismic
shear-wave splitting, based on a long-term field
study. The first chapter on this topic describes the
background, preliminary observations, and analysis
of shear-wave splitting in Iceland. The second
chapter discusses potential applications of this
approach including monitoring hydrocarbon pro-
duction, stress-forecasting earthquakes and some
volcanic eruptions.
Modelling
In this time of massive computing power a com-
monly asked question with regard to analogue
modelling (AM) is, does it still have a place in
science, and why not solve all our problems with
computers? This simple question immediately
brings forward the strengths and weaknesses of
both modelling techniques. In the modelling sec-
tion a brief treatment of some fundamental aspects
of analogue modelling and numerical modelling
(NM) is presented.
In analogue modelling the small size of the mod-
els directly raises questions about scaling. (Mandl
1988; McClay 1990; Brunet al. 1994). The results
of computer models are seemingly free of a scaling
problem, especially when model results are given
dimensions that are of the same order as in natural
examples. This is misleading in that, for example,
 INTRODUCTION
in the much used finite element (FE) technique, the
size of the mesh elements is very large compared
to the smallest elements in natural deformation pro-
cesses. For comparison, a typical analogue model
contains about 30000000 sand grains. In order to
reach the same resolution as such an AM experi-
ment, a FE mesh should also be built of 30000000
elements. FE meshes of such dimensions are still
unthinkable. The sand grains in analogue models
are not scaled; in a typical model 1:10000 to
1:100000 sand grains with an average diameter of
0.1 mm would resemble boulders of roughly 1 m to
10 m in size. However, the resolution of analogue
models in terms of definition of individual fault
planes and intricate fault patterns is much greater
than in numerical models. Without going into the
mathematics of scaling, a good argument in sup-
port of the validity of scaled analogue models
comes from nature itself. Field observations of
faults of all types on almost all scales, indicate that
fractal properties can be applied to faulting and
fracturing (Mandelbrot 1989). Self-similarity has
as a consequence that small fault systems created
in analogue models have a similar geometry as
larger scale systems.
Whereas numerical models rely on mathematical
algorithms to mimic natural processes and
materials, analogue models work with natural
materials to mimic rocks; however, the defor-
mation processes are all natural, not imitated by
algorithms. A disadvantage of using analogue
materials to simulate rocks is that the choice of
materials is limited compared to the variation in
natural rocks. For most brittle rocks this does not
pose a problem. The reason is that the most
important mechanical parameter that governs
deformation geometries and processes is the
internal friction angle ~b, which is about 30 ° for
most brittle rocks and is also about 30 ° for sand.
The main difference between sand and rocks is
strength; however, strength governs only the mag-
nitude of the stress that is required to drive a defor-
mation process. The resulting structural geometries
are independent of the stress magnitude. For both
methods (AM and NM) scaling is a real but man-
ageable problem: not everything can be exactly
scaled, but most of the important parameters can
be scaled satisfactorily.
The main goal of analogue models is to study the
geometries and kinematics of tectonic deformation
processes in manageable space and time. The dur-
ation of the deformation process (strain rates), high
resolution and free formation of faults are of funda-
mental importance to this method.
Stress orientations and magnitudes are much
more difficult to acquire from AM experiments
than geometric and kinematic information. S o far
only directional point measurements are possible.
3
Such a stress measurement has an advantage of
being continuous in time, but it is limited to being
a point in 3D space. Numerical models lack much
in the field of geometry and to a lesser extent kin-
ematics because free-growing faults cannot yet be
generated. However, concentrations of deformation
in shear bands can give useful information:
especially in the early deformation stages, stresses
calculated with numerical methods are much more
detailed than the AM point measurements even
though the NM stress measurements are not con-
tinuous in time.
So far deformation in the brittle domain has been
discussed. When viscous or ductile materials start
to play a role, the material properties become more
important. In numerical models material properties
can be varied more easily than materials in ana-
logue models. However, the viscous material sili-
cone putty in a variation of qualities can be modi-
fied to suit many desired mechanical properties and
stepping engines provide the required control over
strain rates. Temperature effects are still a major
problem in analogue experiments. Numerical mod-
els can treat this aspect better by simply varying
the input parameters in algorithms that are hope-
fully realistic enough to model the processes that
we are trying to understand.
Analogue modelling
The contribution by Dooley et al. is a good illus-
tration of an integrated approach in which field data
(from seismic) and modelling have been brought
together to interpret and understand a complex
multiphase fault system. The example also makes
clear the importance of stratigraphy for reliable
modelling and interpretation of deformation pro-
cesses. The mechanical stratigraphy is the basis for
a good model, be it analogue or numerical. In the
chapter by Schellart & Nieuwland the emphasis
lies on the kinematics of a growing complex fault
system, and the related changes in the local stress
field. The results make clear that with an unchang-
ing regional stress field, the local stresses within a
structure can change dramatically. The work makes
intensive use of computed tomograph (CT) scan-
ning to generate 3D data volumes. CT scans permit
non-destructive acquisition of 3D data volumes of
analogue models. The resulting series of 3D data
volumes through time forms a powerful 4D data-
base for detailed structural interpretation that can
be performed on 3D seismic interpretation systems.
This implies that advances made in 3D seismic
software are also of immediate use for the analysis
and interpretation of analogue models that have
had the benefit of CT scanning. Tentler & Tem-
perley have focused their analogue modelling on a
large scale of deformation including the asthenos-
4 D.A. NIEUWLAND
phere, which they approximate with carefully
chosen silicon polymers of two different viscosities
and densities. The model highlights the strength of
analogue modelling in representing the develop-
ment of intricate 3D structures in time, and at the
same time demonstrates the complexity of making
the appropriate analogue materials for experiments
that include layers with brittle and ductile or vis-
cous behaviour.
Mulugeta & Sokoutis have applied analogue
modelling to gain more insight into the mechanics
of thrust tectonics. Their chapter describes the use
of analogue experiments for studying the dynamic
and rheologic control of hanging wall accommo-
dation in ramp-fiat thrust models. The complexity
of 3D deformation processes in time becomes more
apparent as strain rate and rheology are also used
as variables. Much can be learned from such ana-
logue models about the strain path of complicated
structures. The study highlights the usefulness of
modelling tectonic processes with analogue
materials and at the same time draws attention to
the practical difficulty involved with such models.
Variations in material are much more easily achi-
eved in numerical models, but here the algorithms
that need to be applied form another challenge.
Numerical modelling
Following the observations and conclusions of the
analogue models, the next logical step is to find out
how numerical techniques can be applied to find
answers to questions that cannot be solved by ana-
logue modelling. In their chapter Burov & Poliakov
use a numerical approach to model basin dynamics.
The work is exemplary for numerical modelling.
In addition to the main topic of the paper, erosional
forcing of basin dynamics, they present advances
in the mathematics of 3D basin modelling. The
work also demonstrates the quantitative insights
that can be gained from this approach and that are
such a welcome complementary result to the more
qualitative analogue experiments. Burov & Pol-
iakov and also Robin et al. work with a variable
that has not yet been successfully controlled in ana-
logue models - temperature. In analogue models
of the brittle upper crust, temperature effects are
normally not a factor that needs to be considered;
however, as soon as the deeper lithosphere or
asthenosphere is involved in the modelling, tem-
perature effects become important. Robin et al.
integrate a wealth of geological data with their
numerical work.
The chapter by Hobbs et al. deals with 3D seis-
mic data, a field in which a lot of progress has been
made over the last five years. Hobbs et al. have
written an important contribution on seismic pro-
cessing of difficult data with severe topography
effects and velocity problems. Their approach has
now been applied to an interesting geoscience
problem, that of imaging an axial magma chamber
on the East Pacific Rise, but could well be modified
for application to economic targets as well.
The next chapter on geomechanical modelling
by Heidbach & Drewes deals with a large-scale
problem - tectonic processes in the Eastern Medit-
erranean. Although their approach is to a large
extent based on geomechanics with an elasto-
visco-plastic 3D finite element model at the core,
important boundary conditions still need to be pro-
vided as input. The model does not generate faults;
however, on the scale of the problem individual
faults are not so important. 3D geomechanical
finite element models are still in a development
stage and this paper marks a significant step for-
ward.
The next two chapters, by Cornu et al., avoid the
problem of 3D geomechanics by using a kinematic
approach to large scale geometrical problems. A
disadvantage of this is that input of fault geo-
metries is required, but an advantage is that rela-
tively complicated structural geometries can be
modelled. Cornu et al. describe their approach and
apply it to three cases: basin deformation, and com-
pressional and extensional tectonics.
In the last two chapters, Skar & B e e k m a n and
van Wees et al. apply geomechanical finite element
modelling to problems on smaller scales than entire
basins and limit themselves to the brittle upper
crust. The method is possible in the case worked
on by Skar & Beckman because it is not necessary
to grow faults; they are part of the starting
geometry and derived from well defined geological
cross-sections. The complicated structural cross-
section that has been used as the basis for their
work could be used because the model is 2D. The
work demonstrates that in many cases, where it is
valid to approximate the deformation history with
plain strain, there is a definite advantage in using
2D instead of 3D. As the lithosphere is not
involved, the rheological model can be elasto-
plastic, a viscous element is not required. Van
Wees et al. also base their calculations on a wealth
of geological and geophysical data. They integrate
these in a geomechanical 3D finite element model
and successfully model the quantitative effects of
hydrocarbon depletion from reservoirs.
From the chapters on numerical modelling it can
be concluded that numerical modelling and ana-
logue modelling are indeed complementary in
many ways. Both methods continue to evolve and
to produce new approaches and techniques. Geo-
mechanical numerical models cannot yet generate
free-growing faults; however, in very large scale
problems individual faults are not so important and
geomechanical numerical models can produce
 INTRODUCTION
realistic results. On scales where individual faults
become important the technique that is most suit-
able depends on the nature of the problem.
Whether a kinematic or a mechanical approach is
chosen depends on the question that needs to be
answered.
Acknowledgements
The editor wishes to thank the Geological Society of Lon-
don for giving the opportulfity to organize the conference
which inspired this volume and their subsequent support
during the compilation of this book. The book would not
have appeared without the help of the referees who spent
considerable time reviewing the manuscripts. The follow-
ing referees are gratefully acknowledged: G. Bertotti; T.
den Bezemer; J.C. Blom; P. v.d. Boogaert; S. Cloetingh;
T. Dooley; H. Doust; T. van Eck; R. Gabrielsen; O. Heid-
bag; D. Hindle; F. Kets; Y. Leroy; I. Moretti; F.J. Nieuw-
5
land; J. Reijs; P. Richard; K. Rutten; W. Schellart; A.
Seihl; J.D. van Wees; B.F. Windley and R. Zoetemeijer.
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