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air cavity ships

Air-cavity ships are ready


for a wider market
The DK Group Netherlands’
Konstantin Matveev
describes air-cavity ship
technology which uses
artificial cavitation to
reduce hydrodynamic
drag and can benefit fast
ferries, cargo vessels,
and military craft

A
ir-cavity ships (ACS) are advanced marine
vehicles that use air injection at the
wetted hull surfaces to improve a vessel’s
hydrodynamic characteristics. The concept of drag
reduction by supplying gas under the ship’s bottom
was proposed in the 19th century by the famous
scientists Froude and Laval. However, many
attempts to implement this idea in practice have
failed because this process is not as straightforward
Fig 1: Hierarchy of fast ships based
as it seems. Deep physical understanding of multi-
on degree of contact with water
phase flows is required to achieve a positive
outcome. Based on the results of systematic ACS, and the phenomena of generating a gas layer available facilities, government regulations and
research, several successful ACS’s have been at the submerged hull surface is called artificial other factors.
created and found practical application during the cavitation or air lubrication. The ACS concept is based on successful usage of
past decade. A similar and more familiar concept is the bottom ventilation (artificial cavitation). A gas is
The position of the ACS among other ship surface effect ship (SES), where air is also pumped supplied underneath a special profile, so that a
types is shown in Fig 1 characterising the degree under the ship’s bottom. Such a vessel usually has steady air layer is generated which separates a part
of water-hull contact. The basic type of ship flexible bow and stern covers enclosing the space of the bottom from contact with water, therefore
operates in a displacement mode. At sufficiently between twin hulls. The next ship type after the reducing hydrodynamic resistance. Drag reduction
high speed and with suitable hull lines, a boat can SES is an air cushion vehicle with no permanently achieved on a full-scale ACS is within 15-40 per
glide over the water surface. Air can be injected submerged parts. cent, while the power spent on the cavity-
under the bottom, significantly reducing wetted Another branch of vessel types is related to maintaining gas flow is always less than 3 per cent
hull area and consequently hydrodynamic hydrofoil applications. A ship can be either of the total propulsive power of a vessel. Pressure
resistance. This type of ship corresponds to the partially or fully supported. The extreme inside the cavity is higher than atmospheric,
continuation of both branches of development is providing additional support for the ship’s weight.
ACS FEATURES the vehicle flying near the water surface, called a Although the ACS principle seems similar to an
• air cavity ships are already produced in series ‘wing-in-ground’ effect (WIG) craft. We should SES, there are significant differences. First, there are
• 15-40 per cent drag reduction is achieved note that it is not possible to claim that some no flexible seals on an ACS. The air layer is
• less than 3 per cent of the total ship power is concepts are universally better than others: all of contained by solid hull parts, which not only
needed to support the air cavity them have their niches, and the choice of a certain prevent air leakage from the cavity, but also
• low wash wake is generated due to smoothed ship type depends on the route characteristics, influence the air cavity characteristics. Secondly, the
pressure gradients in the presence of the air Fig 2: Air cavity formed under the bottom of a fast ACS with important hull parameters depicted
cavity
• overloads in rough seas are reduced due to a
damping effect of the air cavity
• fouling growth on the hull in warm seas is
lessened due to decreased wetted surface
• ACS is a convenient platform for effective
landing and shallow-water operations
• protected or special propulsors may be
required for ACS.

| www.speedatsea.com | Speed at Sea | February | 2003 | 13


air cavity ships
gradients at the ship hull. This effect leads to the
Serna-class landing craft have a maximum speed of 30 knots
wave drag reduction and lower wash wake
generated by a ship. A total increase of the efficiency
of ACS moving in a semi-displacement regime
should reach 15-25 per cent in comparison with
conventional vessels.
Systematic research on air cavity applications for
ship resistance reduction was started at the Krylov
Shipbuilding Research Institute in St Petersburg,
Russia, in the 1960s. The most significant
contribution to this field was made by Anatoly
Akimovich Butuzov. It was established that the
apparatus of the theory of developed cavitating
flows was suitable for determination of the major
air flow rate needed to support the air cavity on an The idea of drag reduction by air lubrication is hydrodynamic characteristics of the ships with air
ACS is about ten times less than that on an SES. also applicable to relatively slow vessels, such as lubrication. Successful laboratory tests were
Therefore, an ACS is a much more economical tankers and cargo ships. However, due to the followed by implementation of the air cavity concept
means of transportation. stability limit on cavity dimensions, a different on the full-scale river cargo ships and barges. Those
To use the artificial cavitation effectively, a ship arrangement of air cavities must be employed. If the trials demonstrated significant reduction of the
bottom profile should be chosen to provide air to ship length is large and its speed is not sufficiently power (up to 30 per cent) needed for vessel motion
cover a large bottom area at low energy expense for high, an entire bottom of the vessel cannot be in optimal speed regimes.
air supply. There are three important components of covered by a single cavity. This explains unsuccessful In the early 1970s, the first high speed full-
the bottom structure on a fast ACS: a step forming attempts to reduce drag by supplying gas through scale ACS was build on the initiative of Ivan
the cavity surface, planing sidewalls (skegs), which only a single nozzle in low speed regimes. Several air Ivanovich Matveev at the Central Hydrofoil Design
also protect a cavity, and a special section near the cavities (up to 7-8) must be created on a slow ACS Bureau, a world-leading company in hydrofoil and
transom that provides smooth closing of cavity operating in a displacement mode. WIG technologies, based in Nizhniy Novgorod,
surface to the hull. The determination of geometrical When a ship is moving in a semi-displacement Russia. The speed increment achieved on that boat
parameters of these structural components is the regime, a significant portion of hydrodynamic was up to 27 per cent in comparison with an
main task of ACS design. An air cavity is formed in resistance is of the wave nature. In this case, analogous boat without the air cavity system.
the bottom recess by supplying gas through the artificial cavitation is not as effective as in the case Energy expense for air supply was below 3 per cent
nozzles using fans. of slow and planing ships. However, the presence of of the total power.
The important physical properties of cavitating a compressible air cavity decreases pressure Research and development activity at the Central
flow aimed at reducing drag can be illustrated using
Fig 3: Schematic view of the bottom of a fast ACS
a simple example of the flow behind a wedge
attached to a horizontal wall in the presence of
gravity, as shown in Fig 4. A characteristic feature of
cavity 1 is the formation of a pulsating re-entrant jet
in the tail part of the cavity, while the cavity
boundary close to the wedge remains stable. This
flow is similar to usual cavitation and ventilation
with a positive cavitation number in the absence of
a horizontal wall.
Shape 2 is associated with a flow mode when no
re-entrant jet is present, and the tail of the cavity
attaches smoothly to the plate. In this case, the
cavity-maintaining gas flow, as well as the cavitation
drag, is theoretically equal to zero. Pressure inside
the cavity exceeds that in the undisturbed flow,
making the cavitation number negative.
The peculiarity of shape 3 is that in theory the
cavity pierces the plate at its aft end (as shown by
the dashed line). During tests, strong pulsations are
observed all over the cavity in this case, as in over-
ventilated flows with positive cavitation numbers.
This regime is realised at high gas consumption.
The formation of an unclosed cavity 4 is also
possible under certain conditions; however, the
power needed for air injection is too high to make
this regime attractive for practical drag reduction.
Thus, the flow mode that produces cavity 2 is
the most promising. As shown by calculations and
verified in experiments, the cavity length in this
case scales as the flow velocity squared. Cavity
geometrical characteristics, and a cavitation number
corresponding to this most favorable situation, are
called the limiting parameters. Successful ACS’s are
designed to operate in this regime.
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improving the efficiency of propulsion systems when
Fig 4: Ventilated flow behind a wedge
air is present in water flow. The first is the
Ventilated Wing Jet, developed by the DK Group,
which had previously been involved (but is no
longer) with development of the Hydro Air Drive
propulsor. The rotor in a Ventilated Wing Jet unit is
located inside a close-fitting protective duct and
operates half-submerged at cruising speed similar to
a surface propeller. At low speeds, the water flow
rate can be increased and sufficient thrust is
produced. The Ventilated Wing Jet remains aerated
at all times, so no fall-off in performance is observed
Hydrofoil Design Bureau resulted in creating several end and shed downstream, especially during when air is entrained in the incoming flow.
vessel types that have been produced in series in pitching motions in rough seas. Conventional The second concept, the Ventilated Waterjet, is
recent years. Linda craft (displacement 24.6 tonnes, propulsors, such as propellers and waterjets, lose being developed at the Krylov Institute. Air cavities
speed 30 knots) are used for passenger transportation their efficiency significantly if air is present in the are formed on the suction sides of the blades of the
in inland waters. The Serna landing craft (full-load incident flow. To avoid this negative effect, special Ventilated Waterjet and connected to the
displacement 100 tonnes, maximum speed 30 knots) deflectors are applied on cargo vessels equipped atmosphere. The thrust is produced mostly by the
is able to deliver 45-tonne vehicles and discharge with air cavity systems. In the case of a fast ACS, pressure sides of the blades. Hence, the Ventilated
them over a ramp. A recent ACS, called Mercury (100 supercavitating and surface propellers can tolerate Waterjet is not sensitive to the presence of air
tonnes displacement, top speed 55 knots), is a sea- air presence in the water flow. bubbles in the flow.
going patrol boat capable of safe sailing in Sea State There are two new developments aimed at Other companies developing air assisted
5. As well as these mid-size vessels, runabouts using
artificial cavitation are also built in Russia. Exhaust
gases are sometimes utilised as the cavity-
maintaining gas on small boats, which simplifies the
ACS structure and increases operating efficiency.
Despite Russian organisations’ profound
knowledge and experience of ACS technology, it
seems that they cannot penetrate world markets.
Military ACS craft developed in Russia are of interest
to defence companies in Nato countries, but
technical collaboration is not possible for political
reasons. Lack of capital, limited marketing efforts,
and Russian R&D centres’ limited experience of
designing large ropax fast ferries (a would-be
primary market for ACS technology) make it difficult
to expect that Russian ACS’s will find wide
application abroad in the near future.
Potential benefits of air injection under ship
hulls without flexible seals have always been of
interest to the shipbuilding community worldwide.
However, until the last decade development
attempts were not serious enough to achieve DK Group’s models of an ACS ropax (below) and bulker being tank-tested at MARIN
convincing results. In recent years, R&D activity in
this field was significantly increased in Europe,
USA, Japan, Korea and Australia. Because of the
commercial nature of these projects, reliable data is
not yet available to judge for certain the progress in
air cavity technology.
Perhaps the most comprehensive efforts have
been made so far by The Netherlands-based DK
Group. In collaboration with world leaders in
marine innovations, such as research institute
MARIN and design office Nevesbu, this company
has undertaken an extensive study of the potential
application of artificial cavitation both to fast ferries
and cargo vessels. The research programme involves
laboratory and tank testing of ship models where
air is delivered to the specially profiled bottoms.
Test results demonstrate a great potential for future
air cavity ships. Theoretical and numerical analyses
of multi-phase flows and hull structure
optimisation are aimed at creating effective
approaches to ACS design.
A characteristic ACS feature is that pockets of
air and bubbles periodically escape from the cavity
| www.speedatsea.com | Speed at Sea | February | 2003 | 15
air cavity ships
platforms utilise somewhat different approaches for Linda series passenger vessels operate at up to 30 knots on inland waters
hull drag reduction. For instance, Harley
Shipbuilding in the USA and SES Europe in Norway
are promoting the ‘air lifted vessel’ (ALV), which is
essentially a catamaran with an air cushion similar
to that of an SES but the hulls have planing sections
in front of the bottom recess and no flexible seals
are used. Fast Cat Boatworks’ 30m version,
PurrSeaverance , has received its USCG certification
and is operating in Florida [see News].
Another characteristic feature of an ALV is the
longitudinal keels on the sides of the cavity that
prevent air from escaping. The reported resistance
reduction is around 30 per cent, however, it takes
10-20 per cent of the total ship power to achieve
this benefit. Also, the depth of a bottom recess is
about 25 per cent of the total draft (on an ACS it is
55-knot Mercury-class patrol craft and the bubbly flow may be the only available option Innovation Research topics is dedicated to the study
for drag reduction. If the flow velocity is high of ship hulls with captured air plenums that would
enough and the hull surface is covered by a non- lead to less drag and greater operating efficiency.
wetting coating, then a certain drag reduction effect The growing efforts of private companies and
can be achieved. Several Japanese and US government agencies to advance artificial cavitation
organisations are involved in studying this problem. technology, and an existence of successful
As well as commercial companies, government prototypes and even serially built ships with air
agencies are showing interest in developing drag lubrication, raise a hope that the air-cavity ship
reduction technologies involving air supply to the concept will find worldwide applications for various
10-15 per cent), which decreases options for cargo wetted hull surfaces. Supercavitation phenomena vessel types in the next several years. S@S
and machinery arrangements. Since only one have been investigated with government support in
principal configuration of ALV has always been both Russia and the USA for a long time, with the Konstantin Matveev specialises in advanced marine
presented for the past several years, this scheme is purpose of creating ultra fast underwater vehicle R&D. He graduated from Moscow Institute of
probably not adaptable for a wide range of vessel projectiles. The Office of Naval Research has Physics & Technology with a MSc in applied physics,
types. The higher power needed for support of the recently solicited proposals for the design of the and is a mechanical engineering PhD candidate at
air cavity on an ALV in comparison with an ACS High-Speed Drag Reduction Experiment that would California Institute of Technology. He has long
demonstrates that the ALV bottom structure is not certainly involve some form of air addition to the experience of hydrofoil, wing-in-ground, and air-
yet optimised. water flow. One of the current Small Business cavity ship technology.
Another company that develops air assisted
marine vehicles without flexible seals is Air Ride Fuel consumption per tonne-mile of payload for existing monohull ropax fast ferries and projected ACS analogs
Craft (USA). DK Group no longer holds any interest
in the company’s patents. Air Ride Craft’s concept is
even further from the artificial cavitation philosophy
and closer to air cushion technology.
The lift supporting the vessel is predominantly
generated by compressed air located in a deep
bottom recess. Hull sections do not significantly
affect properties of the air cushion. Since, during
motion, the air cavity does not close smoothly to the
hull in this case, energy consumption for air supply
is much greater than on an ACS. Therefore, the ACS
principle has significant advantages from an
economical standpoint over the ALV and Air Ride
Craft concepts. However, as we indicated before, one
hydrodynamic arrangement cannot be universally
better than the others. The choice of a certain design
is always affected by many factors peculiar to
particular situations.
A rather popular concept related to air
lubrication is drag reduction achieved by using
micro-bubbles. It is certainly easier from the
technical side to create a bubbly flow instead of
large stable air cavities, but the overall effectiveness
of this idea is questionable. Air bubble motion
usually includes a random component, and some
bubbles may stick to the hull. These effects can even
augment the effective roughness of a hull surface
and lead to an increase in drag.
However, in the case of nearly vertical submerged
hull sections, stable air cavities cannot be created,
16 | Speed at Sea | February | 2003 | www.speedatsea.com |

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