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Technical

lectrical Paper-Oil Transformers and the Requirement for High Qualit

Adsorbing Desiccants to Prolong Transformer Life
Dr. Mark Moskovitz and Mary Beth Dawson

nterrupted supply of electricity is a necessity for developed and developing countries. Simply, without electricity, the global economy co
inding halt. This demand for continuous and reliable power requires the utmost in efficiency and life expectancy from all components of
grid. The power grid is a network of electrical lines distributing electricity from power plants to individuals and businesses. The “Smart G
ern concept promoted by the U.S. Department of Energy, incorporates two-way digital technology in order to improve the efficiency,
ity, and security of our nation’s electrical grid. Utilizing the smart grid concept, fluxes in energy can be eliminated by close monitoring o
usage in a given region. The smart grid concept focuses on reducing overall energy consumption as well as increasing communication in
city distribution system.

t different sources of electricity generation contribute to the power grid?

ay by which all resources (other than photovoltaic energy) generate electricity is founded on Faraday’s principle of electromagnetic indu
ovement of wind, water, or steam rotates a turbine connected to the main rotor of a generator. As the rotor turns the armature, a set o
coils turns inside a magnetic field, inducing voltage and generating electricity. Power plants deliver this electrical energy from non-rene
newable resources in the form of direct current (DC). Non-renewable resources include fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) and nucle
derived by nuclear fission of fissile elements with unstable nuclei, such as Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239. Each nuclear fission reacti
es about 200 million electron volts (MeV) of energy in addition to radioactive waste. Water heated by the release of energy from nuclear
and the burning of fossil fuels produces steam, which in turn powers a generator to create electricity. The burning of fossil fuels release
dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and global warming. Scientists are now turning to naturally
shed resources as alternative sources of energy. Renewable resources include hydroelectric, wind, biomass, geothermal, tidal, and sola
.

roelectric Energy

electric power generation requires a height differential in a body of water. The height differential between stored water and turbines den
al energy. As water flows downward through a pipe called a penstock, the falling water’s kinetic energy is converted to mechanical ene
es through a turbine connected to a generator. In some hydropower facilities, when customer demand for electricity is low such as at n
s pumped uphill to a storage pool in a process called pumped storage and is later used to generate electricity during times of higher de
power facilities are capable of producing large amounts of reliable power when demand for electricity is at its highest.

d Energy

nse, wind energy is a converted form of solar energy. As sunlight warms the air and warm air rises, cooler air takes its place, creating

Wind’s kinetic energy is converted from mechanical to electrical energy by the use of wind turbines. Each turbine consists of a 25-75 me
and one to three blades connected to a horizontal hub. This hub is connected to the nacelle, which houses the electrical components of
e, such as the gear box and generator. Sensors monitor the wind’s speed and direction, and a Yaw mechanism changes the turbine’s dir
the blades always face the wind. The amount of energy produced is relative to the diameter of the blades; the longer the blades, the h
ergy output. Wind speed is also directly proportional to the amount of energy produced. The amount of power generated in watts is equ
π r2 , where = the density of dry air, or 1.225 kg/m3 ; v= wind velocity in meters/second; and r= the radius of the rotor in meters. Pu
, the amount of power generated is equal to the wind’s speed cubed. Doubling the wind speed, for example, would result in an 800% in
tricity generated. For a turbine to be viable, wind speed must be at least 8 m/s. Fluctuations in energy output occur often, and wind spe
ghest at night when there is the lowest demand for electricity. Extra energy is either wasted or warehoused in a battery storage system
ng electricity during peak demand hours.

mass Energy

ss refers to organic material from plant and animal waste, such as wood, crops, switch grass, manure, and sewage. Biomass is burned
g steam which then powers a turbine connected to an electric generator. In a process called co-firing, biomass is combined with fossil f
rned to reduce carbon emissions from a power plant. Gasification systems also convert biomass into synthetic gas, or syngas, which is
to create electricity, converted to other fuels, or used as an alternative to natural gas in a gas turbine. The natural decomposition of b
leases biogas, a combination of carbon dioxide and methane gas. Biogas can be captured from places like landfills and sewage treatme
and burned to create electricity.

hermal Energy

ermal energy is generated naturally in the depths of the earth’s crust, and is found at geothermal reservoirs along plate boundaries.
ermal energy sources create steam, turning turbines to generate electricity. In dry steam plants, steam is brought to the surface to pow
es, condensed, and then returned to the ground. In flash steam plants, hot water is depressurized into steam powering turbines, and th
ed to the ground as water. In binary cycle plants, hot water heats a second liquid such as iso-butane, creating steam to power turbines.

l Energy

nergy is generated by the force of moving seawater through tidal barrages, tidal fences, and tidal turbines. Tidal barrages are typically
estuaries. As the tide changes, seawater flows from one side of the barrage to the other, turning a turbine to generate electricity. Tidal
are a series of vertical-axis turbines commonly built across channels between two land masses. Tidal turbines are like underwater wind
es. Currents flow over the blades of the turbine, generating electricity.

r Energy

nergy may be converted into electricity either directly, by lining photovoltaic cells into solar panels, or indirectly in solar power plants.
ower plant, energy is collected in solar thermal collectors, warming a liquid to create steam that rotates turbines to generate electricity

plants are only one component of the power grid. To increase the use of renewable energy, transmission line capacity must be improve
are little, if any, transmission lines connecting renewable resource power plants to many areas covered by the main grid. At power plan
city is distributed to transmission substations with step-up transformers which convert the electricity to extremely high voltages. Electri
power plants at voltages of 138-765 kilovolts (kV). Regional power substations containing step-down transformers then convert the
city to lower voltages for distribution to individual businesses and households. Households receive voltages ranging from 120V-240V of
city. Regional substations also contain circuit breakers and switches, allowing individual substations to be disconnected from the main g
necessary. If there is an overload of energy, disconnecting a specific region from the main grid prevents further power outages which co
throughout the grid. A distribution bus at each substation also splits the power into multiple directions.

t transformers, electricity generated in power plants could not be used by consumers. A transformer, however, is the weakest link of th
cal grid. Transformers are subjected to natural aging and other processes which easily cause transformer failure. When a transformer fa
outage occurs. Power outages and other interruptions in the electrical grid cost the U.S. economy at least $150 billion annually. Accord
S. Department of Energy, that translates into an annual cost of about $500 for every man, woman, and child. The Northeast Blackout of
caused about $7 billion in losses to the economy in just six hours of time. These astounding figures reflect just how essential that
rmers be maintained regularly to function properly.

t is a Transformer?
from power plants must be converted to a substantially lower voltage before domestic and commercial use. Appliances and other mach
e at specific voltages. Inconsistent voltage delivery places extra stress on electrical components, speeding wear out and breakdown. An
cal transformer converts high voltage power from power plants to usable, lower-voltage power with no loss of energy. This process is
ed by the specialized construction of the parts of a transformer. Each transformer consists of a ferromagnetic core surrounded by a seri
r windings. The primary winding is connected to the input wire, while the secondary winding(s) are connected to the output wire(s). Th
gs are separately wrapped in Kraft or pressboard paper, ensuring that all of the current flows through the windings. The alternating cur
g through the primary winding creates a magnetic field which shifts in response to changes in the alternating current, which in turn crea
c potential in the secondary winding(s). According to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction, emf= - N ΔBA /Δt, where emf=
motive force (voltage induced), N= number of turns in the coil, BA= magnetic flux, and t= time in seconds. In other words, the numbe
n the winding is directly related to the amount of voltage induced in the winding. In this way, based on the relation of the number of tu
mary winding versus number of turns in the secondary winding, transformers are able to convert high voltage power to lower voltage p

plications with Transformer Performance

ric fluid, or transformer oil, acts as a coolant system to keep a transformer from overheating. This fluid moves vertically from the botto
nsformer through the windings where it is heated. As it re-circulates to the bottom, it cools by going through a series of radiators, or co
nd is reused. Although transformer oil has a low affinity for water, water can accumulate in a transformer as either free standing or emu
n the transformer oil. Freestanding water is water that has settled out of the transformer oil. Emulsified water is suspended in transform
not yet separated from the oil. Moisture may accumulate due to leaks in gaskets and welds, improper sealing allowing for water to ent
ne, inadequate drying of transformers at time of production, poor maintenance, and natural aging of insulation materials inside the
rmer. This water then weakens the dielectric strength of the oil and solid insulation, and accelerates aging of the transformer’s insulatin
al. For each doubling of water content, transformer life is reduced by half.

gh transformer failure may occur for many reasons, moisture in transformer oil remains one of the most common, yet preventable, cau
It accelerates aging of transformers dramatically, decreases the dielectric constant, and decreases dielectric strength, the maximum v
e transformer can handle without breaking down. Water content should be kept at or below 10ppm. Water is the main culprit impacting
ransformers.

emperature increases, the solubility of oil increases and water migrates from the insulating paper and paperboard to the oil. Water is als
ly hydrogen-bonded to the hydrocarbon chains of the insulating paper. These water molecules break apart from the cellulose polymer c
atural aging. Additionally, freestanding water can degrade the insulating paper further by weakening the hydrogen bonds of these polym
with degraded insulation then leading to increased mechanical stress. The oxidation of transformer oil is also accelerated by water and
rature increases. During this degradation process, fatty acids settle out of the oil and rest on the parts of the insulation system as sludg
antly decreasing the system’s ability to function. Oxidation also leads to corrosion of the solid parts of the transformer, allowing oil to le

present in transformers also causes hydrogen-induced fractures; depletion of additives such as dispersants and demulsifying agents;
ed oil flow due to emulsions, sludge, ice crystals, and microbial contamination; and impaired film strength. Water lowers transformer o
cial tension, leading to aeration. The presence of air in turn causes oxidation and cavitations, increased heat, and weakened oil films. O
minated with water can also soften and flow out of bearings, causing leaks.

sformer Maintenance
ormers may fail due to electrical arcing caused by overloaded electrical equipment, coronas which result in power loss, and insulation m
own. According to the International Association of Engineering Insurers, insulation failure is the leading cause of transformer failure, ca
dequate or defective insulation and insulation deterioration. Transformers may be regularly monitored by dissolved gas analysis (DGA) t
as oil and chemical tests. DGA uses gas chromatography in determining the levels of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, met
, ethylene, and acetylene gases in the oil. Based on these levels, transformer problems may be identified. Chemical tests may also reve
of moisture, polar contaminants and other by-products of oxidation in the transformer oil. An online filtration system can periodically ru
ests to prevent accumulation of contaminants and maintain the insulating properties of the oil. Certain models of these filtration system
degassing mode which removes moisture and dissolved gases from the transformer when necessary.

oil conditioning systems, such as Mark I and Mark II, are capable of removing polar oxidation products, moisture, acids, dissolved meta
n, and other insulation degradation products from transformer oil to extend transformer life. According to a study on transformer mainte
ted in Electricity Today (2003: Issue 8), “laboratory tests have shown that a combination of desiccants, adsorbents and semi-permeabl
fiber membranes is capable of restoring and maintaining transformer oil properties to near new conditions” (Kovacevic et al., 31). Asid
e of desiccants and adsorbents, hollow fiber membranes (HFM) can also remove moisture and dissolved gases from transformer oil. As t
hrough the HFM, moisture and dissolved gases permeate to the shell side until equilibrium is reached. Transformer oil may be complete
ed by the HFM if gases and other products are continuously removed by a vacuum or stripping gas so equilibrium is never reached.

ways to keep air and moisture out of transformers include conservator systems and oil-filled inert gas systems. In a conservator system
vator filled with oil is connected to the main tank. Air flows in an out of the conservator through a desiccant air dryer as the oil level in
ank rises and falls with temperature fluctuations. In an inert gas system, a nitrogen gas cylinder is connected to the main tank. A series
control the amount of pressure in the nitrogen cylinder and main tank as pressure changes with temperature fluctuations.

ve procedures for removing excess moisture in transformers include disassembling the transformer and shipping for oven drying or
ming the system. Both processes require excessive time, labor, and money.

Need for an Adsorbing Desiccant to Prolong Transformer Life and Prevent Dysfunction
ormers should provide fifty years of continuous service and be designed to be maintenance free. Because water damage greatly decreas
rmer life, removing moisture with adsorbing desiccant ceases degradation to the insulation system and increases transformer life by de
adsorbing desiccant is a time and cost efficient means to remove moisture without disrupting normal use of the transformer. The use o
ed alumina as a desiccant is the perfect solution for removing moisture from electrical transformers.

hereTM is the only activated alumina product on the market that can adsorb up to 36% of its own weight in water. Specialized dust-free
s of alumina have large surface areas to adsorb more moisture than any other desiccant. DrySphereTM removes water content in transfo
comfortable level of less than 10ppm. Once the water content in transformer oil is decreased to this level, water from the insulating pa
perboard diffuses into the transformer oil and the water is once again removed. DrySphereTM removes moisture from all parts of the
rmer, greatly improving the efficiency of the transformer and more than doubles transformer life. Consequently, DAI’s DrySphereTM is t
or product for maintenance of paper-oil transformers.

ure consistent and reliable energy delivery and to make successful implementation of the smart grid possible, electrical engineers must
ently control, regulate, and monitor the impact of water on transformers as they are the weakest link in our energy distribution system
hereTM specially designed activated alumina provides the electrical engineering community with a proven, tested and simple engineering
n to make our lives trouble-free.

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