Transitivity of preference – An assumption
made in order to convert paired comparison
data to rank order data. It implies that if brand
A is preferred to brand B and brand B is
preferred to brand C, then brand A is preferred
to brand C.
Forced scale – A rating scale that forces the
respondents to express an opinion because ‘no
opinion’ or ‘no knowledge’ option is not
provided.
Non-forced scale – A rating scale which
includes a ‘no opinion’ category is used where
the respondents are expected to have no
opinions, as opposed to simply being reluctant
to disclose it. A non-forced scale may improve
the data accuracy.
Likert scale – A measurement scale with five
response categories ranging from ‘strongly
disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’, which requires
the respondents to indicate a degree of
agreement or disagreement with each of a
series of statements related to the stimulus
objects.
Sementic differential scale – It is a 7-point
rating scale to rate objects, bounded at each
end by one of two bipolar adjectives, such as
‘cold’ and ‘warm’.
Funnel approach – A strategy for ordering
questions in a questionnaire in which the
sequence starts with general questions that are
followed by progressively specific questions in
order to prevent specific questions from
biasing general questions.
Implicit alternative – It is an alternative that
is not explicitly expressed in the options.
Making an implied alternative explicit may
increase the percentage of people selecting
that alternative.
Implicit assumption – It is the assumption,
which is not stated in the question. Questions
should not be worded so that the answer is
dependent upon implicit assumptions about
what will happen as a consequence.
Quota sampling – A non-probability sampling
technique that is a two-stage restricted
judgmental sampling. The first stage consists
of developing control categories or quotas of
population elements. In the second stage,
sample elements are selected based on
convenience or judgment.
Judgement sampling – A form of convenience
sampling in which the population elements are
purposely selected based on the judgment of
the researcher.
Simple random sampling – A probability
sampling technique in which each element in
the population has a known and equal
probability of selection. Every element is
selected independently of every other element
and the sample is drawn by a random
procedure from a sampling frame.
Standard error – The standard deviation of the
sampling distribution of the mean or
proportion, and not to a sample or a
population.
Sampling distribution – The distribution of the
values of a sample statistic computed for each
possible sample that could be drawn from the
target population under a specified sampling
plan.
Incidence rate – The rate of occurrence of
persons eligible to participate in the study
expressed as a %.
Completion rate – The percentage of qualified
respondents who complete the interview. It
enables researchers to take into account
anticipated refusals by people who qualify.
Probing – A motivational technique used when
asking survey questions to induce the
respondents to enlarge on, clarify, or explain
their answers and to help the respondents to
focus on the specific content of the interview.
Power of a test – It is the probability of
rejecting a null hypothesis when it is in fact
false and should be rejected.
Cramer’s V – It is a measure of strength of
association used in tables larger than 2 X 2 and
is obtained by adjusting phi for either the
number of rows or the number of columns in
the table, based on which of the two is
smaller.
Measures of location – It is a statistic that
describes a location within a data set.
Measures of central tendency describe the
center of the distribution.
Coefficient of variation – It is the ratio of the
standard deviation to the mean, expressed as a
percentage, and it is a unitless measure of
relative variability.
Skewness of a distribution – It is a tendency of
the deviations from the mean to be larger in
one direction than in the other, ie. it assesses
its symmetry about the mean.
Covariates – These are the metric independent
variables used in ANCOVA.
Factors – These are the categorical or
nonmetric independent variables used in
ANOVA.
Coefficient of determination – The strength
of association is measured by the coefficient of
determination (r2), which varies between 0 & 1
and signifies the proportion of the total
variation in Y that is occurred by the variation
in X.
Analysis sample – It is that part of the total
sample which is used for estimation of the
discriminant function.
Validation sample – It is that part of the total
sample which is used to check the results of
the estimation sample.
Hit ratio – It is the percentage of cases,
correctly classified by the discriminant
analysis.
Letter of authorization – It is a letter written
by the client to the researcher before work on
the project begins, which authorizes the
researcher to proceed with the project and
specifies its scopes and the terms of contract.
Precision level & Confidence interval
When estimating a population parameter by
using a sample statistic, the precision level is
the desired size of the estimating interval. This
is the maximum permissible difference
between the sample statistic and the
population parameter. During calculation,
precision level is represented by ‘D’.
The confidence interval is the range into which
the true population parameter will fall,
assuming a given level of confidence.
Parameters & Statistics
A parameter is a summary description of a
fixed characteristic or measure of the target
population. A parameter denotes the true
value that would be obtained if a census rather
than a sample were undertaken.
A statistic is a summary description of
characteristic or measure of the sample. The
sample statistic is used as an estimate of
population parameter.
Phi coefficient & Contingency coefficient
Phi coefficient ( is used as a measure of the
strength of association in the special case of a
table with two rows and two columns (a 2 X 2
table). The phi coefficient is proportional to
the square root of the chi-square statistic. For
a sample size n, this statistic is calculated as
Under root ofn
Contingency coefficient (C is used to assess
the strength of association in a table of any
size, in which the value varies between 0 to 1.
This index is also related to chi-square, as
follows
C= Under root ofn
ANOVA, ANCOVA & MANOVA
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical
technique for examining the differences among
means for two or more populations. The null
hypothesis, typically, is that all means are
equal. In its simplest form, analysis of variance
must have a dependent variable that is metric
and must also be one or more independent
variables, which are categorical.
Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) is a statistical
technique of variance procedure in which the
set of independent variables consists of both
categorical and metric variables. In this
technique, the effects of one or more metric-
scaled extraneous variables are removed from
the dependent variable before conducting the
ANOVA.
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is
similar to ANOVA, except that instead of one
metric dependent variable, there are two or
more. MANOVA is concerned with examining
differences between groups, and examines
group differences across multiple dependent
variables simultaneously.
Product-moment correlation efficient
This is a statistic which is used to summarize
the strength of association between two metric
variables. The product moment correlation is
denoted by r and it is an index used to
determine whether a linear, or straight-line,
relationship exists between the metric
variables, for eg. X and Y. It indicates the
degree to which the variation in one variable,
X, is related to the variation in another
variable, Y.
Randomized block design
It is a type of statistical design in which the
test units are blocked or grouped by the
researcher, on the basis of a single external
variable, to ensure that the various
experimental and control groups are matched
closely on that variable. In this type of design,
the researcher must be able to identify and
measure the blocking variable. Generally
randomized block designs are more useful than
completely random designs.
Interval scale & Ratio scale Simple random sampling & Systematic Constant sum scale & Other comparative
Interval scale Ratio scale sampling rating scales
1. In this scale, 1. In this scale, we
numerically equal can identify or Simple random Systematic sampling Constant sum scale Other comparative
distances on the classify objects, rank sampling rating scales
scale represent the objects and 1. It is a type of 1. It is a type of 1. It is a type of 1. Other
equal values in the compare intervals or probability sampling probability sampling comparative scaling comparative scaling
characteristic differences. technique in which technique in which technique in which techniques enable
being measured. every element in the sample is chosen respondents are respondents to
2. This scale 2. This scale the population is by selecting a required to allocate a select or rank from
contains all the possesses all the selected random starting point constant sum of units several objects or
information of an properties of the independently of and then picking such as points, sort the given
ordinal scale. nominal, ordinal & every other element every i-th element in dollars, chits, stickers objects based on
interval scales. and the sample is succession from the or chips among a set similarities,
3. In this scale, the 3. In this scale, the drawn by a random sampling frame. of stimulus objects according to some
location of zero zero point is fixed and procedure from a with respect to some criterion.
point is not fixed absolute. sampling frame. criterion.
and arbitrary. 2. Each element in 2. Only the 2. The main 2. The main
4. Attitudes, 4. Sales, costs, the population has a permissible samples advantage of the advantage of other
opinions, index market share, number known and equal of size ‘n’ that can constant sum scale is comparative scales
numbers etc. can of customers etc. can probability of be drawn have a that it allows for finer is that they allow
be measured. be measured. selection. known and equal discrimination among direct comparison &
probability of stimulus objects measuring the
Comparative & Non-comparative scales selection. without requiring too preferences.
Comparative scale Non-comparative 3. Random numbers 3. The sampling much time.
scale are generated to interval ‘i’ is 3. Respondents may 3. Respondents can
determine which determined by allocate more or specifically select
1. It is a type of 1. It is a type of elements to include dividing the fewer units than or rank the given
scaling technique in scaling technique in in the sample. population size ‘N’ those specified. objects.
which there is which each stimulus by the sample size 4. The use of a large 4. Other
direct comparison object is scaled ‘n’ and rounding to number of units may comparative scaling
of stimulus objects independently of the the nearest integer. be too taxing on the techniques are
with one another. other objects in the 4. It may or may not 4. It can be used to respondent and cause easier for
stimulus set. result in a obtain a more confusion and respondents to
representative representative and fatigue. respond.
2. It is also referred 2. It is also referred
sample. reliable sample.
to as non-metric to as monadic or
scale. metric scale.
Stratified sampling & Cluster sampling Univariate & multivariate techniques
3. The resulting 3. The resulting data
data must be are generally Stratified Cluster sampling Univariate Multivariate
interpreted in assumed to be sampling techniques techniques
relative terms and interval or ratio 1. It is a type of 1. It is a type of 1. These statistical 1. These statistical
have only ordinal or scaled. probability probability sampling techniques are techniques are
rank order sampling technique in which the appropriate for suitable for
properties. technique that target population is first analyzing data when analyzing data
4. It includes paired 4. It can be uses a two-step divided into mutually there is a single when there are two
comparisons, rank continuous rating or process to exclusive & collectively measurement of each or more
order, constant sum itemized rating partition the exhaustive element in the measurements on
scales, Q-sort and scales. The itemized population into subpopulations, or sample or if there are each element and
other procedures. rating scales can be subpopulations, clusters. Then a random several measurements the variables are
further classified as or strata. sample of clusters is on each element but analyzed
Likert, semantic Elements are selected. For each each variable is simultaneously.
differential or staple selected from selected cluster, either analyzed in isolation.
scales. each stratum by a all the elements are 2. These techniques 2. These techniques
random included in the sample focus on levels concentrate on the
procedure. or a sample of elements (averages) and degree of
is drawn distributions relationships
Semantic differential scale & Stapel scale probabilistically. (variances) of the (correlations or
2. In this type, all 2. In this type, only a phenomena. covariances) among
Semantic Stapel scale the sample of the phenomena.
differential scale subpopulations subpopulations 3. This techniques are 3. These techniques
1. It is a 7-point 1. It is a scale for (strata) are (clusters) is chosen. concerned about how are concerned with
rating scale with measuring attitudes selected for the data are treated the simultaneous
endpoints that consists of a further sampling. for the purpose of relationships among
associated with single adjective in the 3. Major 3. Major objective is to analysis, and not how two or more
bipolar labels that middle of an even- objective is to increase sampling the data are phenomena.
have semantic numbered range of increase precision efficiency by decreasing collected.
meaning. values, from -5 to +5, without costs. 4. These techniques 4. These techniques
without a neutral increasing cost. are classified based are classified as
point (zero). 4. The elements 4. The elements within on whether the data dependence
2. It is used in 2. Among the three within a stratum a cluster should be as are metric or techniques or
comparing brands, itemized rating scales, should be as heterogeneous as nonmetric. interdependence
products & it is used the least. homogeneous as possible, but the techniques.
company images. possible, but the clusters themselves
3. The data are 3. The data can be elements in should be as
collected through collected through different strata homogeneous as
personal interview. personal interview, should be as possible.
and also over heterogeneous as
telephone. possible.
4. The scale is 4. The scale is usually
usually presented presented vertically.
horizontally.
 Purposes of questionnaire & observation
Parametric & non-parametric tests Regression & discriminant analysis forms

Parametric tests Non-parametric Regression Discriminant analysis Any questionnaire has three specific objectives
tests analysis or purposes:
1. These are the 1. These are the 1. It is a statistical 1. It is a technique for I. It must translate the information needed
hypothesis-testing hypothesis-testing procedure for analyzing marketing into a set of specific questions that the
procedures that procedures that analyzing research data when respondents can and will answer.
assume that the assume that the associative the criterion or Developing questions that respondents
variables of interest variables of interest relationships dependent variable is can and will answer and that will yield
are measured on are measured on a between a metric categorical and the the desired information.
atleast an interval nominal or ordinal dependent variable predictor or II. A questionnaire must uplift, motivate &
scale. scale. and one or more independent variables encourage the respondent to become
2. These tests are 2. These tests are independent are interval in nature. involved in the interview, to cooperate
used when the used when the variables. and to complete the interview. A well
independent variables independent 2. Its objective is 2. Its objective is to designed questionnaire can motivate the
are metric. variables are to determine develop discriminant respondents and increase the response
nonmetric. whether the functions or linear rate.
3. These tests provide 3. These tests independent combinations of the III. A questionnaire should minimize response
inferences for making provide inferences variables explain a predictor or error. A questionnaire can be a major
statements about the for making significant independent variables, source of response error, when
means of parent comparisons about variation in the which will best respondents give inaccurate answers or
populations. the differences of dependent variable discriminate between their answers are mis-recorded or mis-
parent populations. and whether a the categories of the analyzed. Minimizing these errors is an
4. For examining 4. For examining relationship exists. criterion or dependent important objective of questionnaire
hypothesis about differences in variable (groups). design.
means, t-test is the proportions, the 3. It is used to 3. It is used to
most popular. chi-square test is determine how examine whether Overcoming unwillingness to answer in the
used. much of the significance questionnaire development
variation in the differences exist
Frequency distribution & cross-tabulation dependent variable among the dependent Even if respondents are able to answer a
can be explained variables (groups), in particular question, they may be unwilling to
by the terms of the predictor answer the question because of various
Frequency Cross tabulation
independent or independent reasons. Following techniques may be applied
distribution
variables, ie. the variables. to overcome the unwillingness of respondents
1. It is a 1. It is a statistical
strength of the to answer a question:
mathematical technique that
relationship. To reduce the effort required by the
distribution whose describes two or
4. It predicts the 4. It evaluates the respondents: The researcher should provide
objective is to obtain more variables
values of the accuracy of options, where too many things are to be
a count of the simultaneously.
criterion. classification. remembered by the respondent.
number of responses
To suit the question with a specific context:
associated with
The researcher can manipulate the context in
different values of
Scale categories used in an itemized rating which the questions are asked so that the
one variable.
scale questions seem appropriate.
2. The relative 2. It is the merging
Two conflicting considerations are involved in To prove the legitimate purpose of a question:
occurrence or of the frequency
deciding the number of scale categories. The The researcher explaining why the data are
frequency is distribution of two
greater the number of scale categories, the needed can make the request for the info seem
expressed in or more variables in
finer the discrimination among stimulus objects legitimate and increase respondent’s
percentage. a single table.
that is possible. On the other hand, most willingness to answer.
3. The frequency data 3. These data are Regarding sensitive information: Sensitive
may be used to qualitative or respondents cannot handle more than a few
categories. Though there is no single optimal topics should be placed at the end of the
construct a histogram categorical data, questionnaire, because by then, initial mistrust
or a vertical bar because each number of categories, it is suggested that the
appropriate number of categories should be has been overcome, rapport has been created
chart. variable is assumed and the legitimacy of the project has been
to have only a seven + two, between five & nine. Following
factors should be taken into account in established. Regarding financial topics, the
nominal scale. question should be prefaced with a statement
4. Most commonly 4. The strength of deciding on the number of categories:
Knowledge & interest: If the respondents are that the behavior of interest is common.
used statistics association of cross-
associated with tabulated variables interested in the scaling task and are
knowledgeable about the objects, a larger Individual questionnaire content
frequencies are can be measured by Once the information needed is specified and
Measures of location, chi-square, phi number of categories may be employed. If not,
fewer categories should be used. the type of interviewing method decided, the
measures of correlation next step is to determine individual question
variability & measures coefficient, Nature of the object: Some objects do not lend
themselves to fine discrimination, so a small content. There are two aspects while
of shape. contingency determining the question content.
coefficient, number of categories is sufficient.
Mode of data collection: For telephone Necessity of the question: Every question in a
Cramer’s V and the questionnaire should contribute to the
lambda coefficient. interviewing, many categories may confuse the
respondents. Likewise, space limitations may information needed or serve specific purpose.
restrict the number of categories in mail If there is no satisfactory use for the data
Analysis of variance & analysis of resulting from a question, that question should
covariance questionnaire.
Data analysis: In situations where several scale be eliminated. It is useful to ask some neutral
items are added together to produce a single questions at the beginning of the questionnaire
ANOVA ANCOVA to establish involvement and rapport,
score for each respondent, five categories are
1. It is a statistical 1. It is an advanced particularly when the topic of the
sufficient. The same is applied if the
technique for analysis of variance questionnaire is sensitive or controversial.
researcher wishes to make a broad
examining the procedure in which Sometimes filler questions are asked to
generalizations or group comparisons.
differences among the effects of one or disguise the purpose or sponsorship of the
Statistical techniques: If individual responses
means for two or more metric-scaled project. At times, certain questions may be
are of interest or the data will be analyzed by
more populations. extraneous variables duplicated for assessing reliability or validity.
sophisticated statistical techniques, seven or
are removed from Necessity of several questions: Once we
more categories may be required.
the dependent become sure that the question is necessary, it
Correlation coefficient: The size of the
variable before is also to be ensured that it is sufficient to get
correlation coefficient, a common measure of
conducting ANOVA. the desired information. Sometimes, several
relationship between variables, is influencedby
2. Its independent 2. Its independent questions are necessary to obtain the required
the number of scale categories. The correlation
variables should be variables consist of information. Double-barreled questions, i.e. a
coefficient decreases with reduction in number
categorical. both categorical & single question that attempts to cover two
of categories.
metric variables. different issues, should be avoided; as such
3. The variation is 3. The covariation is questions can be confusing to respondents and
measured in terms measured by F result in ambiguous responses. Most ‘why’
of the sum of statistics. questions about the use of a product or choice
squares corrected alternative involve two aspects: (1) attributes
for the mean (SS). of the product, and (2) influences leading to
prior knowledge of that product.
Steps involved in designing a questionnaire General procedures for hypothesis testing Commonly used format for writing mktg.
Questionnaire designing is a skill acquired Following steps are involved in a hypothesis research report/ Major contents of a
through experience. It is an art rather than testing: research report/ Contents of research
science. The great weakness of questionnaire 1. Formulate the null hypothesis HO and methodology
design is lack of theory. There are no scientific the alternative H1 Most research report includes the following
principles that guarantee an optimal or ideal 2. Select an appropriate statistical elements:
questionnaire. Although the fine-tuning of a technique & the corresponding test i) Title page
questionnaire comes from the creativity of a statistic ii) Letter of transmittal
skilled researcher, there are few steps of 3. Choose the level of significance,  iii) Letter of authorization
questionnaire design which guides to avoid 4. Determine the sample size & collect the iv) Table of contents
major mistakes. In practice, the steps are data. Calculate the value of the test v) List of tables
interrelated and the development of a statistic vi) List of graphs
questionnaire will involve some iteration & 5. Determine the probability associated vii) List of appendices
looping. The steps of questionnaire design are: with the test statistic under the null viii) List of exhibits
a. Specify the information needed hypothesis, using the sampling ix) Executive summary
b. Specify the type of interviewing distribution of the test statistic. a. Major findings
method Alternatively, determine the critical b. Conclusions
c. Determine the content of individual values associated with the test statistic c. Recommendations
questions that divide the rejection & non- x) Problem definition
d. Design the questions to overcome the rejection regions a. Background to the problem
respondents’ inability & 6. Compare the probability associated with b. Statement of the problem
unwillingness to answer the test statistic with the level of xi) Approach to the problem
e. Decide on the question structure significance specified. Alternatively, xii) Research design
f. Determine the wording determine whether the test statistic has a. Type of research design
g. Arrange the questions in proper order fallen into the rejection or non- b. Information needs
h. Identify the form & layout rejection region c. Data collection from secondary
i. Reproduce the questionnaire 7. Make the statistical decision to reject or sources
j. Pretest the questionnaire not reject the null hypothesis d. Data collection from primary
8. Express the statistical decision in terms sources
Guidelines for deciding question wordings / of the marketing research problem e. Scaling techniques
Guidelines to avoid problems associated f. Questionnaire development and
with question wordings in framing a Assumptions underlying bi-variate pretesting
questionnaire regression g. Sampling techniques
1. Define the issue h. Fieldwork
2. Use ordinary words The regression model makes a number of xiii) Data analysis
3. Avoid ambiguous words assumptions in estimating the parameters & in a. Methodology
4. Avoid leading questions significance testing: b. Plan of data analysis
5. Avoid implicit alternatives 9. The error term is normally distributed. xiv) Results
6. Avoid implicit assumptions For each fixed value of X, the xv) Limitations and caveats
7. Avoid generalizations & estimates distribution of Y is normal xvi) Conclusions and recommendations
8. Use positive and negative statements 10. The means of all these normal xvii) Exhibits
distributions of Y, given X, lie on a a. Questionnaires and forms
Determining whether a question should be straight line with slope b b. Statistical output
included in a questionnaire 11. The mean of the error term is 0 (zero) c. Lists
12. The variance of the error term is
Following factors should be taken in constant. This variance does not Importance of a research report
consideration while determining the necessity depend on the values assumed by X For the following reasons, the report & its
or inclusion of a question in a questionnaire: 13. The error terms are uncorrelated. In presentation are important parts of the
1. Every question in a questionnaire other words, the observations have marketing research project:
should contribute to the information been drawn independently 24. The report serves as a documentary
needed or serve some specific evidence of the project
purpose. Steps of conducting one-way ANOVA 25. Management decisions are guided
2. If there is no satisfactory use for the by the report & the presentation
data resulting from a question, the The steps for conducting one-way ANOVA are: 26. The quality of the entire project
question should be eliminated. 14. Identify the dependent & independent can be evaluated based on the
3. In certain situations, particularly when variables quality of the report & presentation
the topic of the questionnaire is 15. Decompose the total variation 27. Management’s decision to
sensitive or controversial, some 16. Measure the effects undertake marketing research in
neutral or irrelevant questions may be 17. Test the significance the future or to use the particular
asked at the beginning to establish 18. Interpret the results research supplier again will be
involvement and rapport. influenced by the perceived
4. Sometimes filler questions are asked Purpose/ objective of discriminant analysis usefulness of the report & the
to disguise the purpose or sponsorship presentation
of the project. Rather than limiting The objectives of discriminant analysis are as
the questions to the brand of interest, follows: Process of research report preparation
questions about competing brands may 19. Development of discriminant The research report preparation & presentation
also be included to disguise the functions, or linear combinations of process are as follows:
sponsorship. the predictor or independent 28. Problem definition, approach,
5. Questions unrelated to the immediate variables, which will best research design & fieldwork
problem may sometimes be included discriminate between the categories 29. Data analysis
to generate client support for the of the criterion or dependent 30. Interpretation, conclusions &
project. variable (groups) recommendations
6. At times, certain questions may be 20. Examination of whether significant 31. Report preparation
duplicated for the purpose of assessing differences exist among groups, in 32. Oral presentation
reliability or validity. terms of the predictor variables 33. Reading of the report by the client
21. Determination of which predictor 34. Research follow-up & discussions
Guidelines for asking questions in a variables contribute to most of the
questionnaire inter-group differences Why is ‘limitations & caveats’ section
22. Classification of cases to one of the included in research report
1. Be thoroughly familiar with the groups based on the values of the The ‘limitations & caveats’ section should be
questionnaire predictor variables included and written with great care & a
2. Ask the questions in the order in which 23. Evaluation of the accuracy of balanced perspective for the following reasons:
they appear in the questionnaire classification 35. All marketing research projects have
3. Use the exact wording given in the limitations caused by time, budget &
questionnaire other organizational constraints
4. Read each question slowly 36. The research design adopted may be
5. Repeat questions that are not limited in terms of the various types of
understood errors and some of these may be serious
6. Ask every applicable question enough to warrant discussions
7. Follow instruction & skip patterns, 37. The researcher must make sure that the
probing carefully management does not overly rely on the
results or use them for unintended
purposes, such as projecting them to
unintended populations