Professional Documents
Culture Documents
B u r m a C e n t e r N e t h e r l a n d s
3
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Author
Ashley South
Copy Editor
Nick Buxton
Design
Guido Jelsma, www.guidojelsma.nl
Photo credits
Hans van den Bogaard (HvdB)
Tom Kramer (TK)
Free Burma Rangers (FBR).
Cover Photo
Karen Don Dance (TK)
Printing
Drukkerij PrimaveraQuint
Amsterdam
Contact
Transnational Institute (TNI)
PO Box 14656, 1001 LD Amsterdam
The Netherlands
Tel: +31-20-6626608
Fax: +31-20-6757176
e-mail: burma@tni.org
www.tni.org/work-area/burma-project
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank all those who helped
with the research, and commented on various drafts of
the report. Thanks to Martin Smith, Tom Kramer, Alan
Smith, David Eubank, Amy Galetzka, Monique Skidmore,
Hazel Laing, Mandy Sadan, Matt Finch, Nils Carstensen,
Mary Callahan, Ardeth Thawnghmung, Richard Horsey,
Zunetta Liddell, Marie Lall, Paul Keenan and Miles Jury,
and to many people in and from Burma, who cannot be
acknowledged for security reasons. Thanks as ever to
Bellay Htoo and the boys for their love and support.
4
Contents
1
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Executive Summary
2
Executive Summary
3
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
prognosis for armed conflict in Burma is one of a decline space in Karen and other ethnic nationality-populated areas
of insurgency. will be largely determined by whether the military is able
to control the domestic political agenda, including, above
Other countries in mainland Southeast Asia have long ago all, being able to contain Aung San Suu Kyi, and popular
emerged from the armed conflicts which characterised the aspirations for change. It is possible that members of the
Cold War period, and regional economies are booming. three Karen political parties elected in November may gain
The challenge facing Burma’s military and political lead- some influence over the formulation of humanitarian and
ers, including the new government and opposition groups, development policies affecting their communities. Devel-
is whether to respond positively to the changing political oping supportive relations with civilian politicians elected
and economic context, or to remain stuck in the confron- in 2010 will be an important task for those who seek to
tational politics of the past. In re-committing to an armed engage positively with Burma. However, those seeking to
conflict in which government forces have a decisive upper develop relations with state officials must anticipate some
hand, the KNU risks becoming further marginalised, mili- criticism on the part of exiled Burmese politicians and
tarily, politically and economically. their support networks, and also take account of the Bur-
mese military’s political sensitivities.
While the KNU remains a key stakeholder, a comprehen-
sive analysis of the situation in Karen-populated areas Another key challenge will be how to support the civil so-
should take account of other organisations. These include ciety sector, whose re-emergence in the past decade-and-
a range of non-state armed groups, not all of which ascribe a-half has been one of the few positive aspects in an other-
to the liberal-democratic values with which Western ob- wise bleak political scene. Successes in local development
servers are most comfortable. Another important set of activities on the part of Karen and other civil society actors
Karen actors consists of a range of community-based or- have helped to build social capital, and promote local resil-
ganisations (CBOs) and local non-government organisa- ience and trust, providing limited amounts of protection
tions (NGOs), including Buddhist and Christian networks. to hard-pressed civilian populations. Ultimately however,
These include various groups operating in government and in the age of globalisation, more influential than the civil
ceasefire group-controlled areas, as well as those working society and aid sectors will be the role of capital and busi-
among refugee populations, and in cross-border regions ness more generally. The recent announcement of a multi-
from Thailand, in zones of ongoing conflict. The latter tend billion dollar deep-sea port and industrial project at Dawei
to be better known due to their access to international do- on Burma’s southern seaboard, together with several pro-
nors and media outlets. In contrast, groups and networks posed ‘special economic zones’ in the border areas, indi-
not affiliated with the KNU or wider Burmese opposition cate that Thai, Chinese and other regional economic ac-
organisations tend to enjoy limited access to international tors have serious interests in promoting the stabilisation of
support networks. southeast Burma. There is a pressing need for Karen social
and political actors to demonstrate their relevance to the
Under pressure from the military government, during new political and economic agendas playing out in Burma,
2009 to 2010 the most significant non-KNU armed Karen and in particular to articulate positions regarding major
groups, including most elements of the Democratic Karen economic and infrastructure development projects.
Buddhist Army (DKBA), were transformed into Border
Guard Forces (BGFs) under direct Tatmadaw control. Al- Historically, external support for the Karen nationalist
though their autonomy and ability to articulate and pro- movement has included the activities of missionaries and
mote a distinct Karen ethnic nationalist agenda has been Cold War security interests. More recently, the KNU has
undermined by such developments, non-KNU armed fac- received material assistance and legitimisation through
tions nevertheless remain significant military, political and support for refugees living in camps along the Thailand-
economic players on the ground. However, international Burma border. An important factor in understanding this
engagement with such groups remains problematic, as they international support is the correlation between the rights-
act as proxies for the Tatmadaw and demonstrate limited based promotion of liberal-democracy adopted by West-
interest in supposedly universal norms of conduct in the ern aid agencies and donors, and the values espoused by
human rights field. Most also have unclear political agen- the KNU, which seeks legitimacy through appeals to inter-
das, often focusing primarily on economic issues. national norms. In the humanitarian spirit of the ‘Do No
Harm’ doctrine, aid agencies and donors should analyse
It is yet to be seen whether the November 2010 election will the relationship between their assistance and advocacy ac-
introduce significant new kinds of governance in southeast tivities and the dynamics of conflict in Burma. They should
Burma. The political space available to the small number understand that, by supporting the refugee camps in Thai-
of Karen and other independent candidates elected is lim- land, they are helping to underwrite the KNU’s ability to
ited and, in the future, will depend on the will of senior continue waging armed conflict in Burma. The camps pro-
Burmese military officials, who have dominated the coun- vide refuge to KNU members and their families and are a
try since the 1962 military coup. The degree to which the source of limited material support to the insurgents; and
generals are willing to tolerate some independent political implicitly legitimise the KNU’s struggle. This may - or may
4
Executive Summary
not – be an appropriate use of assistance. As in other zones To Karen civil society actors
of conflict in the world, aid agencies and donors need to - Endeavour to better coordinate assistance and develop-
be honest about their relationships with armed non-state ment activities, conducted cross-border from Thailand
groups. Only then can they judge whether the humanitar- and by groups working inside the country. While tak-
ian imperative of supporting displaced people in and from ing advantage of international facilitation, local actors
Burma outweighs the risks of contributing to the political should ensure that they retain ownership of such pro-
economy of armed conflict. cesses.
- Develop positions and policies in relation to infrastruc-
ture and economic development projects in southeast
RECOMMENDATIONS Burma.
5
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Introduction
Terminology
6
Small shop in Karen refugee camp (TK)
7
Introduction
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
8
KNU district names and demarcations Goverment township names and demarcations Map 2 - Karen State
9
The Karen Conflict
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
By the mid-1990s, as a result of decades of armed conflict, Only a minority of the Karen population live within the
tens of thousands of mostly ethnic Karen refugees were liv- borders of the modern-day Karen State, which was es-
ing in several small camps spread out along the Thailand- tablished in 1952. The majority live scattered through the
Burma border. In addition, an unknown but significantly Yangon, Irrawaddy and Tenasserim Regions, eastern Bago
larger number of Karen and other civilians were internally Region and the Mon State. Although many of these com-
displaced in Burma, and about two million Burmese mi- munities identify themselves as Karens, for most people
grant workers (many of them Karen) were living a pre- the tough reality of day-to-day survival is the main prior-
carious existence in Thailand with a very uncertain legal ity, with issues of political affiliation being secondary con-
status. siderations.
10
The Karen Conflict
11
Karen villager in the ashes of her house, burned down by Burma Army (FBR) Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
In practice, in many Karen-inhabited areas of Burma, apart then into firmly government-controlled zones (‘white’ ar-
from borderland areas, it has been over three decades since eas). This is an effective military strategy, which uses ‘free
the KNU exercised a regular presence. In contrast, con- fire zones’ to undermine the operational capacities of in-
flict-affected parts of southeast Burma continue to be sub- surgent forces, facilitating state penetration of previously
ject to multiple authorities. Although this report refers to semi-autonomous areas. A popular Karen saying has it that
insurgent-controlled, government-controlled and ceasefire the undeclared ‘fifth cut’ is to decapitate the insurgents.
group-controlled or influenced areas, the situation on the
ground is rarely so clearly demarcated. In reality, areas of Since the late 1990s, Tatmadaw (Burma Army) battalions
disputed authority and influence blur into each other, with in the field have been required to be more-or-less self-suffi-
frontiers shifting over time in accordance with the sea- cient in rice and other basic supplies. Tatmadaw units have
son and the dynamics of armed and state-society conflict. often achieved these objectives by appropriating resources,
Reflecting these realities, many Karen villages have both including land upon which to grow crops and civilian la-
a ‘KNU headman’ and a ‘government headman’, and also bour from local populations. This self-support (or ‘living
often a village leader accountable to another armed faction. off the land’) policy has exacerbated conflict and displace-
These complexities of governance reflect the changing and ment across much of rural Burma.18
complicated nature of conflict in southeast Burma and the
variety of armed non-state actors. In 1997 the SLORC reorganised itself as the State Peace and
Development Council (SPDC). The military junta contin-
ued to dominate state, society and the economy under the
Longevity and Consolidation of Military Rule leadership of Senior General Than Shwe with significant
power and influence shared by the Military Intelligence
Since the 1960s,15 military operations by the central gov- chief (and during 2003-04 Prime Minister), Gen. Khin
ernment have been characterised by counter-insurgency Nyunt. A master-strategist and moderniser (although by
campaigns that have targeted civilian populations in an ef- no means a democrat), from 1989 Khin Nyunt oversaw the
fort to defeat the diverse insurgencies. Numerous reports agreement of a series of ceasefires between armed ethnic
testify to the systematic and brutal nature of state counter- groups and the government (see below). Most Burma-
insurgency policies that were first introduced against KNU watchers were taken by surprise, when Khin Nyunt and
and other insurgent groups in lower Burma before being most of his circle were purged from office in October 2004,
targeted against militant forces in the borderlands.16 in a move which demonstrated Than Shwe’s consolida-
tion of power. The ascendancy of Than Shwe was further
Introduced in the late 1960s and continuing today, the demonstrated by his unilateral decision in November 2005
‘Four Cuts’ strategy17 is designed to transform rebel-held to move the national capital away from Yangon to a new
(or ‘black’) areas into zones actively contested between location in the centre of the country at Nay Pyi Taw. The
government forces and insurgents (‘brown’ areas), and promulgation of the 2008 constitution, the November 2010
12
The Karen Conflict
election and 2011 formation of a new government can all had negotiated ceasefires transform themselves into Bor-
be seen as part of Than Shwe’s strategy to ensure regime der Guard Forces. These formations would be under the di-
stability and his family’s security as he enters his late 70s. rect control of Tatmadaw commanders, and would be paid
by the Burma Army. Of the 326 personnel in a BGF battal-
This strategy has been largely successful, despite some se- ion, 30 would be drawn from the Tatmadaw, including the
rious challenges to military rule. These have included the deputy commander and quartermaster. Several of the less
August-September 2007 ‘saffron revolution’, led by monks militarily powerful ceasefire groups accepted transforma-
and joined by many ordinary citizens, which the govern- tion into BGF formations. In general, these were groups
ment suppressed by force. In May the following year, parts that only enjoyed limited territorial autonomy, and where
of the Irrawaddy Delta were devastated by Cyclone Nargis, there was front-line overlap between ceasefire and govern-
which killed at least 130,000 people. The government was ment forces in the field. However most of the larger groups
widely criticised for its failure to respond effectively to this resisted, including the UWSA, KIO, NMSP and a break-
unprecedented natural disaster. However, one result of the away DKBA faction.20
regime’s initial refusal to allow access to international aid
agencies was that space was created for ordinary citizens
and local NGOs to demonstrate the capacity of civil so-
ciety in Burma in responding to the emergency.19 Despite
decades of military rule, community life is not static on the
ground.
13
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Between the late 1940s and early 1990s, the KNU was ar-
guably the most significant of Burma’s diverse ethnic and
political insurgent groups. For much of this period, the
KNU operated as a de facto government, controlling large
swathes of territory across Karen State and adjacent areas.
Although not internationally recognised, the KNU admin-
istration aspired to reproduce modern state-like structures,
including departments for health, education, law, forestry
and other aspects of civil administration, making claims
to a legitimate monopolisation of security and policing, as
well as the right to extract taxes.
14
Karen Armed Groups
TABLE 1: Karen Armed Groups (Does not include various local militias.)
KNU/KNLA Peace February 2007 non-BGF ceasefire Htein Maung 300 soldiers [central
Council group; relationship Karen State]
with government
highly unstable
nants retreated north into the Papun hills and south to the Despite these territorial losses, the KNU has continued to
Sixth Brigade area in lower Karen State. Life in the Karen operate in remote mountain and forest localities. Like the
insurgency would never be the same again. Tatmadaw and other Karen forces, the KNLA uses land
mines extensively. Indeed, it seems unlikely that the KNU
The fall of Gen. Bo Mya’s Manerplaw headquarters to the could continue to mount a guerrilla war in Burma without
DKBA and Tatmadaw symbolized the beginning-of-the- recourse to these devices.22 Over the years, Karen non-state
end of the veteran warlord’s influence. In 2000 he was de- armed groups (including the KNU) have also perpetrated
moted to KNU Vice-Chairman and, as his health declined, a range of abuses, including forcible taxation and conscrip-
Bo Mya was largely sidelined from the leadership. He was tion, and unlawful killings.23 In general, however, KNLA
succeeded by his old protégé, Saw Ba Thein Sein. These personnel seem to be involved in human rights violations
factors, in combination with pressure from neighbouring on a less systematic level than either the Tatmadaw or
Thailand, led to the KNU taking part in a series of ceasefire DKBA.24
negotiations with the military government.
15
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
In pursuit of their goals, the KNU, affiliated organisations sibility of agreeing a ceasefire. Critics accused the hard-
and individuals have long called for Karen ‘unity’. In prac- liners in the KNU leadership of sacrificing the interests of
tice, this has generally meant the KNU being granted un- Karen communities in the conflict zones for the sake of an
contested political leadership of the nationalist movement. increasingly elusive breakthrough at the national political
Given the diversity of Karen communities however, stra- level.
tegic approaches celebrating ‘unity amid diversity’ may be
more likely to achieve Karen consensus in the future (see At the urging of exile Burmese opposition groups, the
below). KNU agreed not to further pursue ceasefire negotiations in
1994. This was a decision that cost the organisation dear-
ly.26 Within a few months, the emergence of the DKBA had
KNU Ceasefire Negotiations severely weakened the KNU, and in January 1995 the op-
position alliance headquarters at Manerplaw was overrun.
Following largely unsuccessful peace talks in 1963-64,
thirty years elapsed before a new phase of negotiations In December 1995, and three times in 1996, KNU delega-
got underway between the government and the KNU. In tions travelled to Moulmein and Yangon, where they met
1994 Karen mediators from Yangon undertook two trips to with military intelligence officials close to Khin Nyunt.
Manerplaw, led by the late Anglican Archbishop Andrew For a while, it seemed that the symbolically important, al-
Mya Han. The formation later that year of a five-member though militarily much weakened, KNU might also agree a
Karen Peace Mediator Group facilitated four further ‘con- truce like the KIO, NMSP and other ethnic ceasefire forces.
fidence-building’ meetings between the KNU and SLORC However, Gen. Bo Mya and other hard-liners were unwill-
between 1995 and 1997. ing to accept the standard SLORC ceasefire package. In-
stead, at a February 1997 meeting of insurgent - and some
Alan Saw U25 recalls that Archbishop Mya Han “pleaded ceasefire - groups at the village of Mae Hta Raw Tha in the
with Karen leaders to … [achieve] ‘resolution of the Karen KNLA Sixth Brigade area, they released a declaration, de-
ethnic affairs’, rather than … ushering in ‘true democratic manding a nation-wide ceasefire, the release of political
ideals and freedom for the whole country’”; i.e. he priori- prisoners and substantive political dialogue. Unsurpris-
tized the ‘ethnic question’ above issues of national-level ingly, the SLORC was unwilling to compromise, and soon
democracy. By insisting on the need for a comprehensive after launched a devastating offensive against the last KNU
settlement to Burma’s political and humanitarian crises as liberated zones, in Fourth and Sixth Brigades - again caus-
a precondition for negotiations with the military govern- ing thousands of civilians to flee across the border, as well
ment, the KNU leadership effectively foreclosed the pos- as further splits in KNU ranks.
KNLA soldiers on Moei River bank near Thai border (HvdB)
16
Karen Armed Groups
In December 2003 Gen. Bo Mya sent an unofficial five- government side on possible solutions. However, in the
man delegation to Yangon, composed of his own private aftermath of the fall of Khin Nyunt, the Tatmadaw repre-
staff and officers of the KNLA Seventh Brigade, who had sentatives showed little interest in negotiation. The KNU
convinced him of the need for a settlement to the armed was offered three small patches of territory in which to sta-
conflict. Acting without the authority of the KNU Central tion troops (in KNLA First, Fifth and Sixth Brigade areas),
Committee, Bo Mya was concerned to bolster his legacy and given some vague assurances regarding the provision
and revive the waning influence of his family, including his of development assistance. In effect, the KNU was told to
ambitious but inexperienced son Ner Dah. ‘take it or leave it.’
On 12 December, at a press conference at a Bangkok hotel, These developments served to strengthen the hand of hard-
Bo Mya announced the existence of a ‘gentleman’s agree- line, anti-ceasefire actors on the border and undermined
ment’ to cease fighting with the SPDC. This dramatic de- the positions of those who sought to negotiate an end to
velopment took the official KNU leadership by surprise. the armed conflict. Subsequently, the SPDC’s 2009 Border
After some heated discussions in Mae Sot (where the KNU Guard Force initiative to transform ceasefire groups into
leadership was effectively based after the fall of Maner- Tatmadaw-controlled militias confirmed for many KNU
plaw) - and despite serious misgivings in some circles - the leaders the ascendancy of hardliners within the military
KNU endorsed its erstwhile leader’s initiative.27 Although government who appear less interested in compromising
the following year-and-a-half saw a reduction in hostilities, with armed ethnic opposition groups.
both sides continued to conscript recruits. Tatmadaw units
used the truce as an opportunity to re-supply front-line
positions and to move troops into new bases in previously Alliance Politics
contested areas, much to the frustration of KNLA com-
manders. Burmese politics emerged into international consciousness
as a result of the suppression by the military State Law and
Substantial KNU-SPDC ceasefire talks began in Yangon in Order Restoration Council of the 1988 ‘democracy upris-
January 2004. The mood was symbolised by photographs of ing’. Among many historic events, this turbulent period
the veteran KNU commander, Gen. Bo Mya, and his long- was notable for the emergence of Aung San Suu Kyi, the
time adversary, Gen. Khin Nyunt, engaged in a friendly daughter of Burma’s independence hero, as a national po-
discussion at a government guesthouse. The talks might litical leader who articulated and symbolised the desire of
have led to the agreement of a substantial truce. During many citizens for democratic change.
these negotiations a government representative for the first
time admitted that the Tatmadaw had engaged in exten- Following the September 1988 suppression of the ‘democ-
sive population relocation as part of its counter-insurgent racy uprising’, and again after the military government
strategy. He also accepted that, with an end to the fighting, failed to recognise the results of the May 1990 elections,
these people might be able to go home and receive appro- some 10,000 students and other activists and refugees fled
priate assistance. to border areas controlled by ethnic Mon, Karen, Kar-
enni and Kachin armed groups. They established a series
However the next round of talks was delayed for several of camps, where ‘student soldiers’ received basic military
months. This followed an incident on 23 February 2004 in training and supplies from the battle-hardened insurgents.
which KNLA Third Brigade troops attacked a Tatmadaw The political significance of these new arrivals was consid-
camp in western Nyaunglebin District, killing several erable. The events of 1988-90 had focused international at-
soldiers and seizing weapons and some communications tention on the situation in Burma, and it seemed that at
equipment. Although the KNLA returned the captured last a degree of unity had emerged between ethnic forces
materials and disciplined the troops involved, the SPDC and the largely urban-based, Burman-dominated pro-de-
broke off negotiations for several months. mocracy opposition. The new alliance represented a real
threat to the control and legitimacy of the SLORC military
The purge of Khin Nyunt in October 2004 represented a government.
serious setback to the negotiation of a settlement to the
long-running Karen insurgency. Since 2005, it has become In November 1988 the KNU and 22 other anti-SLORC
clear that the military government is no longer interested groups formed the Democratic Alliance of Burma (DAB),
in negotiating new ceasefires with its erstwhile battlefield a broad-based, joint ethnic minority-Burman opposition
foes. front. In the DAB ‘liberated zones’, the early 1990s wit-
nessed a degree of optimism absent from the ethnic insur-
Two further rounds of ceasefire talks did take place in gencies for more than a decade. However, this growth in
March and May 2005 in Moulmein and Myawaddy. The momentum among border-based opposition groups and
KNU team’s negotiating strategy was to define a series their supporters was short-lived. Following the 1989 col-
of problems to be addressed (agenda-setting), in order lapse of the Communist Party of Burma, insurgent strength
to identify the nature of the issues, before engaging the began to decline to its lowest point since independence.
17
KNLA soldiers in Karen State (TK) Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Partly, this was due to the ceasefires agreed by the regime mocracy campaign. Such developments inevitably made
with different ethnic opposition forces. But it was also the KNU a more significant target for suppression by the
partly due to a lack of unity and political skills among the military the regime. Some non-KNU Karen leaders have
different opposition camps. Opposition political forma- questioned the organisation’s close relationships with exile
tions became increasingly reliant on refuge in neighbour- political groups and suggested that the Karen nationalist
ing countries and exiles overseas. Indeed the patronage of movement should focus more on its own core constituency
foreign governments and donors kept the exiled alliance among the Karen people in Burma itself (see below).
afloat longer in the borderlands than might otherwise have
been expected.
The Democratic Karen Buddhist Army
Despite these setbacks, border and exile-based opposition
formations continued to wage a war of political propa- The emergence of the Democratic Kayin30 (Karen) Bud-
ganda, combined with limited insurgent activities. At the dhist Army constituted a massive upheaval within the
beginning of 2011, the main political opposition umbrella Karen nationalist movement, the repercussions of which
group was the National Council for the Union of Burma are felt to this day. The history and dynamics of the DKBA
(NCUB, established, under a different name, in 199028), are less well-known than that of its ‘mother organisation’,
with armed ethnic nationality groups represented by the the KNU.
National Democratic Front (NDF, established 197629), and
minority political and social organisations participating in In August 2010 most DKBA battalions were transformed
the Ethnic Nationalities Council (ENC, established, under into Tatmadaw-controlled Border Guard Force units, al-
a different name, in 2001; re-formed 2004). The continued though one prominent field commander in the southern
relevance of these opposition alliances was challenged in Karen State refused this order and resumed armed conflict
February 2011 with the formation of the United Nationali- with the government (see below). Therefore, when refer-
ties Federal Council (UNFC: see below). ring to DKBA units for the period after August 2010, this
report will use the designation ‘DKBA BGF’ (see Table 1).
Over the years, Gen. Bo Mya and other KNU leaders on At the time of writing, it remains unclear how much of a
the Thailand border have linked their dominant positions distinct Karen nationalist identity and what degree of op-
within the Karen nationalist movement to participation in erational autonomy these DKBA BGF units will be able to
anti-SLORC/SPDC united-front politics. By playing lead- retain. Since its formation in the mid-1990s, the DKBA has
ing roles in alliance politics, KNU hardliners have been been under the Tatmadaw’s operational and political con-
able to stifle dissent within their own organisation, while trol. Thus its transformation into BGF units may be pri-
drawing on the patronage of an international Burma de- marily symbolic, with only limited impact on the ground.
18
Karen Armed Groups
The formation of the DKBA was, in part, a product of poor Senior DKBA leaders see the KNU, with its political west-
political skills at the top of the KNU, combined with often ern-oriented state-making project, as having failed. The
deeply-held grievances among many in the Karen Bud- DKBA agenda is focused on top-down economic devel-
dhist community. Inter-faith disputes arose out of years of opment of the Karen nation. Some DKBA informants ex-
neglect, and some localized suppression, of the Buddhist pressed confidence that they could continue to pursue this
(predominantly Pwo) majority within the rank-and-file of agenda under the new status as BGF formations. From 1995
the KNLA/KNU by the Christian and Sgaw Karen elite.31 through 2009, most DKBA units enjoyed considerable op-
These tensions came to a head after 1989 with the arrival of erational autonomy, while answering in general terms both
U Thuzana, a prominent Karen Buddhist monk, at the Thu to local Tatmadaw commanders and to the DKBA leader-
Mweh Hta monastery a few miles north of Manerplaw. ship at Myaing Gyi Ngu (in central Karen State: see Map
3). However, as the DKBA transformed itself into a BGF in
Manerplaw - on the west bank of the Moei River that the second half of 2010, field commanders came to enjoy
marks a stretch of the Thailand-Burma border - had been decreasing levels of autonomy.
the KNU headquarters since the early 1970s (see Map 3).
In the early 1990s, U Thuzana (who went on to become It remains unclear how much support the DKBA enjoys
patron monk of the DKBA) was based a few miles to the within the wider Karen population, many of whom are
north, proclaiming his vision of a Karen space of peace and disappointed by the organisation’s inability to promote a
tranquillity, centred on the building of Buddhist ‘peace pa- Karen nationalist agenda. For example, although there are
godas’.32 These traditional Karen millenarian themes had schools in DKBA-controlled areas, these generally do not
a special relevance in the war-weary villages and canton- teach Karen languages, but rather follow the government
ments of the eastern Karen hills, and they recall discourse (Burmese language) curriculum. However DKBA leaders
and practices characteristic of the famous monastic sanctu- point out that the organisation does patronise Karen lan-
ary at Thamanya, near Hpa-an (see below). Tensions came guage teaching during the school summer holidays.
to a head in December 1994, when a group of disaffected
Buddhist Karen soldiers deserted their front-line positions. The August 2010 transformation of most DKBA into BGF
Frustrated with decades of seemingly futile warfare, and battalions was formally accomplished during four ceremo-
concerned that their religious identities were not respected nies held in different parts of Karen State that month, pre-
by the KNU leadership, these subaltern forces gathered sided over by the Tatmadaw South-East Commander. In
at the Thu Mweh Hta monastery and swore allegiance to Karen State, there were 13 BGF battalions: 12 comprised of
U Thuzana. On 21 December 1994 this loosely organised DKBA units and one formed by another KNU breakaway
group established the Democratic Karen Buddhist Organi-
sation (DKBO) and Army. From the outset, the DKBA re-
ceived military and logistical support from local Tatmadaw
units and Military Intelligence agents provocateurs. Ulti-
mately, however, the emergence of the DKBA at a time of
great crisis in the Karen nationalist movement was more a
result of genuine grievances within the Buddhist commu-
nity. Rank-and-file Buddhist KNLA soldiers in particular
resented the domination of the KNU by Christian elites,
and perceived corruption within the organisation.
19
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
group, the Karen Peace Force. In accordance with BGF reg- munist parties in Thailand and Burma, backed by China,
ulations, several senior DKBA commanders had to retire, from joining up. From the 1950s through to the 1970s,
being over 50 years old.35 Seven top DKBA commanders Western security strategists feared that Thailand would be-
(including Kyaw Than, Tha Htoo Kyaw, Pah Nweh and Cit come ‘the next domino’, following Vietnam, Cambodia and
Thu) were enrolled in a ‘advisory board’, with a supervisory Laos into the communist sphere of influence. Such con-
role in relation to the Karen BGF battalions. This, in prac- cerns explain Thai and American support for anti-commu-
tice, removed them from day-to-day military command. nist Karen leaders, such as Gen. Bo Mya.
Nevertheless four DKBA BGF battalions were under the
authority of Col. Chit Thu.36 This ambitious DKBA com- For many years, the main anti-communist forces in Burma
mander had previously been in charge of eight DKBA bat- were Kuomintang remnants from China that settled on
talions under the 999 ‘Special Battalion’, based at Shwe Ko the Shan State-Thailand border. But at the height of the
Ko on the west bank of the Moei River. Cold War these forces also came to include the KNU, as
well as Shan, Mon and other ethnic formations. From the
In October 2009 the DKBA’s chief patron and advisor, the late 1980s however, Thai policy regarding its neighbours
monk U Thuzana, met with KNU/KNLA leaders to discuss changed from one of surreptitiously undermining rivals
the possibility of an armistice between the two groups. Re- and traditional enemies through supporting armed groups
portedly, this meeting was arranged after influential Karen in the border areas to a strategy of directly engaging nation-
monks and village leaders had written to U Thuzana, ask- al governments. The policy of ‘turning battlegrounds into
ing him to mend some of the damage done to Karen soci- marketplaces’ is credited to Thai Prime Minister Chatchai
ety by the DKBA, and because of the monk’s unhappiness Choonhavan. This was a precursor to the ASEAN regional
with the BGF proposal. strategy of ‘constructive engagement’ with Burma, and un-
der which state - and above all private corporate - agencies
In some parts of southern Karen State where the KNLA sought to engage directly with the military government
Sixth Brigade operates, the KNU and DKBA enjoyed a rel- and business networks. The policy of ‘constructive engage-
atively smooth relationship, based on mutual business in- ment’ accelerated following Burma’s 1997 membership
terests in natural resource extraction (logging and mining of ASEAN, witnessing considerable amounts of overseas
activities). For many years, villagers living in these areas (ASEAN but also Chinese) investment in Burma, particu-
benefited from the relative stability that ensued. This last- larly in natural resource extraction. As a result of the new
ed until 2010 when the local DKBA commander rejected policy environment, insurgent groups in the borderlands
transformation into a BGF. found their previously supportive relationships with Thai
business and security authorities greatly weakened. In
Elsewhere in Karen State, many DKBA units gained a repu- summary, the KNU was transformed from a valuable (if
tation for acting as predatory forces, perpetrating violence low-profile) ally of the Thai security establishment to a nui-
against villagers and KNU forces alike. In 2011, as the BGF sance, impeding investment in the borderlands.
issue continues to put strains on relationships between the
government and DKBA formations, senior KNU leaders
expect to receive more defections from disgruntled ex- Economics and Infrastructure Development
DKBA members.
The border areas have historically been remote from the
centres of political and economic power in Thailand and
The Role of Thailand Burma. However, the implementation of major infrastruc-
ture projects is likely to incorporate these previously mar-
The mountainous and once thickly-forested border zones ginal areas into significant regional economies. The Great-
between Thailand (formerly known as Siam) and Burma er Mekong Sub-region initiative of the Asian Development
are populated by various ethnic minorities. Since before Bank, including the Asia Highway from Mae Sot to Hpa-an
the momentous Burmese-Mon-Thai wars of the 18th cen- via Myawaddy and the East-West Economic Corridor and
tury, Karen-populated border areas had served as a buffer related initiatives, could transform southeast Burma. The
between the lowland states - and traditional rivals - Thai- government already earns more than $2 billion annually
land and Burma. During this period, Karen levies acted as from oil and gas sales, an amount which may rise over the
porters and spies for different invading armies, while Karen next decade to some $8 billion a year.
princelings were allowed a fair degree of autonomy in run-
ning community affairs in areas distant from the central Large-scale infrastructure projects will have major impacts,
lowland courts. as illustrated by the Dawei Development Project that will
be centred on the construction of a deep-sea port in the
The buffer role played by border areas continued into the Andaman sea. Due to be implemented by Ital-Thai com-
modern period, with Thai (and indirectly American) secu- pany, the first stage alone is estimated to be valued at some
rity interests supporting Karen armed groups in southeast US$13 billion and will include railway and road links from
Burma in order to prevent well-armed and organised com- Dawei to Kanchanaburi in Thailand, industrial estates, a re-
20
Karen Armed Groups
21
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
finery and a steel mill in Dawei. Significant environmental infrastructure and other development projects in southeast
concerns have been raised by the prospect of dirty indus- Burma are likely to be drivers of conflict, possibly generat-
tries being relocated from central and lower in Thailand. ing patterns of forced migration.38
Potential problems also include the lack of rights workers
in these developments will have and local landowners’ vul- For the Karen and other ethnic nationalities in Burma,
nerability to forcible appropriation of their farmlands. Pre- much will depend on how community leaders position
vious large-scale infrastructure developments in Burma themselves in relation to such economic developments.
have resulted in ‘development-induced’ displacement and Will they be able to demonstrate to the international com-
increased vulnerability. munity, and in particular the private corporate sector, that
they are part of the solution to developing a modern, equi-
The Dawei Development Project is an indication of the fu- table and sustainable economy, or will they remain stuck in
ture direction of relations between Thailand and Burma. the politics of opposition or defiance which has character-
Thailand sees many opportunities along the shared border: ised much of the past half-century in Burma?
hydroelectricity schemes, export processing zones, con-
tract farming, and tourism.37 As the economic relationship
between the two countries becomes ever stronger, this will Guns and Governance -
have major implications for the southeast of Burma, and Political Economy and Political Cultures
indeed for mainland Southeast Asia as a whole. It will give
Thailand a major stake in stability in the area, which may With the outbreak of widespread insurgency following in-
result in greater pressure on the KNU and other armed dependence, localised forms of governance re-emerged,
groups. It will also give the Burma government greater sometimes recalling the political cultures of the pre-
leverage over Thai policies towards Burma dissidents and colonial period. Burma in the 1950s was characterised by
refugees in Thailand. Any economic opportunities to pop- a patchwork of armed conflicts, motivated by a combina-
ulations in southeast Burma will be accompanied by risks, tion of social and political grievances (articulated through
including environmental costs and the threat of labour ex- appeals to communism or ethnic nationalist agendas), and
ploitation. Therefore, in the short-to-middle term at least, political-economic self-interest.
Women forced to carry loads for the Burma army (FBR)
22
Karen Armed Groups
As occurred during the pre-colonial period, local strong- Following the fall of former Military Intelligence chief and
men sought to mobilise populations through a combina- Prime Minister Khin Nyunt in October 2004, the govern-
tion of charisma, violence, economic incentive and appeals ment moved to incorporate these networks of compliance
to various forms of legitimacy, based on the articulation into more formal relationships under a new constitutional
of grievances which often resonate strongly with local arrangement. A number of ceasefire groups supported the
population. In chaotic situations of armed conflict, local governance structures emerging through the government-
‘war economies’ emerged, often based on the exploitation controlled National Convention process (1993-2007), ei-
of natural resources and/or extracting revenues from the ther because they had no choice, because they considered
peasantry. Insurgent commanders tended to fuse their per- acquiescence politically expedient, or because they per-
sonal and professional roles and finances, leading to the re- ceived advantages in doing so for their communities and
emergence of neo-patrimonial forms of governance.39 In their leaders’ interests. The new governance arrangements
southeast Burma, the long-time KNU Chairman, Gen. Bo were codified in the May 2008 constitution, which came
Mya, typified these characteristics, with his combination of into law during 2011 when the new government was con-
strongly-held ethnic nationalist views, and self-interested vened following the November 2010 elections.
economic agendas.
23
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
24
Karen Civil and Political Society ‘Inside Myanmar’
socio-political scene in Burma. Several of the most promi- behind-the-scenes in ways that do not attract attention,
nent Karen civil society initiatives espoused a strong eth- and producing writings that have to be read ‘between-the-
nic nationality identity, without however the endorsing the lines’.53
strategies adopted by insurgents in the borderlands.
Many Karen communities in Burma are led and guided
These non-KNU Karen voices have been marginalised in by their religious leaders (pastors or monks). Most ac-
most discussions of Karen nationalism in Burma, especially tive Union Karen networks operate under the patronage
in English language discourses produced by outside actors, and umbrella of protection of a handful of mostly elderly
such as missionaries, aid workers and activists. Neverthe- politicians, many of whom are retired state officials or pol-
less, those Karen civilians who are not members or active iticians who ‘returned to the legal fold’ in the 1950s and
supporters of the KNU constitute a very large majority of 1960s. This change in personal strategy was often due to
the population.50 Many of these actors differ to the KNU in frustration with the KNU’s hard-line nationalist position.
terms of both strategy and social and political goals. In most cases, these elites subscribe to a Christian-oriented
Karen identity, similar to that held by border-based groups.
An important exception to this critique of existing litera- However, they do not perceive a fundamental contradic-
tures is the work of Ardeth Maung Thawnghmung.51 She tion between citizenship of a centrally-governed state and
notes that “despite [the KNU’s] history of armed struggle, the pursuit of greater economic, social, cultural, linguistic
a sizeable number of Karen remained in the Union of Bur- and political autonomy for their communities.
ma, either because they rejected the principles and meth-
ods of the KNU, because they thought the risk of joining
the armed resistance was too great, or simply because they Karen Civil Society in Burma
were politically passive.” It is not possible to characterise
members of such a diverse ethno-linguistic and socio-eco- According to Alan Saw U,54 a key Karen civil society actor
nomic community as the Karen in terms of a few common in Burma:
characteristics. Nevertheless, by isolating certain tenden-
cies in relation to political orientation, a fuller picture of many Karen people in Myanmar have become very weary
the ‘Union Karen’ community emerges. and fed up with the prolonged civil war and its consequenc-
es. They are of the opinion that it is imperative … to direct
The Union Karen perspective incorporates a loosely-de- their energies to mobilizing their cultural wisdom, religious
fined set of ideas of Karen nationalism, distinct from the knowledge and social understanding so as to constructive-
KNU’s militarised nation-building objectives. Associated ly work towards a better future. Since the beginning of the
with elites in Yangon and the Irrawaddy Delta, this less ag- 1990s, various Karen groups in Myanmar have been trying
gressive nationalist stance has sought accommodation with … to build confidence and strengthen capacities of the vari-
the state, rather than challenging its foundations. A broad ous elements in the Karen community and to foster coop-
range of Union Karen views were quite well-represented eration between them. The Karen leaders in Myanmar have
through the independence and parliamentary periods; for projected the idea of transferring the ‘armed struggle in the
example, by the Karen Youth Organization in the post- battle field’ to the ‘political struggle around the table.’
Second World War years. However, since the imposition of
military rule in 1962, and especially following the events of Alan Saw U provides a surprisingly frank account of civil
1988-90, the Union Karen voice has been marginalised in society and low-profile political developments within the
comparison with the uncompromising rhetoric produced Karen community since the mid-1990s.55 He describes ac-
by opposition groups along the Thailand border. In part, tivities in the fields of peace-making, including various ini-
this exclusion is explained by government restrictions on tiatives to resolve the armed conflict, undertaken by Karen
international access to Karen groups working ‘inside’ the community (mostly religious) leaders who include Bud-
country,52 which led to the lack of a Union Karen voice in dhists as well as Anglican, Baptist and Catholic churchmen
reporting on the country. Relatively few researchers have and women. He also analyses community development
made efforts to engage with this sector of Karen political and humanitarian activities undertaken by a range of Kar-
and civil society. Indeed, members of the Burma activist en civil society groups, including the establishment of the
community tend to assume that those actors working for Karen Development Committee (KDC) in June 1994.
socio-political change inside the country must be stooges
of the military government. In its most extreme form, op- Over the following decade, under the leadership of Dr Si-
position discourse denies the legitimacy of any activity to mon Tha, the KDC developed an innovative health care
promote socio-economic or political change carried out programme. The Kwe Ka Baw clinic was originally estab-
in government-controlled areas, beyond the out-and-out lished in the Karen-populated northern Yangon suburb
opposition of the National League for Democracy (NLD) of Insein in 1990. By establishing his clinic in the name
and its allies. Furthermore, due to the restrictions and frus- of Kwe Ka Baw (a limestone outcrop near Hpa-an and a
trations of working in military-ruled Burma, the Union symbol of the Karen nation) Dr Simon was making an
Karen have had to adopt strategies of subterfuge, working explicitly ethnic nationalist statement. The foundation of
25
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Religious ‘Mandalas’
26
Karen Civil and Political Society ‘Inside Myanmar’
of donors and international NGOs which constitute the Peoples Party (KPP) was established in early 2010. It is as-
‘humanitarian industry’59 on the Thailand-Burma border sociated with Yangon and Irrawaddy Delta (predominantly
and the activist lobbying networks beyond, may be consid- Christian) elites, and is positioned as an issues-based party,
ered as a collection of often collaborating, but sometimes designed to appeal beyond the Karen community. Several
competing, centres of power, the authority of which ex- of its leaders are retired government (including Tatmadaw)
pands and/or declines according to various criteria. Like personnel, allowing the KPP some level of protection from
other patrons, the influence of border-based humanitar- state suppression, but also generating some distrust, par-
ian agencies is diminished, as their clients (e.g. the KNU ticularly among political activists who have learned to be
and affiliates) decline in power. In the meantime - in some suspicious of anyone connected to the government. The
DKBA-controlled areas at least (for example, Shwe Ko Ko) KPP is perceived by some non-elite (and especially non-
- a small number of donors and NGOs have been able to Christian) Karen as dominated by Christian mission-ed-
engage with local commanders, such as Col. Chit Thu, in ucated, urban intellectuals, retired state officials and busi-
order to implement aid projects. ness interests. Indeed, in addition to linguistic and religious
pluralism within the Karen community, there continue to
Christian churches have also been deeply involved in be marked tensions between those living and working in
community-based development activities. These include Karen State and those Karens in Yangon and elsewhere.
branches of the main Baptist, Anglican and Catholic
churches, as well as a number of local congregations. Sever- Such differences explain the formation of the Ploung-Sgaw
al of the more formal Karen civil society groupings have re- Democracy Party (PSDP – Ploung being an alternate spell-
ceived assistance in building their organisational capacities ing for Pwo Karen) to contest the elections in Karen State,
from national-based civil society groups, such as the Metta and adjoining areas of Mon State, where the party enjoys
Development Foundation and Shalom Foundation.60 Some good relations with the All Mon Regions Democracy Par-
of these church-based NGOs and CBOs were involved in ty (AMRDP). Unlike the KPP, most PSDP members and
the forefront of impressive efforts undertaken by Burmese patrons are Buddhists. Leaders of the PSDP in particular
civil society networks in responding to Cyclone Nargis in have expressed their anxiety regarding the limited human
2008 which afflicted both Burman and Karen communities resources available in Karen State and the need for capacity
across the Irrawaddy Delta. building. This is also the case with the Karen State Democ-
racy and Development Party (KSDDP), which was formed
in August 2010 by elements close to the DKBA leadership
The 2010 Elections immediately after the BGF transformation.
Three Karen political parties participated in the 7 Novem- While several Karen leaders stood for election themselves,
ber 2010 elections. In their different ways, each has sought other key actors were more interested in persuading others
to promote and protect Karen interests.61 The Karen (Kayin) to do so in order to ‘test the waters’. Thus 2010 could be
Karen men playing board game (TK)
27
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
characterised as an ‘election by proxy’, with various key ac- urban-based, national-level opposition parties sought to
tors and networks putting forward substitute candidates. gain support among citizens opposed to continued mili-
tary rule: the National Democratic Force (NDF, an NLD
In contrast, many independent or anti-Tatmadaw parties breakaway) and the Democratic Party (Myanmar). In addi-
refused to contest the November elections. Extensive in- tion, some two dozen parties ran on behalf of the country’s
ternational publicity was given to a boycott promoted by diverse ethnic minority nationalities. Some of these par-
the NLD and overseas-based activists. Nevertheless, 37 po- ties sought to position themselves between the government
litical parties contested the elections, including a handful and existing opposition groups, such as the NLD. With the
of independent candidates and some two dozen non-gov- NLD boycotting the elections, the NDF and a handful of
ernment aligned parties. These opposition parties were not ethnic nationality parties became the focus of hopes for
so naive as to believe the polls would be free and fair, but progressive change in Burma.
they did hope that the military regime would be confident
enough in controlling the overall outcome to allow some The turnout on November 7 was somewhere between half
independent voices to be elected. and two-thirds of registered voters. It seemed by late that
evening that many non-government parties had done
Non-government parties contesting the elections have remarkably well. However, in numerous instances, vote
a long-term strategy of slowly expanding the amount of counting was interrupted once it became apparent that
space available to civilian political networks in order to in- pro-government candidates were losing. Subsequently,
crementally change the balance of power in Burma. Many when the official results were announced over the com-
regarded the 2010 elections as a ‘dry run’, in order to build ing days, it became apparent that many non-government
capacities and prepare for the next polls, due to be held candidates had been beaten by their pro-government op-
sometime in 2015. In the absence of the NLD, two main ponents, largely due to a massive influx of ‘advanced votes’
which were introduced late in the day. In some cases, the
number of recorded votes exceeded the total population of
registered voters, indicating that election officials panicked
when they realised that pro-military candidates would lose
and therefore stuffed the ballot boxes.62
(three in the upper house, two in the lower house and four
in Karen State assembly). The PSDP’s relatively good show-
ing owed much to voter education and local organisational
efforts at the grassroots, undertaken by Karen youth during
the run-up to the elections. The KPP gained six seats (one
in the upper house, one in the lower house and four in Kar-
en State). Several KPP candidates were disappointed not
to do better, especially in the Irrawaddy Delta and Tenas-
serim Region. Finally, although they received less public-
ity than the other two parties, the DKBA-aligned KSDDP
gained one seat each in the upper house and Karen State.
The successful KSDDP candidates included one each from
the DKBA and KPF, including the latter’s vice-chairman
28
Karen Civil and Political Society ‘Inside Myanmar’
TABLE 2: Karen Political Parties Contesting the 2010 Elections (Does not include Karen members of USDP and other parties.)
Karen Peoples Party 2010 Yangon and Bago Re- Tun Aung Myint Upper House: 1
gions and Irrawaddy Lower House: 1
Delta-based; networks State/Region: 4
among mostly Chris- total: 6
tian elites; indepen-
dent of government
Karen State 2010 Formed after incorpo- Tha Htoo Kyaw Upper House: 1
Democracy and ration of most DKBA Lower House: 0
Development Party and KPF units into Karen State: 1
Tatmadaw-controlled total: 2
BGF; aligned with
government
Aung Tin Myint. The influential ex-KNU Forestry Minis- be tempted by the fruits of office (including the possibili-
ter, P’doh Aung San, who defected in 1998, was elected for ties of corruption) and, lacking experience, their vocation
the USDP. as future democrats is not assured.
While some Karen and other observers have decried the In January 2011 the PSDP joined four other ethnic politi-
lack of election unity within the community (illustrated cal parties in calling on the international community to lift
by three separate parties contesting the polls), others sug- economic sanctions on Burma and for the government to
gested that this diversity was strategically wise. Any alli- announce a general amnesty to illustrate that “the process
ance of non-government groups - particularly among the of democratic transition has begun”. The ethnic parties
Karen community, elements of which are still at war with thereby indicated that they understand how to engage on
the Tatmadaw - is likely to be perceived by the government key issues in a constructive manner, charting a course in-
as a threat. By dividing up the political community, Karen dependent of both the NLD and the government. Sources
nationalists may be able to coordinate their positions with- close to the PSDP leadership say that they wish to remain
out being perceived as a threat by Tatmadaw leaders. independent of both pro- and anti-government parties,
while seeking to work for development in Karen-populated
In late November 2010, the government announced mea- areas and building capacities for the future. Nevertheless,
sures restricting certain freedoms of speech in parlia- in February two PSDP elected representatives were ap-
ment.63 Nevertheless ethnic nationality parties in several pointed as Kayin State ministers, together with one each
of the state assemblies should be able to scrutinise - and from the KPP and KSDDP, one from the AMRDP, three
sometimes even block - future legislation. Furthermore from the USDP, and one Tatmadaw appointee.64
in the ethnic states, many USDP candidates come from
minority communities and enjoy long-standing relation- The political rules and landscape in Burma remain very un-
ships with members of ethnic nationality parties. Thus an certain, as the country embarks on its first period of elected
important indicator of future political freedoms will be and multi-party government since 1962. Given the possi-
whether, and to what degree, ethnic nationality candidates bility of the four PSDP, KPP and AMRDP representatives
will be pressured or co-opted into following the USDP- working together, and likewise the four USDP-Tatmadaw
Tatmadaw /military line, or whether in some cases they appointees, it seemed that the (presumably pro-govern-
will use the space created by their election to give voice ment) KSDDP might hold the notional balance-of-power
to their communities, gaining access to improved services in Karen State, at least in relation to the State assemblies’
for their electorates. Such opportunities are not without highly circumscribed powers.
their potential pitfalls: successful candidates are likely to
29
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Humanitarian Issues
30
Humanitarian Issues
31
Horse and mule teams carry relief supplies in northern Karen State (FBR) Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
authorities’ desire for a low-key solution to the crisis, as the examined) assumption that the KNU was the sole legiti-
RTG did not want to repeat the large-scale international mate representative of the Karen people, and therefore the
refugee-oriented intervention that had occurred in the KRC was the appropriate body to represent and administer
late 1970s and 1980s on the Cambodian and Lao borders. the refugee population.72
The NGOs, meanwhile, hoped to avoid imposing alien
structures upon the refugees and to avoid creating ‘aid In January 2011, the refugee caseload verified by TBBC
dependency’ among them.70 From the outset, therefore, was 141,549 people, living in nine camps strung out along
border-based humanitarian agencies worked through the the middle section of the border. The previous three years
insurgent-nominated refugee committees. had been marked by the resettlement of some 30,000 Kar-
en and other Burmese refugees to third countries abroad.
In the late 1980s the main NGO consortium assisting the The acceptance of Karen refugees for resettlement in the
refugees was reorganised, as the Burmese Border Consor- West (particularly North America, but also Australia and
tium (BBC); in 2004 it was re-named the Thailand Burma Europe) signalled that donor countries considered it un-
Border Consortium (TBBC). As well as the officially-reg- likely that any resolution to Burma’s complex state-society
istered NGOs, by the 1990s a number of small, unofficial and armed conflicts would be achieved soon. Despite the
groups had emerged which undertook a wide range of resettlement programme however, new arrivals continued
mostly small-scale relief and development activities, in- to enter the camps at more-or-less ‘replacement level’. At
cluding programmes directed at Burmese migrant labour- the same time, moves were afoot in some Thai circles to
ers in Thailand. Many are engaged in advocacy work, such consider sending the refugees back to Burma.73
as the documentation and denunciation of human rights
abuses perpetrated by government forces, but very rarely
by opposition groups. Aid, Legitimacy and Conflict
In 1984 most of those involved had assumed that the Kar- Since the nineteenth century, international actors have
en refugee crisis, and the resulting international response, played various roles in mediating ideas of Karen national-
would be short-lived. However, throughout the 1980s and ism. To the present day, international NGOs supplying the
1990s a humanitarian and human rights industry grew up refugee camps in Thailand have empowered camp admin-
along the border, under the umbrella of the refugee relief istrations dominated by a self-selecting, Sgaw-speaking,
regime, following the continued and growing influx of Kar- largely Baptist elite, which the aid agencies accepted as the
en refugees into Thailand. The NGOs, and in particular the refugees’ natural and legitimate representatives. For most
[T]BBC, provided aid via indigenous refugee committees, of the history of the camps, they have been dominated by
such as the KNU-administered Karen Refugee Committee KNU-affiliated authorities, most of whom were male and
(KRC).71 This arrangement was based on the (generally un- Christian.
32
Humanitarian Issues
Fiona Terry74 observes that in the process of negotiating tional NGOs and their donors in assisting the refugees,
access to needy populations, humanitarian actors often access to such resources supports the KNLA’s continued
serve to legitimize non-state groups, whose cause they per- operations across the border. The refugee camps in Thai-
ceive as just. Likewise, Mark Duffield75 analyses the ways in land have provided refuge to the victims of the civil war
which relief aid can “reinforce the dominant relations and and unofficial base areas for the KNU and other armed
forms of … legitimacy [and] political recognition” among groups. The existence of the refugees - and of two or three
the local authorities it engages with. million other internally and externally displaced Burmese
- provided testimony to the abuses of the military govern-
The position of ‘solidarity’ with the suffering people of ment, while the KNU’s loose control over elements of this
Burma, adopted by many Thailand and overseas-based civilian population bestowed a certain legitimacy on the
agencies, does not necessarily contradict the humanitarian insurgency.77
principle of ‘impartiality’.76 Indeed, it may be necessary to
adopt more-or-less explicitly political positions in order to Thailand-based NGOs have generally failed to investigate
address the often political causes of humanitarian vulner- the impacts of foreign aid on the conflict in Burma - not
ability, rather than merely responding to immediate needs. only between the military government and the KNU, but
However, such positions mean that most aid agencies also on relations between various Karen actors. Humani-
operating along the border are far from ‘neutral’ in their tarian agencies’ rice and rhetoric have supported the KNU’s
relationship to the military and political situation and in militarised nation-building agenda, during a period when
Burma. Rather, their interventions empowered one side to the Karen insurgency was becoming increasingly driven
the armed conflict. from within the refugee camps. In part, this naivety may
be explained by the lack of internationally experienced hu-
Thousands of personnel of the KNU/KNLA, and/or their manitarian professionals along the border in the 1980s and
families, continue to receive shelter in and supplies from 1990s, when few aid workers had comparative experience
the camps. While this may not be the purpose of interna- of refugee situations in other parts of the world.
Families in hiding in aftermath of Burma Army operation (FBR)
33
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Contested Legitimacies
34
Contested Legitimacies
35
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
reinforced the KNU’s identification of Karen nationalism Claims to legitimate authority beyond the KNU’s decreas-
with Christianity and related ideas of ‘modernity’ and ing circle of influence have tended to rely on a combination
‘progress’.93 of coercion and other forms of violence, the purchase of
loyalty, and appeal to traditional values. For DKBA field
Since the 1960s, the KNU leadership has reproduced an commanders, legitimacy derives from their roles as local
essentialised and stylised form of Sgaw Christian culture strongmen, whose exercise of power is proof of legitimacy,
as the authentic expression of Karen identity. This ‘Sgaw- and as guardians and protectors of non-Christian (particu-
ization’ of Karen society in the borderlands and refugee larly Buddhist) Karen religion, and non-Sgaw (particularly
camps resembled aspects of the central state’s Burmanisa- Pwo speaking) Karen dialects. Indeed, DKBA leaders have
tion of national culture, for which the military government reportedly demanded that the Eastern Pwo dialect be rec-
has been criticized by ethno-nationalist opposition groups ognised as the official language of Karen State.
and activists.94 This phenomenon helps to explain the frus-
tration felt by many non-Christian Karen, and thus the As Ingrid Jordt observes regarding legitimisation in Burma,
emergence of the DKBA.95 understandings of “political authority … must be situated
from the point of view of the governed.”96 Although the
The DKBA emerged in the mid-1990s in the context of the DKBA was a fragmentary organisation, often acting as a
fragmentation of the once-dominant KNU mandala. Un- proxy for the Tatmadaw, its leaders nevertheless have made
like the KNU, which remains orientated towards external (often implicit) claims to legitimacy which seem to reso-
patronage, the DKBA looked to support from the military nate with sections of the Karen community. This approach
government, which has been a jealous suzerain, prone is illustrated by Col. Chit Thu of the 999 Special Battalion,
to violent, punitive and disciplinary campaigns. Sixteen who has ‘vowed’ that he will promote and protect the Kar-
years after its foundation, the DKBA (and DKBA BGFs) en peoples’ “existence, foundation, culture and tradition,
remains detached from international networks, in part due our heredity, religion, way of life and convention.”97 Such
to most commanders’ lack of English language skills and agendas may be characterised as ‘modernist’, inasmuch as
their non-Christian faiths. Furthermore, the DKBA does individual DKBA commanders like Chit Thu promote a
not reproduce the liberal democratic, rights-oriented dis- ‘top-down’ model of economic development.
course favoured by international donors and dominant in
the mainstream fields of security and protection, on which Other appeals to legitimisation are not couched in the
foreign patronage is generally conditional. Therefore, al- rational-bureaucratic, rights-based language and rationale
though they enjoy considerable influence at the commu- familiar to and sponsored by the international humanitari-
nity level (and in relation to the government), the DKBA an and human rights community. Rather, the DKBA’s agen-
and other non-liberal actors tend to be marginalised in da resonates within non-westernised elements of the Karen
international discourse and practice. community. According to Gravers98, the “zone of peace and
KNU leaders Soe Soe, Kaserdoh, Bo Mya and Htoo Htoo Lay in Mae Sot in 2004 (HvdB)
36
Contested Legitimacies
37
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Following their surrender to the Thai authorities in 2000, Until the late 1990s, it suited both parties to maintain the
the Htoo twins were quietly settled at Don Yang refugee fiction that Thu Mu Hae and his followers were part of the
camp near Sangkhlaburi, where they later married and had KNU. However, in February 1997 the Tatmadaw launched
children of their own. In June 2006 government intelli- a major offensive against the remaining KNU strongholds
gence operatives persuaded Johnny to return to Burma. in the Fourth and Sixth Brigade areas. Thu Mu Hae quickly
switched his allegiance to the Tatmadaw, allowing it to gain
control of much of the Sixth Brigade area (KNU Duplaya
The Reorientation of Karen Armed Networks District) without encountering organised resistance.
As the power and degree of territorial control enjoyed by The fall of Duplaya District caused a mass exodus of refu-
the KNU has declined since the 1980s, so too has its abil- gees to flee into Thailand. The following month, Thu Mu
ity to enforce a minimum degree of compliance upon neo- Hae was featured on Burmese state television in a ceremony
patrimonial strongmen operating on the peripheries of its during which his men (few of whom had been forewarned)
shrinking fields of influence. The authority of the old insur- handed over their weapons to SLORC Vice-Chairman,
gent mandalas had at one time permeated most Thailand- Gen. Maung Aye. In exchange for his compliance, Thu
Burma border areas. By the 1990s though, the Tatmadaw Mu Hae’s newly-formed KPF was given control over three
and government constituted the dominant centre of power ceasefire zones: near Kyain Seikkyi, in the Three Pagodas
in these contested zones. Pass area, and near Kyaikdon in central Duplaya District.
The group was also granted various, mostly small-scale,
The DKBA phenomenon is a prime example of the manner business concessions. This arrangement served to further
in which armed groups and networks along the Thailand- divide the Karen armed groups, not least by setting up a
Burma border, which were once under the loose authority rivalry in lower Karen State between the KPF and another
of the insurgent mandala, have been re-oriented as clients government client, the DKBA.
of the Tatmadaw. For example, in the late 1990s, in KNU
Leh Deh Soe Township (northern Tenasserim Region), a A further example is provided by the defection of elements
Karen strongman named Da Bleh emerged as an ally of lo- of the KNLA’s Seventh Brigade on February 11 2007, when
cal Burma Army commanders. The Tatmadaw had greatly the elderly brigade commander, Brig-Gen. Htein Maung,
expanded its presence in the area, as a result of the con- split from the KNU to make a separate peace with the
struction of the Yadana gas pipeline.102 Local Burma Army government. Following the death of his old ally and pa-
commanders were largely content to let Da Bleh’s militia tron (and Seventh-day Adventist co-religionist), the KNU
provide security in the southern sector of the ‘pipeline cor- strongman Gen. Bo Mya, Htein Maung and his advisers
ridor’, which in practice meant denying the KNLA Fourth sought to make a ceasefire in their area of influence in
Brigade access to the area. With his authority enhanced by central Karen State in the name of the KNU-KNLA Peace
Tatmadaw patronage, Da Bleh was able to impose a degree Council. The Peace Council has since initiated relief and
of stability in his area of control and began to attract some community development projects in areas under its influ-
displaced villagers to settle in what amounted to an unof- ence, with some international assistance.103
ficial ceasefire zone. Around this time, a handful of Karen
National Defence Organisation (KNDO - KNU ‘home The post-armed conflict landscape in Karen-populated
guard’) soldiers defected to Da Bleh’s militia and began areas could hardly be described as ‘peace’. Along most
working with him on local logging deals. Following some of the Thailand border, the Tatmadaw still operated as a
internal disputes regarding the division of revenues, the marauding army, terrorizing local populations. Practices
ex-KNDO men decided to move against Da Bleh. During such as forced labour, extra-judicial arrests and punish-
the conflict, militia men loyal to Da Bleh burnt down the ments carried out against perceived opponents remained
ex-KNDO contingents’ camp. On 6 March 2001 the latter widespread.104 Furthermore, in areas of ‘mixed administra-
retaliated, attacking Da Bleh’s house and killing him, his tion’, overlapping centres of power still exert authority (and
wife and son. extract resources) from villagers. Even in areas of greater
stability, day-to-day life for most people is a struggle for
Another example of changing loyalties on the front-lines of survival in the face of deteriorating local economies, and
conflict is provided by the case of Lt-Col. Thu Mu Hae and systematic injustices and structural violence, perpetrated
the Karen Peace Force (a.k.a. Hongtharong Special Region). by a range of predatory power-holders. However, some
Since the late 1980s, Thu Mu Hae’s Sixteenth Battalion had pockets of relative stability and civility exist in the form of
operated more-or-less independently of Brig-Gen. Shwe local zones of influence (and indeed of safety), exercised
Hser’s KNLA Sixth Brigade headquarters. Officials from by non-military patrons, especially charismatic religious
the mainstream KNU could only enter Thu Mu Hae’s area leaders. These civilian networks represent an alternative set
of control in Kawkareik Township, if accompanied by fifty- of relationships and axes of authority to the armed groups
plus soldiers. Thu Mu Hae’s battalion was in effect a private and networks that still dominate many aspects of daily life.
warlord army, which acknowledged the symbolic leader- In summary, the Karen State had ceasefires but it did not
ship of the KNU, but was by no means under its control. have peace.
38
The Moei River, with Karen State on the left side (TK)
39
Contested Legitimacies
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
40
Karen Politics in a Time of Change
versal, international norms has failed - or at least badly er security for investments, such as roads and dams, along
faltered. The KNU’s failure was prefigured in the manner the border. In particular, the construction of hydroelectric
in which its field commanders have, for many years, tended dams on the Salween River will disrupt cross-border sup-
to act as neo-patrimonial warlords, in the areas under their ply to northern Karen State, further weakening the KNU
control. Despite the rhetoric produced by its headquarters but not the DKBA, which is regarded as supporting these
leadership, and reproduced by international supporters, projects. The Dawei Development Project in the Tenas-
the KNU has focused more on developing positions (pro- serim Region is likely to have a similar impact on the KNU.
human rights and democracy, anti-military dictatorship In the case of this and other mega-development projects,
and drugs) than ensuring that day-to-day governance in Karen social and political organisations are challenged to
the areas under its control reflected such values. More fun- demonstrate their relevance in a rapidly changing political
damentally, the organisation has been encouraged through and economic environment.
Western support to believe that the international commu-
nity would make good on the promise to promote democ- Borderland marginalisation for the KNU relates to another
racy in Burma through support of the KNU’s nation/state- important challenge. As the KNU has lost territory over the
building goals. Although, among the peoples in Southeast years, the organisation has lost touch with the majority of
Asia without a state, the Karen have come closest to estab- the Karen population in Burma. Although it retains a fol-
lishing their own de facto para-state, in 2011 this dream lowing among those populations in the hills to which it still
seems further away than ever. has access, many other Karens feel alienated or margina-
lised and distant from the KNU, especially non-Christians.
Over the past two decades the KNU has become highly de- This is the single greatest challenge facing any pan-Karen
pendent on foreign support in terms of humanitarian and political organisation: to connect with both Sgaw and Pwo
symbolic assistance. The KNU has also become depen- speaking, Christian and non-Christian (particularly Bud-
dent on the existence of refugee camps, and supply lines dhist) communities. Large numbers of Pwo-speaking Bud-
to Thailand. It seems likely that the camps will eventually dhists regard themselves as Karens and, as the 2010 election
be closed, for three inter-linked reasons: firstly, depopula- demonstrated, will support a Karen political organisation.
tion as a result of overseas resettlement, particularly to the They generally distrust the government (and respect Aung
USA (which generally removes better-educated refugees San Suu Kyi), but do not feel represented by the KNU. As
and many KNU cadres), combined with moves to better a result, many Buddhists have supported the DKBA, but
integrate the remaining refugee population in local Thai- over the years most feel disappointed by the outcome of its
Karen villages; secondly, declining funding due to ‘donor political-military enterprise.
fatigue’, which is exacerbated by the global financial crisis;
and thirdly, the desire of the Royal Thai Government for At the KNU’s October 2008 14th Congress, a group of
better relations with the Burma government and for great- reform-minded leaders tried to persuade their colleagues
Ceremony of DKBA unit transformation into BGF
41
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
42
Karen Politics in a Time of Change
soldiers.108 However in early 2011 the KNU/KNLA Peace base camp at Waley in central Karen State, displacing more
Council continued to control about a dozen villages along people into Thailand and forcing others into hiding in the
the Moei River as well as its headquarters areas at To Kaw borderlands. These episodes of forced migration constitut-
Ko, southeast of Hpa’an.109 ed the largest movement of refugees into Thailand in a de-
cade.117 The outbreak of hostilities between the Tatmadaw
In contrast, on 23 August 2010 another Karen ceasefire and elements of the DKBA was particularly devastating for
group, the KPF was quietly transformed into a BGF militia villages which had enjoyed relative stability in recent years
under direct Tatmadaw control.110 At this time the ailing (for example, near Three Pagodas Pass and in the Waley
Thu Mu Hae retired, following the stipulation that BGF area).
personnel be under fifty years old. Like the DKBA BGFs ,
some KPF leaders also participated in the 2010 elections. Following clashes with the Tatmadaw, on 9 November the
renegade DKBA force withdrew from Myawaddy. A week
The greatest volatility, however, occurred within the later, a small ceremony was held in southern Karen State,
DKBA, where many troops were unhappy about the BGF in which N’Kam Mweh’s renegade DKBA forces formally
orders. This discontent burst into the open on election day, allied with the KNLA. The situation at nearby Three Pa-
7 November, when the strategic border town of Myawaddy godas Pass was more confusing, with control of the town
in central Karen State was occupied by elements of the changing hands at least once during the week, before gov-
DKBA114 led by Col. La Pwe (N’kam Mweh: ‘Mr Mous- ernment forces reasserted control.
tache’), a field commander who was dissatisfied with the
limited political and economic opportunities available in Once the Tatmadaw had regained control of Myawaddy,
the new political environment in Burma.115 Sometimes the Thai authorities began to repatriate refugees - in some
referred to as DKBA Brigade 5, this militia preferred the cases, against their will. Many refugees from Three Pago-
designation ‘Kloh Htoo Baw’ (or ‘Golden-Yellow Drum’). das Pass in the Sangkhlaburi area returned home, only to
Reliable sources estimated the strength of N’Kam Mweh’s flee back to Thailand later, when fighting broke out again.
soldiers at over 500 men. Further north, in the area around Myawaddy, refugees
and IDPs remained in an uncertain situation in the area
The following day, 8 November, other non-BGF DKBA between Waley and Phop Phra in Thailand. Human rights
battalions occupied the small town of Three Pagodas Pass and relief organisations working on the border reported
in southern Karen State.116 In both places, several people numerous instances of Thai soldiers pushing Karen refu-
were killed, and state property was damaged. As a result, gees from this area back across the border.118 In part, such
some 20,000 refugees fled to Thailand from Myawaddy and responses by the Thai authorities illustrate the anger felt by
surrounding areas. About 3,000 refugees fled from Three many business and security personnel in Thailand, whose
Pagodas Pass to Thailand, with a similar or greater number investments in southeast Burma appear threatened by such
moving into the adjacent NMSP-controlled ceasefire zone. episodes of insecurity. Indeed, KNLA sources report that
On 11 November the Tatmadaw overran N’kam Mweh’s Thai business and security interests were extremely frus-
IDP camp in Karen State (HvdB)
43
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
trated with Col. N’Kam Mweh’s actions, and have repeated- Nevertheless, insurgency in Burma may be prolonged a
ly told the KNU that while fighting inside Burma is accept- while longer, if the KIO, NMSP and other non-BGF cease-
able, armed conflict should not flare up along the border. fire groups join forces with the KNU and remaining insur-
As a result of KNU and DKBA tensions in the border areas, gent groups.
the lucrative trade gate between Myawaddy and Mae Sot
was closed in early 2010, costing local Thai and Burmese As frustration over the BGF order and the 2010 elections
businesspeople millions of dollars a week. grew, a new military and political alliance emerged between
the KNU and a range of other armed ethnic groups. In No-
Senior KNLA sources indicate that the emergence of wide- vember 2010 a Committee for the Emergence of a Federal
spread dissatisfaction within the DKBA ranks is a mixed Union was established, which was succeeded in February
blessing for the KNU. There are concerns that Col. N’Kam 2011 by the United Nationalities Federal Council (UNFC).
Mweh may be ‘playing’ the KNU, in order to leverage the The 12 UNFC member organisations included the KNU
government. According to this argument, N’Kam Mweh and several smaller ethnic insurgent organisations, plus
is jealous of his rival commander in the DKBA, Chit Thu, three ceasefire groups: the KIO, NMSP and Shan State
and may have launched the attack on Myawaddy in order Progress Party/Shan State Army-North (SSPP/SSA). The
to demonstrate his power to the government, with the aim new alliance was dominated by military commanders, as
of getting a better deal out of eventually transforming his symbolised by the appointment of KNLA Commander-in
battalions into BGF units. Reportedly, the DKBA’s patron Chief Mutu Saepaw as UNFC Chairman; NMSP General
monk, U Thuzana, visited N’Kam Mweh to request him to Secretary, Nai Hongsa was named General Secretary, de-
join the BGF.119 In a similar vein, senior KNLA informants monstrating that some key ceasefire group leaders wished
indicate that they have requested large numbers of dissat- to send a strong signal of discontent to the government.
isfied rank-and-file DKBA personnel not to defect to the
KNLA in 2010, because they are worried that these troops The establishment of the UNFC alliance represented an
are very undisciplined and that their behaviour may not important symbolic development, publicly confirming the
reflect well on the KNU. behind-the-scenes relationships which had always existed
between Burma’s ethnic ceasefire and non-ceasefire groups.
These developments were a reminder that the KNU and its It also illustrated a degree of confusion regarding the com-
new ‘DKBA’ allies could still play important roles as ‘spoil- plex plethora of opposition alliances within which armed
ers’, undermining stability in the border areas. They were ethnic groups such as the KNU are embedded (including
also testimony to widespread frustration regarding the lack the NDF, ENC and NCUB). Although the degrees of as-
of political progress in Burma among (but not limited to) sistance these groups could lend each other was necessarily
ethnic minority communities. limited, due to their territorial fragmentation, the new alli-
ance indicated that militarisation remained a fact of life in
By November 2010 several hundred ex-DKBA person- many ethnic minority-populated areas. This was especially
nel and their family members had defected to the KNU/ the case in the context of an upsurge of Burma Army ac-
KNLA, taking refuge in Mae La and Umpien Mai refugee tivities directed against the KNU and non-BGF compliant
camps. Many more DKBA troops were reportedly frustrat- DKBA units during the 2010-11 dry season.
ed at having been transformed into BGF units. Incidents
were reported of Karen BGF soldiers tearing off their mili- Ultimately, the new alliance differed little in make-up to
tary patches and protesting loudly. Following the incidents the NDF joint front of armed ethnic groups, which had
in early November in Myawaddy and Three Pagodas Pass, failed to achieve its objectives and had broken up under
local Tatmadaw commanders reportedly allowed DKBA pressure from the Tatmadaw in the 1990s. Given that the
chiefs (and particularly Col. Chit Thu) to resume greater NMSP and KIO were unlikely to initiate armed conflict
authority in the day-to-day running of the BGF battalions. against government forces, the significance of the UNFC
Nevertheless, a group of about 70 DKBA ex-999 Special was therefore primarily symbolic. Furthermore, two key
Battalion soldiers in the area of the old KNU headquarters armed ethnic groups, the (ceasefire) UWSA and (non-
at Manerplaw were also reportedly unhappy with the BGF ceasefire) Shan State Army-South were not represented in
transformation, and in December 2010 were threatening the new alliance.
to defect to the KNU. Such sentiments were exacerbated
when Karen flags were taken down at former DKBA bases, In the meantime, the latest bout of fighting along the Thai-
such as Shwe Ko Ko, and replaced by the new Myanmar land border was largely directed against the breakaway
national flag. DKBA faction and adjacent KNLA units, with the situation
in most KNU areas further inside the country reportedly
In the middle-to-long-term, the brief occupation of fairly stable (as of late February 2011). These clashes along
Myawaddy and Three Pagodas Pass was probably not very the border led to large numbers of civilians being dis-
significant. Border-based insurgency has been in decline placed, many of whom sought refuge in Thailand, resulting
for some years, with most armed ethnic groups margina- in several incidents of forced repatriation by the Royal Thai
lised in relation to major developments in the country. Army between December 2010 and February 2011.
44
Karen Politics in a Time of Change
Future Prospects
The Aung San Suu Kyi Factor
As new national and regional/state governments form dur-
For many people in Burma, Aung San Suu Kyi is an in-
ing the first quarter of 2011, Karen politics - like national
spiring symbol of hope. Following her latest release from
politics - are undergoing their most uncertain cycle in two
house arrest, just five days after the November elections,
decades. Previous eras of governmental change in Bur-
she began to mobilise her supporters.
ma have been followed by volatility, and recent events in
Karen-populated areas prefigure significant but uncertain
Relationships between ‘the lady’ and the government
changes in the coming year. In this context, any predictions
could become confrontational, quite quickly. In this
have to be made with caution.
case, the military is unlikely to allow even semi-inde-
pendent voices in the elected assemblies to have much
In exchange for incorporation of their units into the BGF,
autonomy. Leaders of some ethnic nationality parties
most DKBA leaders are likely to expand their economic in-
have already indicated their willingness to work with
terests in Karen State. These include various logging, mining
Aung San Suu Kyi, and even follow her leadership. If
and, reportedly, illicit yaba drug trafficking activities. For
such alliances coalesce, this could lead to a new phase of
its part, the new military-backed government is planning
zero-sum political conflict in Burma.
to build further economically and militarily strategic roads
and other facilities in the border areas, together with a series
In one of her most significant - and controversial - state-
of ‘special economic zones’, where manufacturing and oth-
ments since her release, Aung San Suu Kyi endorsed
er industries will be based. Local powerholders, including
the possibility of re-visiting one of the foundational
DKBA BGF commanders, are likely to be involved, if they
documents of Burma’s independence: the Panglong
continue to follow government instructions. Beyond the
agreement of 12 February 1947, under which leaders of
economic sphere, it remains uncertain whether the DKBA
some ethnic nationality communities (although not the
BGF will be able to articulate a version of Karen ethnic na-
Karen) agreed to join the Union of Burma. In line with a
tionalism, nor is it clear how much day-to-day control over
declaration produced before the election at Kale in Chin
their soldiers ex-DKBA commanders will enjoy. Rank-and-
State, she joined a number of ethnic nationality lead-
file soldiers may continue to defect from the DKBA, either
ers in calling for a ‘second Panglong conference’ to re-
to join the KNU/KNLA or to go back to their villages.121
negotiate the relationship between the central state and
Similar questions remain regarding the status and disposi-
Burma’s diverse ethnic nationalities.120 Calls for a ‘new
tion of the KPF BGF and the KNU/KNLA Peace Council,
Panglong’ symbolise the widespread dissatisfaction with
with the latter in particular having a very fragile relation-
Burma’s current political settlement felt by many ethnic
ship with the government following its refusal to become a
nationality communities. However, such ‘politics of the
BGF unit.
grand plan’ remain stuck in the 20th-century, and dem-
onstrate little in the way of the pragmatism and strategic
Conversely, the transformation of most DKBA units into
flexibility.
BGF battalions has in some ways been helpful to the KNU,
bolstering its position as the sole independent Karen
Meanwhile, some local NGO and CBO actors in Burma
armed group. However, the organisation remains in deep
are concerned that Aung San Suu Kyi and her supporters
crisis. By 2011, the KNU’s areas of control had been re-
may turn to activism in the civil society sector, follow-
duced to a substantial patch of territory in the hills north
ing the political de-registration of the NLD, as a result
of Papun (KNLA Third and Fifth Brigades), plus a few
of it not contesting the 2010 election. They are worried
enclaves along the Salween River (constituting Thailand-
that, if the NLD branches out into social work, this may
Burma border) and some forest bases in southern Karen
politicise the civil society sector, inviting unwanted at-
State and Tenasserim Region (KNLA Six and Fourth Bri-
tention from the state authorities and possibly under-
gades: see Map 3). Due to its lack of territorial control, the
mining existing relief and development activities.
KNU has only limited access to revenues from logging and
taxing the black market trade. Short of money, it thus lacks
ammunition and influence within the Thai security estab-
Despite such developments, the long-term prognosis for lishment, and its ability to resist Tatmadaw offensives is in
insurgency in the borderlands remained one of decline, decline.
especially given the unlikelihood of Thai (or further to
the north, Chinese) support for the resumption of large- Politically, the KNU also faces numerous challenges. In
scale armed conflict in Burma. Southeast Burma remains many areas, the organisation (and particularly the KNLA)
characterised by a complex patchwork of different military, is characterised by ‘neo-patrimonial’ practices, or outright
political and community-based organisations, reflecting warlordism. Often, the distinction between KNU finances
continuing state-society tensions. The humanitarian and and those of individual leaders and their families is blurred,
livelihoods situation for Karen and other civilians living in with some clans making a good living out of the tail-end of
these areas remains dire. armed conflict in the border areas.
45
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Notwithstanding this problem of corruption and the in- not only Karens, but Mons, Shans and other ethnic groups
stitutionalisation of insurgency, many of those remaining that have resisted Sen-Gen. Than Shwe’s state-building
in the front-line of ‘the revolution’ are deeply committed goals. Despite these frustrations, it is difficult to see how
to the struggle for self-determination in Burma, demon- the KNU can regain a leading role on the political stage,
strating levels of social and political solidarity not appar- unless there is a major change in politics at the national
ent within the DKBA. However, many senior leaders are level – a transformation over which the armed Karen na-
ageing and infirm, with some of the most talented cadres tionalist movement is likely to have little influence. Mean-
having left the organisation during the past two decades, in while, the KNU is likely to hang on along the Thailand
many cases to start new lives as refugees in third countries, border for some years to come. It is arguable that the per-
particularly the USA. Many of those who remain can be sistence of low-level insurgency in the Karen hills is wel-
characterised as ‘hardliners’, who mainly live in Thailand comed by at least some Tatmadaw commanders, providing
and are more interested in demonstrating their revolution- a pretext for continued militarisation of the borderlands.
ary credentials than in finding practical solutions to the di- As Duffield has noted,122 Tatmadaw strategists are experts
verse problems of the Karen communities in Burma. This at crisis management (i.e. rule by emergency decree and
lack of political imagination within the KNU leadership is the politics of punitive brinkmanship). They may therefore
demonstrated by its continued alliance with a range of bor- prefer to maintain a degree of instability and chaos in the
der-and exile-based opposition groups, most of which have borderlands. Ironically, therefore, Tatmadaw and KNU/
grown out of touch with the situation in Burma and have KNLA leaders may have a mutual interest in maintaining
limited understanding of issues facing the Karen people. the conditions of conflict.
In terms of continued relevance, the biggest challenge fac- Nevertheless, one of the biggest threats facing the KNU
ing the KNU is how to reach out to the wider Karen com- and its allies is the prospect of a major Tatmadaw offen-
munities. It is no coincidence that the last few KNU strong- sive. If the government launches such an operation, it will
holds are mostly populated by Christians and animists. If depend largely on domestic political calculations, and
it is to remain relevant to the majority of Karen people, the whether Than Shwe and other Tatmadaw commanders are
organisation needs to find ways of engaging with Buddhist committed to crushing the remnant KNU and disciplining
and Pwo-speaking communities. It also needs to reconnect non-BGF forces. While an all-out offensive may not com-
with Karen communities in Yangon, the Irrawaddy Delta pletely destroy the KNLA as a guerrilla army, it would fur-
and other parts of lower Burma, where a majority of Ka- ther undermine the KNU’s standing, causing further suf-
rens live. fering to civilian populations and forcing more people into
internal displacement or across the border into Thailand
At the same time, the persistence of insurgency in southeast as refugees. At the time of writing, in February 2011, some
Burma demonstrates the long-standing existence of wide- KNU leaders were predicting a major offensive against
spread dissatisfaction among minority communities. It is their organisation following the convening of Burma’s new
Karen couple in Irrawaddy Delta in temporary house after Cyclone Nargis (TK)
46
Karen Politics in a Time of Change
parliaments, while others expected Tatmadaw military op- diverse community, Karen political leaders should consid-
erations to be restricted to a few strategically important er forming coalitions of common interest and intra-com-
border areas. munity cooperation (consociational democracy).127 This
approach is likely to be more flexible than the ‘politics of
Meanwhile, the existence of refugee camps along the Thai- the grand plan’, which continues to characterise most op-
land border continues to facilitate the KNU’s ability to position groups in Burma. Rather than seeking ambitious
wage war in Burma. The camps provide a refuge for KNU ‘blueprint’ solutions to the country’s complex problems,
personnel and their families, legitimisation and some ma- political and community leaders should perhaps adopt a
terial support to the KNLA’s armed struggle.123 Developing more pragmatic approach, adapting their strategies to spe-
such ideas, Alan Kuperman124 warns of the consequences cific contexts and problems.
of “offering rhetorical and military support for armed se-
cessionists and revolutionaries in the name of fighting op- In this context, it is worth asking whether the November
pression and human rights … [which may be] well intend- 2010 election will introduce a new system of governance
ed [but] often backfires by emboldening rebels.” He uses in southeast Burma that involves a gradual transition away
the notion of ‘moral hazard’ (derived from economics) to from militarised rule. For the time being, the operating
describe the manner in which the prospect of humanitar- space available to the small number of independent can-
ian, military or political interventions by the international didates elected is limited and will, in the future, depend
community may embolden insurgents, thus underwriting in large part on the will of Sen. Gen. Than Shwe and other
armed conflict.125 It is however debatable whether the neg- senior military officials. The degree to which they are will-
ative consequences of providing assistance are outweighed ing to tolerate some independent political space in Karen
by the immediate need to help the victims of civil war in and other ethnic nationality-populated areas will depend,
Burma. Border-based humanitarian donors and organi- in turn, on whether the military can continue to control
sations may nevertheless be in violation of the ‘Do No the domestic political agenda, including pro-democracy
Harm’ doctrine,126 according to which aid agencies should groups symbolised by Aung San Suu Kyi.
ensure that their interventions do not inadvertently harm
intended beneficiaries by contributing to the continuance In a best case scenario, the Ploung-Sgaw Democracy Party
of Burma’s protracted armed conflicts. (PSDP) in Karen State, and the Karen Peoples Party (KPP)
elsewhere, may have some influence on areas of local pol-
If the future of the KNU’s state/nation-building project is icy and be able to participate in social welfare.128 This may
no longer viable, what are the alternatives? Over the past allow independent Karen voices some influence over the
decade, the DKBA has assumed a position of dominance formulation of humanitarian and development policies af-
in many Karen-populated areas, similar to that previously fecting their communities.
occupied by the KNU. The important difference is that
the DKBA shores up its limited sovereignty through pay- Although modest, such achievements could be important
ing actual and symbolic tribute to military government, in consolidating and strengthening a burgeoning civil so-
while the KNU looks to the international community as ciety sector. Although civil society actors can also become
a primary source of legitimacy. However, it seems un- patrons themselves in the game of power-politics, local
likely the government will allow the DKBA BGF to con- associations and leaders can nevertheless play important
solidate its power. The most likely scenario in the short roles in establishing the beginnings of a system of account-
to middle-term in conflict-affected areas of Karen State ability in certain conditions and localities. Such local de-
is one of continued fragmentation. The outlook for civil- velopment activities help to promote “social capital”,129 lo-
ians living in Karen areas therefore remains bleak. Further cal resilience, and networks of trust and mutual support,
humanitarian crises can be expected, at least until a po- providing limited amounts of protection to hard-pressed
litical settlement is reached, which at present is a remote civilian populations.130
prospect.
Ultimately, however, in the age of globalisation, more in-
After more than six decades of armed conflict, it seems un- fluential than the civil society and aid sectors will be the
likely that armed conflict can bring about positive change role of capital, and business more generally. Indeed, the
in Karen-populated areas. The most likely long-term result prospect of major infrastructure and other economic proj-
of continued fighting in the borderlands is that the Tat- ects in southeast Burma will radically alter the social and
madaw will ultimately defeat the KNU and allied armed political context, raising new challenges to Karen and other
groups, completing its domination and militarisation of ethnic nationality leaders to demonstrate their continued
previously semi-autonomous areas. Until this happens, relevance in this fast-changing region. For the present, the
the KNU will continue for some years to be able to launch inclusion of Karen interests, whether individual or institu-
guerrilla attacks. Given this impasse, it is important that tional, in national politics and economics remains limited
Karen armed groups seek mutual understanding starting and constrained. Until this is addressed, a new generation
at local levels, if they are to remain representative voices. of Karen grievances and state resistance cannot be ruled
Rather than any one organisation seeking to dominate this out.
47
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Conclusions
48
Footnotes
Footnotes (Phnom Penh, 2009); Justin Corbett, ALNAP Case Study No. 4:
Supporting Community-Based Emergency Response at Scale: in-
1 ‘Insurgency’ is used to mean guerrilla warfare, in support novations in the wake of Cyclone Nargis (2010).
of a political goal: Thomas Marks, Ideology of Insurgency: new
ethnic focus or old cold war distortions?, in ‘Small Wars and In- 20 For an overview of the ceasefires and associated social and
surgencies’ (Vol.15, No.1 Spring 2004). political issues, see Tom Kramer, Neither War nor Peace: the fu-
ture of the ceasefire agreements in Burma (Amsterdam, Transna-
2 New/Official Name Traditional/Former Name tional Institute July 2009).
Ayeyarwady Irrawaddy
Bago Pegu 21 In Mark Vincent & Birgitte Refslund Sorensen (eds), Caught
Dawei Tavoy between Borders: response strategies of the internally displaced
Hpa’an Paan (London & Sterling, Virginia; Pluto Press & Norwegian Refugee
Mawlamyine Moulmein Council 2001: 143).
Myeik Mergui
Pathein Bassein 22 According to the International Campaign to Ban Land-
Tanintharyi Tenasserim mines, in 2009 landmine incidents increased significantly, mak-
Taungoo Toungoo ing Burma one of the worst-affected countries in the world:
Yangon Rangoon Landmine Monitor: 2010 Myanmar/Burma Country Report
(Bangkok, November 2010). For an overview of the way in which
3 David Keen, Complex Emergencies (Cambridge, Polity state and non-state armed groups (and also sometimes civilians)
Press 2008: ch.4) analyses elites’ efforts to mobilise communities, use landmines, see Ashley South, with Malin Perhult and Nils
by appealing to notions of ethnicity - often in the process further- Carstensen, Conflict and Survival: self-protection in south-east
ing their own economic and political interests. Myanmar (Chatham House/Royal Institute of International Af-
fairs, September 2010).
4 Martin Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Eth-
nicity (Zed Books; second edition, London 1999: 45). 23 Ibid.
5 Ibid. 61. 24 This impression is derived from the author’s 20 years expe-
rience of working on political and human rights issues in Karen
6 ‘The Irrawaddy’ (March 2009). These figures are confirmed areas: Ashley South, Ethnic Politics in Burma: states of conflict
privately by senior KNLA commanders. (Routledge 2008).
7 Government of Burma, Burma 1983 Population Census 25 Alan Saw U, in N. Ganesan & Kyaw Yin Hlaing (eds), Myan-
(Rangoon, Central Administration Department 1986). mar: State, Society and Ethnicity (ISEAS, Singapore 2007: 222).
8 Martin Smith, ‘Burma: the Karen conflict’, in Joseph Rudolph 26 According to David Taw, by the early-1990s, “for the young-
Jr. (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Modern Ethnic Conflicts (Greenwood er, middle-level section of the KNU leadership it became clear
Press, London and Connecticut 2003: 10-11). that the burden of the conflict had become unbearable for the
Karen population in the conflict area. This group viewed the KIO
9 Karen National Union, ‘The struggle of KNU for justice’, in [ceasefire] decision sympathetically, feared the consequences
KNU Bulletin (Manerplaw, November 1986, No.7). for the Karen of further erosion of the KNU’s military position
and regretted the DAB’s lack of understanding concerning the
10 E.g. Benedict Rogers, A Land Without Evil (London, Mon- need for the ethnic armies to try to end the fighting in their ar-
arch Books/Christian Solidarity Worldwide 2004). eas. Meanwhile, reports of SLORC human rights abuses in Karen
areas were being used by the [Burmese opposition-in-exile] to
11 Mikael Gravers (ed.), Exploring Ethnic Diversity in Burma further undermine and discredit the SLORC and mobilize stron-
(NIAS Press 2007). ger international responses. However, there were foreign visitors
to the KNU who urged the KNU to consider a strategy of mini-
12 It is necessary to distinguish between Bengali Muslim com- mizing the impact of SLORC military superiority by entering
munities living in Karen-populated areas, and a small number of a ceasefire and relying on a more political strategy. There were
‘Black Karen’ Muslim groups, who identify themselves as ethnic also Karen leaders from inside Burma who visited the KNU as
Karens. self-appointed ‘mediators’, urging the KNU to try to find a way to
end the war. These non-KNU Karen ‘mediators’ were treated as
13 Kaw-thoo-lei may be variously translated as ‘the land SLORC stooges and given a very cool reception officially by the
burned black’ (by ‘slash-and-burn’ farming, or by warfare), ‘the KNU leadership although receiving quiet encouragement from
pure land’, ‘the old land’ or ‘the land of the thoo lei plant’. In 1947, the pro-ceasefire faction. In 1994 an officially sanctioned KNU
when the term was invented, Kawthoolei did not refer to a specif- working group - initiated by those responsible for the KNU’s for-
ic geographic area, but rather to a ‘symbolic space’ (Gravers 2007: eign relations - won support within the KNU to explore a ne-
245). gotiation initiative on the basis of the political advantage in be-
ing seen to be willing to ‘talk about talks’. Plans were laid for a
14 In addition, the KNLA deploys a number of Special Bat- delegation to go to Rangoon in the hope that such an initiative
talions, based in economically important border areas, whose could win international support. The intention was to mobilize
troops tend to be personally loyal to local commanders. international pressure for a new approach to the SLORC, recog-
nizing the need to open up some of the political issues (i.e. equal
15 The Tatmadaw assumed control of the state in a March 1962 rights, the right to self-determination and a move leading towards
coup d’état, led by General Ne Win. federalism) for discussion, rather than simply demanding the re-
moval of the SLORC … This move collapsed late in the year when
16 Amnesty International, Myanmar: Lack of Security in NCGUB leaders in New York pleaded with the KNU leadership
Counter-Insurgency Areas (July 2002); Karen Human Rights not to make such a move, which they saw as undermining their
Group, Self Protection under Strain: targeting of civilians and lo- own efforts at the UN to win decisive international action against
cal responses in northern Karen State (August 2010). the SLORC.” David Taw, Choosing to Engage: strategic consid-
erations for the Karen National Union, in ‘Choosing to Engage:
17 Smith (1999: 259). armed groups peace processes’ (Conciliation Resources/ Accord
Vol.16 2005).
18 Maung Aung Myoe, Building the Tatmadaw: Myanmar
armed forces since 1948 (Singapore, ISEAS 2009). 27 The popular desire for an end to the armed conflict was il-
lustrated by a photograph taken in October 2004 in Kawkareik
19 Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, Listening to Voices Township. The picture shows a gathering of over 1000 Karen
from Inside: Myanmar civil society’s response to Cyclone Nargis villagers in support of KNLA Sixth Brigade Commander, Mutu
49
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
(who became KNLA Commander-in-Chief that December), as 1988: near devolution, military occupation, and coexistence”.
he set off to join the ceasefire delegation. Several people were car-
rying makeshift banners, calling for an “end to the bloody war” 43 Paul Collier, Resource Rents, Governance, and Conflict
and proclaiming “we want peace in our country.” (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan 2005).
28 Since the late 1990s, the NCUB has been dominated by its 44 Keen (2008): ch.1.
General Secretary, Maung Maung, who has close relations with
anti-ceasefire elements within the KNU and other armed groups. 45 A variety of different positions in this debate are collected in
Jake Sherman & Karen Ballentine (eds), The Political Economy of
29 In a major policy shift, in 1984 the NDF changed its po- Armed Conflict: beyond greed and grievance (London, Rienner
sition from one of secessionism (i.e. the advocacy of outright 2003).
independence) to a demand for substantial autonomy within a
proposed Federal Union of Burma. This was an important change 46 Callahan (2007: xiii).
in emphasis: the military government had always accused the in-
surgents of scheming to wreck the Union. Now though, the ethnic 47 Mark Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars:
nationalists were aiming at a democratic, federal transformation the merging of development and security (Zed Books, London
of the union, rather than a total repudiation of the state of Bur- 2001).
ma.
48 Martin Smith, State of Strife: the Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict
30 Kayin is the Burmese exonym for the Karen. in Burma (Policy Studies 36. Washington, DC. East-West Center,
Washington 2007).
31 According to Gravers (2007: 229), throughout Burma Pwo
Karen communities tend to be disadvantaged compared to the 49 Smith (1999: 186).
Sgaw, whom the former generally perceive to be the dominant
sub-group. 50 In his Ph.D. Literate Networks and the Production of Sgaw
and Pwo Karen Writing in Burma, c.1830-1930 (SOAS, London
32 Myaing Nan Swe (trans. Shin Khay Meinda), Myainggye University 2005: 198), Will Womack notes that “the international
Ngu Sayadaw: a Jahan who shines the light of Dhama (Mann Ba press (popular and academic), cut off from meaningful contact
Nyunt Pe, Myaing Gyi Ngu Special Region, Karen State, August inside Burma’s borders, has been concerned primarily with the
1999) provides a very sympathetic account of the life of U Thu- largely KNU-oriented Karen diaspora in Thailand, Britain, and
zana, with many interesting details regarding the formation of the the United States. Yet for many years, the Karen communities in-
DKBA. side Burma have maintained their identity in the structures of
civil society.”
33 Amnesty International 2002, KHRG 2010.
51 Ardeth Maung Thawnghmung, The Karen Revolution in
34 Ashley South, Burma: The Changing Nature of Displace- Burma: diverse voices, uncertain ends (East-West Center, Wash-
ment Crises (Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford University, Work- ington, ‘Policy Studies No. 45’ 2008: 10).
ing Paper No.39 2007).
52 Mary Callahan adopts the ‘inside’/’outside’ dichotomy, to
35 A confidential DKBA document states that, in the case of describe these different modes of operation in regards to Burma.
the Karen BGF units, the maximum age limit is 45 years. For It should be noted that, particularly when discussing groups
other BGF formations, the age limit is 50. working in the fields of information and advocacy, this framing of
actors is not always helpful. In such contexts, it may be more use-
36 BGF battalions 1117, 1118, 1119 and 1120. ful to talk about networks crossing various (official and informal)
borders, with orientations towards nodes of international advo-
37 The Thai Ministry of Commerce is reportedly planning cacy, and/or more inclined towards accepting the government: in
a 189-hectare Special Economic Zone (SEZ), six miles from Susan Levenstein (ed.), Finding Dollars, Sense, and Legitimacy in
Myawaddy: “According to the MOC, border trade in the area ac- Burma (Washington, Woodrow Wilson International Centre for
counted for US $606 million in 2008, and it expects that the SEZ, Scholars, Asia Programme 2010: 73).
on which more than 100 warehouses have been constructed for
storage or factory use, would push that figure up to $1.2 billion 53 Alan Saw U, in Ganesan & Kyaw Yin Hlaing (2007: 219).
annually”: ‘The Irrawaddy’ (August 2010).
54 Ibid. (221).
38 On human rights abuses and forced displacement in con-
nection with railway and gas pipeline construction in Karen and 55 Ibid.
Mon populated areas of southeast Burma in the 1990s and since,
see Ashley South, Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: the 56 South (2008: 185).
Golden Sheldrake (London, Routledge Curzon 2003: 195-204).
57 Gravers (2007: Introduction).
39 Michael Aung-Thwin, Myth and History in the Historiogra-
phy of Early Burma: paradigms, primary sources, and prejudices 58 Some informants observe that the Taungalae sayadaw is
(Ohio University Centre for International Studies 1998: 158). close to the wife of Sen-Gen. Than Shwe.
40 In Stein Tonnesson & Hans Antlov (eds), Asian Forms of 59 The term is coined by Mark Duffield (2001: 191).
the Nation (Curzon 1996: 73-74).
60 South (2008: 166).
41 Ananda Raja, ‘Nationalism and the Nation-State: the Kar-
en in Burma and Thailand’, in G. Wijeyewardene (ed.), Ethnic 61 Other, semi-dormant, Karen political parties include the
Groups Across Boundaries in Mainland Southeast Asia (Singa- Union Karen League, established by Delta Karen in 1946 (offi-
pore, ISEAS 1996); ‘A “Nation of Intent” in Burma: Karen ethno- cially dissolved in September 2010), and the Karen National Con-
nationalism, nationalism and narrations of nation’, in The Pacific gress for Democracy, founded in 1989.
Review (Vol.15, No.4 2002).
62 Transnational Institute and Burma Centrum Nederland,
42 For a typography of ceasefire administrations, see Mary A Changing Ethnic Landscape: Analysis of Burma’s 2010 Polls,
Callahan, Political Authority in Burma’s Ethnic Minority States: Burma Policy Briefing No.4, December 2010.
Devolution, Occupation and Coexistence (East-West Center,
Washington, ‘Policy Studies’ No. 21 2007: xiii-xiv), who identi- 63 ‘The Irrawaddy’ (27-11-2010).
fies three “patterns of relationship between the national state and
locally-based, often non-state actors [that] have emerged since 64 The State PDC chairman, Brig-Gen Zaw Min, was appoint-
50
Footnotes
ed Kayin State Chief Minister: Euro Burma Office, Political Moni- plaw, July 1992: 13-14); this document, recently re-endorsed by
tor No.7 (12-18 February 2011). the Central Executive Committee, provides an overview of the
KNU’s notions of Karen origins and history, and its propaganda
65 UNDP, UNOPS, Ministry of National Planning and Eco- and ideological positions.
nomic Development, Integrated Household and Living Condi-
tions Survey in Myanmar: Millennium Development Goals rel- 86 Ibid.
evant information (Yangon, June 2007).
87 Gravers (2007: 250).
66 Cited by Mark Duffield, On the Edge of ‘No Man’s Land’:
Chronic Emergency in Myanmar (independent report commis- 88 South (2008: 109-13).
sioned by the Office of the UN RC/HC, Yangon and UNOCHA,
New York; published by Centre for Governance and International 89 Taw (2005).
Affairs, University of Bristol, Working Paper No. 01-2008).
90 South et al (2010).
67 Ibid.
91 On the politics of legitimacy in Burma, see David Steinberg,
68 South (2007). Turmoil in Burma: contested legitimacies in Myanmar (Connect-
icut, EastBridge 2007).
69 TBBC (Program Report: July to December 2009, Bangkok
2010). 92 South (2008: Ch.1).
76 For an overview of which, see Silvie Caverzasio (ed)., 99 Smith (1999: Appendix), Gravers (2007).
Strengthening Protection in War: a search for professional stan-
dards (ICRC Geneva 2001). 100 Martin Smith (1999: Appendix) recounts how the Telecon
attacked a Burma Army outpost in Kyaikto in 1967, after first giv-
77 South et al (2010). ing the garrison there a written warning. As this was not taken
seriously, the Telecon force was able to kill several government
78 Since the 1980s, the mandala model has become a standard soldiers. However, when the attackers returned, twenty-four were
trope of Southeast Asian studies. As such, it is ripe for critical re- killed by the Tatmadaw.
evaluation.
101 This incident was blamed on God’s Army, but was in fact
79 Oliver Wolters, Culture and Region in Southeast Asian Per- instigated by the shadowy Vigorous Burmese Student Warriors,
spectives (Singapore, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 1982). whose mainly ethnic Burman members had taken refuge with the
twins and their followers, before taking over the hospital (and ul-
80 In the case of Burma, Mikael Gravers has described how timately being killed by the Thai security forces).
such patterns persisted in Karen populated areas of southeast
Burma into the colonial era, under the British system of ‘indirect 102 South (2008: ch.5).
rule’: Nationalism as Political Paranoia in Burma: an essay on the
historical practice of power (Curzon 1999). 103 The Peace Council’s Karen Relief and Development Com-
mittee also provided some assistance to the victims of Cyclone
81 Smith (1999: 171-5). Nargis: KRDC, Rebuilding Our Nation (report, 2010).
82 James Scott, The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist 104 Karen Human Rights Group, Protection concerns expressed
History of Upland Southeast Asia (Yale University Press 2009). by civilians amidst conflict in Dooplaya and Pa’an districts (No-
vember 2010).
83 Willem van Schendel, ‘Geographies of knowing, geogra-
phies of ignorance: jumping scale in Southeast Asia,’ in Develop- 105 This impression is derived from the author’s 20 years expe-
ment and Planning D: Society and Space (20, 2002: 647–68). rience of working on political and human rights issues in Karen
areas (see South 2008, South at al 2010).
84 KNU (1986: 3-4); this publication also rehearses the suppos-
edly age-old antipathy between the Karen and Burman peoples. 106 International human rights and humanitarian law provide
little recognition for the role of non-state armed groups as protec-
85 KNU, The Karens and Their Struggle for Freedom (Maner- tion actors. However, many Karen civilian populations do regard
51
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
the KNU as an organisation which protects them - although in 123 As Edward Luttwak notes, the existence of refugee camps
other cases, the Karen insurgency is seen as part of the problem. can sustain warrior “nations intact [preserving] their resentments
the KNU and all the armed groups, including the Tatmadaw, have forever … [as well as] inserting material aid into ongoing conflict
over the years planted landmines, used child soldiers, demanded ... By intervening to help, NGOs systematically impede the prog-
arbitrary taxes and exercised extra-judicial executions and other ress of their enemies towards a decisive victory that could end of
punishments (South et al 2010). the war”: ‘Give War a Chance’, in Foreign Affairs (Vol.78, No.4,
July/August 1999: 43).
107 Transnational Institute and Burma Centrum Nederland,
Ethnic Politics in Burma: The Time for Solutions, Burma Policy 124 Alan Kuperman, The Limits of Humanitarian Intervention:
Briefing No.5, February 2011. genocide in Rwanda (Washington DC, Brookings Institution
Press 2001: viii).
108 These casualties were under the command of Nay Soe Mya,
youngest son of the late Gen. Bo Mya, who had defected from the 125 For example, the KNU’s 1993 decision to not pursue cease-
KNU in March 2009, and unlike Htein Maung wanted to join the fire negotiations with the Burmese military government was due
BGF or form a pro-government militia group. to expectations - strongly promoted by Burmese opposition poli-
ticians in exile - that the international community would support
109 The situation of the KNU/KNLA Peace Council was compli- a strategy of continued armed conflict (Taw 2005).
cated by the fact that one of its founding leaders (Pastor Timothy)
had become dissatisfied with the relationship with the govern- 126 According to the influential ‘Do No Harm’ doctrine, hu-
ment, and in 2010 issued a series of statements from outside the manitarian agencies should seek to minimise the negative impacts
country, criticising the SPDC, and in particular the BGF transfor- that can arise from the provision of assistance - for example, the
mation. These inflammatory statements served to raise tensions empowerment of conflict actors or distortion of local markets:
between his colleagues back in Burma and the Tatmadaw (see for Mary Anderson, Do No Harm: supporting local capacities for
example Peace Council statement, 23 August 2010: A Need For peace through aid (Local Capacities for Peace Project, The Col-
Urgency – threat of armed attack within one week). Along the laborative for Development Action, Cambridge 1996).
border, rumour had it that the Peace Council had in fact signed a
secret BGF agreement with the government in November. 127 The main elements of consociational democracy are rule by
a ‘grand coalition’ of elites (representing the different segments
110 Some KPF soldiers preferred to form a local militia (pyi thu of a society), the provision of minority vetoes, proportional rep-
sit), a status which gave them more operational independence resentation in decision-making and social sectors (and in alloca-
than the BGF. About 10 KPF militiamen were disarmed by the tion of funds and services) and segmental autonomy - or federal-
Tatmadaw following the events of November 2010 (see below). ism. The basic idea is that, if co-operation and good-will can be
achieved between elites, then ‘unity in diversity’ may be accepted,
111 UN General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on and even celebrated: Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societ-
the situation of human rights in Myanmar (A/65/368, 15 Septem- ies: a comparative exploration (Yale UP 1977).
ber 2010).
128 In January 2011 the PSDP’s Saw Thein Aung was among the
112 UN General Assembly (Progress report of the Special Rap- five presidential and vice-presidential candidates nominated by
porteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar, Tomás the new parliament.
Ojea Quintana, A/HRC/13/48, 10 March 2010).
129 Robert Putnam uses the term ‘social capital’ to refer “to fea-
113 With China (and probably also Russia) likely to exercise tures of social organisation, such as trust, norms, and networks,
their vetoes, the UN Security Council is unlikely to endorse a that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating coor-
Commission of Inquiry. The UN Secretary General has indicated dinated actions”: Making Democracy Work: civic traditions in
that he would take his lead from member states rather than act- modern Italy (Princeton, Princeton University Press 1993: 167).
ing on his own authority in this matter; the General Assembly has
no practice of establishing such commissions other than to look 130 South et al (2010).
at internal UN administrative matters; and it is not clear that a
majority of the Human Rights Council would vote in favour of 131 Recent reports by the TBBC and its partners (e.g. Protracted
such a measure. Displacement and Chronic Poverty in Eastern Burma/Myanmar,
Bangkok 2010) attempt to redress this imbalance. However, such
114 Elements of this non-BGF compliant DKBA brigade, led by research is still carried out by parties closely associated with the
battalion commander Lt-Col. Kyaw Thet, had briefly occupied armed conflict.
parts of Myawaddy, and surrounded the police station, in Sep-
tember. 132 South et al (2010).
115 Nukes Mweh was quoted in The Irrawaddy as saying “I am a 133 As Alex de Waal has noted, Western political and humani-
DKBA soldier and will fight for my people… if they [the govern- tarian actors tend to assume that conflict-affected countries such
ment] tell me to give them my weapons and badge, I will never as Burma “ought to resemble European model states” in the ways
hand them over” (7 August 2010). that authority and legitimacy are derived. However the reality in
much of Burma today, as the Karen struggle demonstrates, is that
116 At Three Pagodas Pass DKBA units were joined by KNU many local power-holders do not subscribe to Western, liberal
troops from KNLA 6 Brigade. democratic ideologies: Protecting Civilians in Fragile States (mss:
Presentation to Oxfam-Novib, The Hague, 21-9-2009).
117 KHRG (November 2010).
52
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
Other TNI-BCN Publications on Burma
AMRDP All Mon Regions Democracy Party
Ethnic Politics in Burma: The Time for Solutions
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations TNI-BCN Burma Policy Briefing No. 5, February 2011
BGF Border Guard Force
CBO Community Based Organisation A Changing Ethnic Landscape:
CPB Communist Party of Burma Analysis of Burma's 2010 Polls
DAB Democratic Alliance of Burma TNI-BCN Burma Policy Briefing No. 4, December
2010
DKBA Democratic Karen (Kayin) Buddhist Army
DKBO Democratic Karen (Kayin) Buddhist Unlevel Playing Field: Burma’s Election Landscape
Organisation TNI-BCN Burma Policy Briefing No. 3, October 2010
ENC Ethnic Nationalities Council
GONGO Government-Organised NGO Burma’s 2010 Elections:
Challenges and Opportunities
IDP Internally Displaced Persons
TNI-BCN Burma Policy Briefing No.2, June 2010
KDC Karen Development Committee
KDN Karen Development Network Burma in 2010: A Critical Year in Ethnic Politics
KIO Kachin Independence Organisation TNI-BCN Burma Policy Briefing No.1, June 2010
KNDO Karen National Defence Organisation
KNLA Karen National Liberation Army Strengthening Civil Society in Burma
Possibilities and Dilemmas for International NGOs
KNU Karen National Union
Edited by Burma Center Netherlands (BCN) and
KPF Karen Peace Force Transnational Institute (TNI)
KPMG Karen Peace Mediator Group Silkworm Books, Chiangmai, 1999
KPP Karen (Kayin) Peoples Party
KSDDP Karen (Kayin) State Democracy and
Development Party
Other TNI Publications on Burma
KRC Karen Refugee Committee
NCUB National Council of the Union of Burma Alternative Development or Business as Usual?
NDF National Democratic Front China’s Opium Substitution Policy in Burma and
NDF National Democracy Force Laos
NLD National League for Democracy TNI Drug Policy Briefing No. 33, November 2010
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
Burma’s Cease-fires at Risk
NMSP New Mon State Party Consequences of the Kokang Crisis for Peace and
PSDP Ploung-Sgaw Democracy Party Democracy
PVA Peoples Vigorous Association Tom Kramer, TNI Peace & Security Briefing Nr 1, Sep-
RTG Royal Thai Government tember 2009
SLORC State Law and Order Restoration Council
Neither War nor Peace
SPDC State Peace and Development Council
The Future of the Cease-fire Agreements in Burma
SSPP/SSA Shan State Progress Party / Shan State Tom Kramer, TNI, July 2009
Army-North
TBBC Thailand Burma Border Consortium From Golden Triangle to Rubber Belt?
[BBC - Burmese Border Consortium] The Future of the Opium Bans in the Kokang and
UNFC United Nationalities Federal Council Wa Regions
Tom Kramer, TNI Drug Policy Briefing No.29, July
USDA Union Solidarity and Development
2009
Association
USDP Union Solidarity and Development Party Withdrawal Symptoms in the Golden Triangle
UWSA United Wa State Army A Drugs Market in Disarray
Tom Kramer, Martin Jelsma, Tom Blickman, TNI, Janu-
ary 2009
53
Burma’s Longest War - Anatomy of the Karen Conflict
Political grievances among Karen and other ethnic nationality communities, which have driven over half-a-
century of armed conflict in Burma/Myanmar, remain unresolved. As the country enters a period of transi-
tion following the November 2010 elections and formation of a new government, the Karen political land-
scape is undergoing its most significant changes in a generation.There is a pressing need for Karen social and
political actors to demonstrate their relevance to the new political and economic agendas in Burma, and in
particular to articulate positions regarding the major economic and infrastructure development projects to
be implemented in the coming years.
The country's best-known insurgent organisation, the Karen National Union (KNU), is in crisis, having lost
control of its once extensive 'liberated zones’, and lacks a political agenda relevant to all Karen communities.
Meanwhile the government's demand that ceasefire groups, such as the Democratic Karen Buddhist Army,
transform into Border Guard Forces under direct Burma Army control throws into question the future of
various armed groups that have split from the KNU since the 1990s. In this context, Thailand-Burma border
areas have seen an upsurge in fighting since late 2010. Nevertheless, the long-term prospect is one of the
decline of insurgency as a viable political or military strategy.
Equitable solutions to Burma's social, political and economic problems must involve settling long-standing
conflicts between ethnic communities and the state. While Aung San Suu Kyi, the popular leader of the
country's democracy movement, seems to recognise this fact, the military government, which holds most
real power in the country, has sought to suppress and assimilate minority communities. It is yet to be seen
whether Karen and other ethnic nationality representatives elected in November 2010 will be able to find
the political space within which to exercise some influence on local or national politics. In the meantime, civil
society networks operating within and between Karen and other ethnic nationality communities represent
vehicles for positive, incremental change, at least at local levels.
This joint TNI-BCN project aims to stimulate strategic thinking on addressing ethnic conflict in Burma and
to give a voice to ethnic nationality groups who have until now been ignored and isolated in the international
debate on the country. In order to respond to the challenges of 2010 and the future, TNI and BCN believe
it is crucial to formulate practical and concrete policy options and define concrete benchmarks on progress
that national and international actors can support. The project will aim to achieve greater support for a dif-
ferent Burma policy, which is pragmatic, engaged and grounded in reality.
The Transnational Institute (TNI) was founded in 1974 as an independent, international research and policy
advocacy institute, with strong connections to transnational social movements and associated intellectuals
concerned to steer the world in a democratic, equitable, environmentally sustainable and peaceful direction.
Its point of departure is a belief that solutions to global problems require global cooperation.
Burma Center Netherlands (BCN) was founded in 1993. It works towards democratisation and respect for
human rights in Burma. BCN does this through information dissemination, lobby and campaign work, and
the strengthening of Burmese civil society organisations. In recent years the focus has shifted away from
campaigning for economic isolation towards advocacy in support of civil society and a solution to the ethnic
crises in Burma.
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