A REPORT ON

SOLUTIONS FOR TRAPPING SOLAR ENERGY

Contributed by:

MAYURESH DESAI
DIPALI DONDE
VIJAYA DONGE
ANUJ DOUND
PRAFUL GAIKWAD
VIDYASAGAR GOGATE
AKSHAY GOKHALE
ADITYA GORE
HITESH HIRAN
ANISH JOSHI
LITERATURE REVIEW

Solar energy is the most abundant source of energy available on earth. Though fossil fuels are
available in concentrated form, are extremely polluting and are depleting fast. Also ever
escalating costs are a major concern. Contrastingly, the solar power would be a clean source of
energy with practically zero fuel costs. But a major problem is the diffused state of the available
solar energy. So, a considerable amount of research is being done throughout the world for
efficiently trapping the solar energy and harnessing it for different purposes. Some of the
technologies have been well established through continuous research and rigorous
experimentation. Solar liquid flat plate collectors (LFPCs) and photovoltaic cells are such
technologies that are presently being applied on a large scale throughout the world. Currently,
research is being made for developing innovative waves of trapping and utilizing solar energy.
Solar ponds, solar nano-cells, solar power paints, solar screens, nano-antennas, etc. are the recent
areas of research in the solar energy field. This report on “Solutions for trapping solar energy”
discusses various traditional and innovative ways of trapping solar energy.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. NAME

1. Introduction
2. Thermal Collectors
3. Power Generation
4. Solar Ponds
5. Photovoltaic Utilization: Conventional Techniques
6. Photovoltaic Utilization: Future Techniques
7. Storage Of The Trapped Solar Energy
8. Application: A Solar Airplane
9. Conclusion
CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION

1.1Man and Energy:

Man has needed and used energy at an increasing rate for his sustenance and well-being
ever since he came on earth a few million years ago. Industrial revolution that began with
the discovery of steam engine (AD 1700) brought about great changes. For the first time
man began to use a new source of energy i.e. coal, in large quantities. Further
developments led to use of newer fuels namely petrol, diesel, natural gas, etc. These are
better known as fossil fuels. But, the main disadvantage with such kind of fuels was
environmental pollution. So man began searching for newer and cleaner sources of
energy, and sun was an obvious contender. From then various attempts have been made
to trap and utilize the most abundant form of energy available on earth: the solar energy.

1.1Solar Energy Utilization:

Solar energy is the basic source of energy on earth. It can be utilized in the following
ways:

Direct Methods:

Thermal:

This includes the use of solar radiation for water heating as in a liquid flat
plate collector.

Photovoltaic:

This includes the use of solar energy for electricity generation. For
example: street lighting, etc.

Indirect Methods:

Water power:
Water is heated by solar radiation and is used for power generation.
 Wind:
The phenomenon of wind occurs due to differential heating of land and
sea due to the sun.
Biomass:
Its degradation is performed by microbes by the organic processes using
sunlight.
Wave energy and Ocean temperature differences:
These are again caused by the differential heating of land and sea causing
winds which lead to formation of waves that can be harnessed for energy
production.

Diect
SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

Direct Methods Indirect Methods

1.Water Power
1.Thermal

2.Wind
2. Photovoltaic

3.Biomass

4.Wave Energy & Ocean

Temperature Differences

Figure (1.1) Schematic Representation Of Utilization of Solar Energy

CHAPTER 2:

THERMAL COLLECTORS

2.1 Flat Plate Solar Collectors:

2.1.1 Introduction:

A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover (called
glazing) on top and a dark-colored absorber plate on the bottom. The sides and
bottom of the collector are usually insulated to minimize heat loss.

Figure (2.1) LPFC

Sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up,
changing solar energy into heat energy. The heat is transferred to liquid passing
through pipes attached to the absorber plate. Absorber plates are commonly
painted with "selective coatings," which absorb and retain heat better than
ordinary black paint. Absorber plates are usually made of metal—typically copper
or aluminum—because the metal is a good heat conductor. Copper is more
expensive, but is a better conductor and less prone to corrosion than aluminum. In
locations with average available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized
approximately one-half- to one-square foot per gallon of one-day's hot water use.
2.1.2 Applications:

The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot
water has a large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large
family, or a situation in which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry
washing.

Commercial applications include Laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and
eating establishments. The technology can also be used for space heating if the building
is located off-grid or if utility power is subject to frequent outages. Solar water heating
systems are most likely to be cost effective for facilities with water heating systems that
are expensive to operate, or with operations such as laundries or kitchens that require
large quantities of hot water.

Unglazed liquid collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools.
Because these collectors need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less
expensive materials such as plastic or rubber. They also do not require freeze-proofing
because swimming pools are generally used only in warm weather or can be drained
easily during cold weather.

While solar collectors are most cost-effective in sunny, temperate areas, they can be cost
effective virtually anywhere in the country so should be considered.

2.1.3 Performance/Costs:

To compare performance ratings, look for a Solar Rating & Certification Corporation
(SRCC) or Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) sticker on the equipment you are
considering. Paybacks - (The amount of time required - usually in years - for positive
cash flows to equal the total investment costs. This is often used to describe how long
it will take for energy savings resulting from using more energy-efficient equipment
to equal the premium paid to purchase the more energy-efficient equipment.) - vary
widely, but for a well-designed and properly installed solar water heater, you can expect a
simple payback of 4 to 10 years, depending on climate and utility costs. FSEC found that
solar water heaters offer potential savings, compared to electric water heating, of as much
as 50% to 85% in the water heating portion of the utility bill.
 Flat plate water heating systems range in price from about $2,000 to $4,000
installed for residential systems (for 40 to 80 gallons per day usage), and $2,000
to $50,000 for commercial systems (for 40 to 1700 gallons per day usage). The
following chart compares the percent of water heating energy that solar can
provide in various cities for a 48-square-foot flat plate solar hot water system
based on average water usage for four persons.

2.1.4 Availability:

Flat plate solar water heating systems are available in most areas of the United
States and many other countries. FSEC currently lists 192 solar collector panel
models and 280 solar systems that they certify. They also provide a list of
manufacturers of flat plate collectors and systems. In addition, six mail-order
catalogs sell solar water heating systems.
2.2 CONCENTRATORS:

The optical principle of a reflecting parabola (as discussed in Chapter 8) is that all rays of
light parallel to its axis are reflected to a point. A parabolic trough is simply a linear
translation of a two-dimensional parabolic reflector where, as a result of the linear
translation, the focal point becomes a line. These are often called line-focus
concentrators. A parabolic dish (parabolic), on the other hand, is formed by rotating the
parabola about its axis; the focus remains a point and is often called point-focus
concentrators.

If a receiver is mounted at the focus of a parabolic reflector, the reflected light will be
absorbed and converted into heat (or directly into electricity as with a concentrating
photovoltaic collector). These two principal functions, reflection to a point or a line, and
subsequent absorption by a receiver, constitute the basic functions of a parabolic
concentrating collector. The engineering task is to construct hardware that efficiently
exploits these characteristics for the useful production of thermal or electrical energy.
The resulting hardware is termed the collector subsystem. This chapter examines the
basic optical and thermal considerations that influence receiver design and will
emphasize thermal receivers rather than photovoltaic receivers.

Also discussed here is an interesting type of concentrator called a compound parabolic

concentrator (CPC). This is a non-imaging concentrator that concentrates light rays that
are not necessarily parallel nor aligned with the axis of the concentrator.

Some of the concentrators are shown below:

Parabolic Concentrator
Parabolic dish prototype use in the solar thermal cogeneration project at Shenandoah, GA.
CHAPTER 3:

POWER GENERATION
3.1 POWER GENERATION

The generation of electrical power is one of the most important applications of energy source.

Solar thermal power cycles can be classified as low, medium and high temperature power cycles.
Low temperature cycles work at maximum temperatures of about 100 c while medium and high
temperature cycles work upto and above 400 c respectively.

Low temperature systems:

The energy of the sun is collected by water flowing through array of flat plate collectors. In order
to get maximum possible temperatures booster mirrors which reflect radiation on flat plate
collectors are used. The hot water at temperature close to 100 c is stored in well insulated thermal
storage tank. Then it flows it flows through a vapour generator through which working fluid
passing through rankine cycle is also passed. The working fluid has low boiling point. Thus
vapour at about 90 c and pressure of few atmospheres leaves the generator. This vapour then
executes a regular rankine cycle by flowing through a prime mover, a liquid condenser and a
liquid pump. Working fluid normally used are organic fluids like methyl chloride and toluene and
refrigerants like R-11, R-113 and R-114.Overall efficiency of such system is 2 %.
Solar chimney power plant.

In this a tall central chimney is surrounded by a circular green house consisting of a transparent
cover supported a few metres above the ground by a metal frame.Sunlight passing through the
transparent cover causes the air trapped in the greenhouse to heat up.A convection system is setup
in which this air is drwn up through the central chimney,turning a turbine located at base of the
chimney.The hot air is continuously replenished by fresh air drawn at periphery of the
greenhouse.
Medium temperature systems.

They use line focusing parabolic collectors technology.In this the cylindrical parabolic collectors
used have their axis oriented north-south.The absorber tube is made of steel and has specially
designed selective surface. Its surrounde by glass cover with vacuum.The collectors heat a
synthetic oil to a temperature of about 400 c with a collector efficiency of abot 0.7 for beam
radiation. The oil is then used for generating superheated high pressure steam which executes
rankine cycle with efficiency of 38 %.

High temperature systems.

In paraboloidal dish concept, the concentrator tracks the sun by rotating about two axes and the
sun’s rays are brought to a point focus.A fluid flowing through a receiver at focus is heated and
used to drive a prime mover.

Central receiver power plants.

In this solar radiation is reflected from arrays of large mirrors called heliostats and is concentrated
on a receiver situated on top of a supporting tower.A fluid flowing through the receiver absorbs
the concentrated radiation and transports it to the ground where it is used to operate a rankine
power cycle.

A schematic representation of of main components of a central receiver power plant is shown in

which water is converted into steam in the receiver itself.Alternatively the receiver is used to heat
a molten metal or a molten salt and this molten fluid is passed through a heat exchanger in which
steam for power cycle is generated.
CHAPTER 4:

SOLAR POND

4.1 Introduction:

Figure (4.1) Solar Pond

One way to trap solar energy is through the use of solar ponds. Solar ponds are large-
scale energy collectors with integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy.

4.2 Principle:

The solar pond works on a very simple principle. It is well-known that water or air is
heated they become lighter and rise upward e.g. a hot air balloon. Similarly, in an
ordinary pond, the sun’s rays heat the water and the heated water from within the pond
rises and reaches the top but loses the heat into the atmosphere. The net result is that the
pond water remains at the atmospheric temperature. The solar pond restricts this tendency
by dissolving salt in the bottom layer of the pond making it too heavy to rise.

A solar pond is simply a pool of water which collects and stores solar energy. It contains
layers of salt solutions with increasing concentration (and therefore density) to a certain
depth, below which the solution has a uniform high salt concentration.

When solar radiation (sunlight) is absorbed, the density gradient prevents heat in the
lower layers from moving upwards by convection and leaving the pond. This means that
the temperature at the bottom of the pond will rise to over 90 °C while the temperature at
the top of the pond is usually around 30 °C. The trapped (solar) energy is then withdrawn
from the pond in the form of hot brine from the storage zone and can be used for many
different purposes, such as the heating of buildings or industrial hot water or to drive a
turbine for generating electricity.
 There are 3 distinct layers of water in the pond

• The top layer which has a low salt content and called as UCZ(Upper
Convective Zone)
• An intermediate insulating layer called as NCZ (Non-Convective Zone)
that prevents heat exchange by natural convection. Here the salt content increases
as depth increases, thereby creating a salinity or density gradient.
• The bottom layer, known as the storage zone or LCZ (Lower Convective
Zone).It has a high salt content. It is this zone that collects and stores solar energy
in the form of heat. This gradient zone acts as a transparent insulator permitting
sunlight to reach the bottom zone.

It is economical to construct them at places where there is low cost salt and bittern,
good supply of sea water or water for filling and flushing, high solar radiation, and
availability of land at low cost.Though solar ponds can be constructed anywhere,.
Coastal areas in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa are ideally suited
for such solar ponds.

4.3 Applications:

It can be use for various applications, such as process heating, water desalination,
refrigeration, drying and power generation.

The heat from a solar pond is usually extracted in one of two ways. The first method is to
pump the hot brine from the storage zone of the pond to a heat exchanger located near the
pond. The second method is to pump a heat exchanger fluid, usually fresh water, through
a heat exchanger located within the LCZ of the pond. Both have advantages, but pumping
the hot brine to an out-of-pond heat exchanger tends to be the most cost-effective and
trouble-free system.

1. Energy to drive desalting units

• fresh water production for municipal water systems

• energy producing receptacle for waste brines
• brine concentration

2. Supplemental energy source

• peaking electrical power production

• base load power for remote locations

3. Process heat for production of chemicals, foods, textiles, and other industrial
products
 4. Heat for separation of crude oil from brine in oil recovery operations

5. Receptacle for brine disposal using waste brines from crude oil production

6. Heat for:

• greenhouses
• livestock buildings
• other low-temperature agricultural applications

7. Space heating and absorption cooling systems

8. Low-temperature aquaculture applications

9. Surface water clean-up

• irrigation return flows

• saline waste waters
• river desalination

10. Thermal energy storage systems in areas where brine is available to create the
ponds and waste thermal energy is available

• power plant cooling tower blow down systems

• cogeneration systems

11. Control of crystallization in certain mining operations

4.4 Advantages

• Solar ponds address three environmental issues arising from the use of conventional
fuels. First, heat energy is provided without burning fuel, thus reducing pollution.
Second, conventional energy resources are conserved. Third, solar ponds coupled with
desalting units can be used to purify contaminated or minerals-impaired water, and the
pond itself can become the receptacle for the waste products.
• They have a low cost per unit area of collection and an inherent storage capacity. Also,
they can be easily constructed over large areas, enabling the diffuse solar resource to be
concentrated on a grand scale.
• The approach is particularly attractive for rural areas in developing countries. Very large
area collectors can be set up for just the cost of the clay or plastic pond liner.
• Advantage of desalination by solar ponds is that they can utilize what is often considered
a waste product, namely reject brine, as a basis to build the solar pond. This is an
important advantage when considering solar ponds for inland desalting for fresh water
production or brine concentration for use in salinity control and environmental cleanup
applications.
4.5 Disadvantages:

• The evaporated surface water needs to be constantly replenished.

• The accumulating salt crystals have to be removed and can be both a valuable by-product
and a problem.

4.6 Efficiency:

The energy obtained is in the form of low grade heat of 70 to 80 °C compared to a 20 °C

ambient temperature, which has an upper Carnot-cycle extractable efficiency of 1-
(273.15+20)/(273.15+80)=15%. By comparison a solar concentrator system with molten
salt delivering high grade heat at 800 °C would be able to convert 73% of absorbed solar
heat into useful work, and be forced to divest only 27% as waste heat to the cold
temperature reservoir (ambient air.)

4.7 Development:

Further research is aimed at addressing the problems, such as the development of

membrane ponds. These use a thin permeable membrane to separate the layers without
allowing salt to pass through.
CHAPTER 5:

PHOTOVOLTAIC UTILIZATION: CONVENTIONAL

TECHNIQUES

5.1 Photovoltaic Cells:

The basic physics:
What do we mean by photovoltaic? First used in about 1890, the word has two
parts: photo, derived from the Greek word for light, and volt, relating to electricity
pioneer Alessandro Volta. So, photovoltaics could literally be translated as light-
electricity. And that's what photovoltaic (PV) materials and devices do — they convert
light energy into electrical energy (Photoelectric Effect), as French physicist Edmond
Becquerel discovered as early as 1839.
Commonly known as solar cells, individual PV cells are electricity-producing
devices made of semiconductor materials. PV cells come in many sizes and shapes —
from smaller than a postage stamp to several inches across. They are often connected
together to form PV modules that may be up to several feet long and a few feet wide.
Modules, in turn, can be combined and connected to form PV arrays of different sizes
and power output.
The size of an array depends on several factors, such as the amount of sunlight
available in a particular location and the needs of the consumer. The modules of the array
make up the major part of a PV system, which can also include electrical connections,
mounting hardware, power-conditioning equipment, and batteries that store solar energy
for use when the sun isn't shining.

The Photoelectric Effect:

The photoelectric effect is the basic physical process by which a PV cell converts
sunlight into electricity. When light shines on a PV cell, it may be reflected, absorbed, or
pass right through. But only the absorbed light generates electricity. The energy of the
absorbed light is transferred to electrons in the atoms of the PV cell. With their newfound
energy, these electrons escape from their normal positions in the atoms of the
semiconductor PV material and become part of the electrical flow, or current, in an
electrical circuit. A special electrical property of the PV cell—what we call a "built-in
electric field"—provides the force, or voltage, needed to drive the current through an
external "load," such as a light bulb.
To induce the built-in electric field within a PV cell, two layers of somewhat
differing semiconductor materials are placed in contact with one another. One layer is an
"n-type" semiconductor with an abundance of electrons, which have a negative electrical
charge. The other layer is a "p-type" semiconductor with an abundance of "holes," which
have a positive electrical charge. Although both materials are electrically neutral, n-type
silicon has excess electrons and p-type silicon has excess holes. Sandwiching these
 together creates a p/n junction at their interface, thereby creating an electric field. When
n- and p-type silicon comes into contact, excess electrons move from the n-type side to
the p-type side. The result is a buildup of positive charge along the n-type side of the
interface and a buildup of negative charge along the p-type side.
Because of the flow of electrons and holes, the two semiconductors behave like a
battery, creating an electric field at the surface where they meet—what we call the p/n
junction. The electrical field causes the electrons to move from the semiconductor
toward the negative surface, where they become available to the electrical circuit. At the
same time, the holes move in the opposite direction, toward the positive surface, where
they await incoming electrons.
How do we make the p-type ("positive") and n-type ("negative") silicon materials
that will eventually become the photovoltaic (PV) cells that produce solar electricity?
Most commonly, we add an element to the silicon that either has an extra electron or
lacks an electron. This process of adding another element is called doping.

5.2 PV Devices:
Photovoltaic devices can be made from various types of semiconductor materials,
deposited or arranged in various structures, to produce solar cells that have optimal
performance.
In this section, we first review the three main types of materials used for solar cells. The
first type is silicon, which can be used in various forms, including single-crystalline,
multicrystalline, and amorphous. The second type is polycrystalline thin films, with
specific discussion of copper indium diselenide (CIS) cadmium telluride (CdTe), and
thin-film silicon. Finally, the third type of material is single-crystalline thin film, focusing
especially on cells made with gallium arsenide.
5.3 PV Systems:
A photovoltaic (PV) or solar cell is the basic building block of a PV (or solar
electric) system. An individual PV cell is usually quite small, typically producing about 1
or 2 watts of power. To boost the power output of PV cells, we connect them together to
form larger units called modules. Modules, in turn, can be connected to form even larger
units called arrays, which can be interconnected to produce more power, and so on. In
this way, we can build PV systems able to meet almost any electric power need, whether
small or large.
PV systems can be classified into two general categories: flat-plate systems or
concentrator systems. By themselves, modules or arrays do not represent an entire PV
system. We also need structures to put them on that point them toward the sun, and
components that take the direct-current electricity produced by modules and "condition"
that electricity, usually by converting it to alternate-current electricity. We might also
want to store some electricity, usually in batteries, for later use. All these items are
referred to as the "balance of system" (BOS) components.
Combining modules with the BOS components creates an entire PV system. This
system is usually everything we need to meet a particular energy demand, such as
powering a water pump, or the appliances and lights in a home, or, if the PV system is
large enough, all the electrical requirements of a whole community.

A system consists of a photovoltaic module, charge controller and battery.

 During the night, the load continues to be
During the day, when there is daylight, the powered, drawing on energy stored in the
photovoltaic module produces enough energy to battery.
power the load and to charge the battery.

PV in Use: Getting the Job Done with Solar Electricity:

DOE and one of its partners, the West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency,
are working to improve socioeconomic conditions in the Sunderbans region of West
Bengal, India. These rooftop PV modules on a village health center in West Bengal
provide power for refrigerators containing medicines and vaccines, for lights, and for
other important needs.
 After decades of use on Earth and in space, solar electricity made its debut on another
planet in 1997 when "Sojourner" began exploring Mars. High-efficiency photovoltaic
(PV) cells located on top of the Sojourner vehicle generated 16 watts of power at noon on
Mars, which was enough to carry out a day's mission.

Future photovoltaic cell technology:

One way to achieve further cost reductions in photovoltaic cells is to use considerably
less semiconductor material per cell. There are limits to how much reduction can be made
to the amount of crystalline silicon in a conventional cell because it is not that strong an
absorber of light.
There are other possible semiconductors that can be used in very thin layers (thin film
photovoltaic cell technology). These do away with the conventional wafer approach to
making photovoltaic cells and instead use deposited layers less than 1 micron (one
thousandth of a millimeter) on a material such as glass, steel or plastic.
At present thin film photovoltaic cells do not have as high efficiency as crystalline silicon
cells. The cost today per peak Watt is about the same. Their cost per square metre of
photovoltaic module is about one third the cost of crystalline silicon technology. If the
efficiency of thin film photovoltaic cells can be raised to the same level as that of today's
crystalline silicon cells, then the economics will be about right for large scale use as ac
power producers. At present, most of the larger size photovoltaic systems are based on
crystalline silicon photovoltaic cell technology, and this will continue to be so for some
years.

5.4 Affordability:
Generally, PV energy costs are higher than those of energy bought from your local
utility. However, if you need power in an area not served by a utility, PV may be the
most cost-effective option. All over the world, PV system installations are increasing.
As more people learn about this versatile, clean power option, this trend will continue,
bringing costs down and affordability up.

Most of us must consider our goals in light of our wants and needs when determining
affordability. Availability is an important determinant, and it has a unique meaning for a
PV system. This is because it depends not only on reliable equipment but on the level and
consistency of sunshine, and the capabilities of the energy storage system, at your site.

Because the weather is unpredictable, designing a PV system to be available at all times

and conditions is expensive and often unnecessary. PV systems with long-term
availabilities greater than 95% are routinely achieved at half the cost or less of systems
designed to be available 99.99% of the time. Designing for lower availabilities decreases
the size of the PV array and batteries and saves many dollars.
 Another way to resolve the cost and availability issue is to specify a hybrid system,
which includes another energy source (usually one that runs on a fossil fuel such as
propane). Although saving money is important, you'll want to acquire a safe system that
will last 25 years or more. Quality may cost more initially, but it will save money in the
long run.

5.5 Printing Energy – Solar cells in the screen printing:

Members of the Fraunhofer Institute for solar Energy Systems ISE, Germany, have
developed a new kind of the dye solar module, the dimensions of a door – two meters
high and 60 centimeters wide, and are presented at Tokyo in Nanotech 2008, world’s
largest nanotechnology trade fair, in Feb 2008.

The core component of the new modules is an organic dye, in combination with
nanoparticles sunlight into electricity formats. The nanoparticles provide due to their
small size, that the solar modules semitransparent. It therefore qualifies for integration
into facades. The solar module prototype manufactured by the researchers at Fraunhofer
ISE is amber in colour, but the modules in other colour or with printed images are also
possible so that the modules look like decorative slices.

This results in completely new application possibilities: Instead of the electricity

generators mounted on the roof, you can make it in glass facades. The new technology
protects this building before disturbing direct sunlight and produces both electricity. The
wafer-thin electricity-generating film, which lies between two glass panes, is produced
from nanoparticles and applied using screen printing technique.

The dye solar module is still a prototype. One particular challenge posed by the new
technology is that the narrow gap between the two glass panes must be hermetically
sealed so that no air can get in and destroy the reactive substances inside.

The fraunhofer experts came up with a special solution to this problem – istead of using
polymeric glue, they have instead decided to work with glass frit, i.e. glass powder is
screen-printed onto the panes, and fuses with them at a temperature of around 600 degree
Celcius.
 DID YOU KNOW?

In 1954, US-based Bell laboratories found that silicon doped with certain impurities was
very sensitive to light. This resulted in the production of the first practical solar cells with
a sunlight-energy conversion efficiency of around 6 per cent. This innovation led to
Russia launching the first artificial satellite using solar cells in 1957

5.6 Solar – power paint and other solar surprises:

Solar paint - just paint it on your wall, car, boat - and you can start generating electricity.

Researchers Chemical engineer Cyrus Wadia and others at UC Berkeley's

interdisciplinary Energy and Resources Group working long hours in the lab
"synthesizing super-small nanoparticles" in a three-necked flask.

The scientists are developing a way to paint solar cells onto the steel sheets commonly
used to clad large buildings.

Steel sheets are painted rapidly in steel mills by passing them through rollers. A
consortium led by Swansea University, UK, hopes to use that process to cover steel
sheets with a photovoltaic paint at up to 40 sqmts per minutes.

The paint will be based on dye-sensitised solar cells. Instead of absorbing sunlight using
silicon like conventional solar panels, they use dye molecules attached to particles of the
titanium dioxide pigment used in paints. While less efficient than conventional cells, dye-
based cells do not require expensive silicon, and can be applied as a liquid paste.

Nanotech solar cells are only a few years old. At the University of Toronto in 2005,
electrical and computer engineering professor Ted Sargent announced that he had
developed a new plastic nanotech material containing solar cells. The Berkeley research
takes the technology a step farther.
Traditional silicon based photovoltaic, PV, cells have been around for decades, but they
are fragile, heavy, and costly.

Now solar is hot as Berkeley researchers attempt to bring solar technology to the next
level, some by improving "first-generation" silicon-based PV, others by developing
entirely new light-converting technologies.

"In the past few years, student interest has risen dramatically in all energy-related
matters, especially photovoltaics," observes Eugene Haller, professor of materials science
and engineering. "Many of the best applicants to our graduate program want to work in
this field."

Materials science and engineering PhD student Becca Jones is researching exotic
materials such as indium gallium nitride, a semiconductor material that shows promise
for use in long-lived and highly efficient solar cells. Indium gallium nitride is the light-
emitting layer in blue and green light emitting diodes, or L-E-Ds.

"Coupled with inexpensive mirrors or lenses," says Jones, these devices could focus "a
lot of light on a very small solar cell."

Jones co-founded Students for Greener Berkeley and helped win student approval last
spring of a $5 per semester fee increase to fund projects to "green" the campus.

Postdoctoral researcher Lucas Wagner, a quantum physicist who does theoretical studies
of nanostructure systems for PV applications, says, "It's interesting science, and you feel
you can face yourself when you go home at night."

Solar-cell researchers from across campus meet twice a month at midday to discuss their
research problems, experiments, findings, and frustrations. Launched in spring 2006, the
grad student-run PV Idea Lab has grown from about 10 initially to a regular cast of up to
30. Free lunch helps. But the main draw is highly technical and stimulating conversation
in which issues like ohmic contact and semiconductor band-bending figure large.

"It's very directed and very driven, because we all want to solve the same problem, and
we can help each other," Wadia says. With representatives from eight different teams
now in the room, "it's really starting to feel like a multi-lab collaboration."

5.7 Electricity from the slide:

World-wide research teams are working on the development of organic solar cells.
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE presented on 13 – 15 February on the
nano tech 2008 in Tokyo, the world's largest nanotechnology trade fair, ways to industrial
mass production.
 Organic solar cells have good future prospects: they are inexpensive to produce, because
they can apply to thin foils. This requires both a special adaptation of solar cells
superstructures and the coating materials and substrates. "Since the procedure is a high-
throughput allowed to fall mainly in material costs," says Michael Niggemann, ISE

Nevertheless, the organic solar cell is not against the traditional silicon cell compete - that
is their efficiency still far too low. Since it is flexible but can new application areas open
up that plastic solar cells could, for example energy for small mobile devices such as
MP3 player or electronic ski passes. It would also, on a small strip of plastic solar cells,
sensors and switching to a micro energy system to unite.

In Tokyo, the Fraunhofer experts a flexible solar module of the size of a book page. It
was produced with a process that is readily on the reel-to-reel technology can be
transferred - a key step on the road to mass production.

Also a new design principle helps to save money for the front, the sun-facing electrode
used so far mostly expensive indium-tin oxide because it is transparent. But it is also
different: The Fraunhofer crew, the connection of the cell to the rear moves the numerous
holes in the other side is connected. Dieses This construction has an enormous advantage:
It is inexpensive transparent polymer electrodes. The idea has already been patented.

On the nano tech 2008 show Fraunhofer researchers together two companies with their
developments. The consortium, in addition to seven other initiatives by the Federal
Ministry for Education and Research BMBF selected to participate in the campaign
"Nanotech Germany" the state of German research in the future.

5.7 e-sensitized solar cells:

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC) are a relatively new class of low-cost solar cells. They
are based on a semiconductor formed between a photo-sensitized anode and an
electrolyte, a photoelectrochemical system. These cells were invented by Michael Grätzel
and Brian O'Regan at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne in 1991[1] and are
also known as Grätzel cells.
Principle:

Dye-sensitized solar cells effectively separate the two functions provided by silicon in a
traditional cell design. Normally the silicon acts as both the source of photoelectrons, as
well as providing the potential barrier to separate the charges and create a current. In the
dye-sensitised solar cell, the semiconductor is used solely for charge separation, the
photoelectrons are provided from a separate photosensitive dye. Additionally the charge
separation is not provided solely by the semiconductor, but works in concert with a third
element of the cell, an electrolyte in contact with both.

In the case of the original Grätzel design, the cell has three primary parts. On the top is a
transparent anode made of fluorine-doped tin oxide (SnO2:F) deposited on the back of a
(typically glass) plate. On the back of the conductive plate is a thin layer of titanium
dioxide (TiO2), which forms into a highly porous structure with an extremely high
surface area. The plate is then immersed in a mixture of a photosensitive ruthenium-
polypyridine dye and a solvent. After soaking the film in the dye solution, a thin layer of
the dye is left covalently bonded to the surface of the TiO2. A separate backing is made
with a thin layer of the iodide electrolyte spread over a conductive sheet, typically
platinum metal. The front and back parts are then joined and sealed together to prevent
the electrolyte from leaking. Although they use a number of "advanced" materials, these
are inexpensive compared to the silicon needed for normal cells because they require no
expensive manufacturing steps. TiO2, for instance, is already widely used as a paint base.

In operation, sunlight enters the cell through the transparent SnO2:F top contact, striking
the dye on the surface of the TiO2. Photons striking the dye with enough energy to be
absorbed will create an excited state of the dye, from which an electron can be "injected"
directly into the conduction band of the TiO2, and from there it moves by a chemical
diffusion gradient to the clear anode on top. Meanwhile, the dye molecule has lost an
electron and the molecule will decompose if another electron is not provided. The dye
strips one from iodide in electrolyte below the TiO2, oxidizing it into triiodide. This
reaction occurs quite quickly compared to the time that it takes for a the injected electron
to recombine with the oxidized dye molecule, preventing this recombination reaction that
would effectively short-circuit the solar cell. The triiodide then recovers its missing
electron by mechanically diffusing to the bottom of the cell, where the counter electrode
re-introduces the electrons after flowing through the external circuit.

Features:
 • High Quantum efficiency (the chance that one photon (of a particular
energy) will create one electron.) is very high about 90% compared to
conventional PV cells. The 10% losses are mainly from optical loses from top
surface(due to reflection) and conduction loses from TiO2
• Bandgap is lower in case of Tio2 than Silicon and also the electrolyte
limits the speed at which the dye molecules can regain their electrons and become
available for photoexcitation again. These factors limit the current generated by a
DSSc, for comparison, a traditional silicon-based solar cell offers about 35
mA/cm², whereas current DSSc's offer about 20 mA/cm².
• The potential difference generated is 0.7 V in DSSc compared 0.6 V in
silicon.
• Combined with a fill factor of about 70%, overall peak power production
for current DSSc's represents a conversion efficiency of about 11%, whereas (as
noted earlier) common low-cost commercial panels operate between 12% and
15%.
• As a result of both of these features —low losses and lack of
recombination— DSSc's work even in low-light conditions. DSSc's are therefore
able to work under cloudy skies,

major disadvantage to the design is the use of the liquid electrolyte, which has
temperature stability problems. At low temperatures the electrolyte can freeze, ending
power production and potentially leading to physical damage. Higher temperatures cause
the liquid to expand, making sealing the panels a serious problem.

5.8 Nano antennas:

Researchers in the US at Idaho national Laboratory(INL) – along with partners at
Microcontinuum Inc, and Patrick Pinhero of the University of Missouri – have imprinted
micro anennas on flexible materials to create a solar cell that will harness energy even
after the sun has set.

The new approach uses a special and economical manufacturing process to stamp tiny
square spirals of conducting metals onto a sheet of plastic. Each interlocking
“nanoantenna” is as wide as 1/25th the diameter of a human hair. Such size enables the
nanoantennas to absorb energy in the infrared part of the spectrum, just outside the range
of what is visible to the eye, thus gives higher efficiency han conventional solar cells.

The team estimates that the new individual nanoantennas can absorb close to 80 per cent
of the available energy. The circuits can be made of a number of different conducting
metals, and the nanoantennas can be printed on thin, flexible materials like polethylene –
a plastic that’s commonly used in bags and plastic wrap.
5.9 MISCELLANEOUS TECHNOLOGIES:

1) Sunshine to Petrol

Sunshine to Petrol (S2P) technology seeks to use heat from concentrated sunlight to drive
chemical reactions that allow carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere to be broken down
into oxygen and carbon monoxide. The CO may then be used to artificially synthesize
gasoline. This could be then used in conventional internal combustion engines (ICE) or as
an energy storage medium.

2) A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on
the balloon, the air inside is heated and expands, causing an upward buoyancy force,
much like an artificially-heated hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for
human flight, but usage is limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight
ratio is rather high.

3) Solar sails are a proposed form of spacecraft propulsion using large membrane
mirrors. Radiation pressure is small and decreases by the square of the distance from the
sun, but unlike rockets, solar sails require no fuel. Although the thrust is small compared
to rockets, it continues as long as the sun shines and the sail is deployed and in the
frictionless vacuum of space significant speeds can eventually be achieved.

4) Solar chemical

Solar chemical processes use light (photonic) and heat from the sun to drive chemical
reactions. These processes offset energy that would otherwise be required from an
alternate source, produce no pollution, and can serve as reversible method of storing solar
energy. Pioneering work in photochemistry by Schenck et al. in 1943 successfully
produced the anti-helminthic drug ascaridole. Solar chemical technologies are currently
at the experimental stage with the primary focus on concentrating solar thermal
technologies.

Zinc Oxide (ZnO) can be decomposed at high temperatures (1200-1750 °C). The
resulting pure zinc can be marketed directly or the zinc can be reacted with water at 350
°C to produce ZnO and hydrogen.[79]

A solar furnace can be used to produce high purity lime and can reduce CO2 emissions
associated with cement production by 20-40%. A prototype 10 kWth solar furnace at the
Paul Scherrer Institute produced lime at 64.2 grams per minute with a solar energy to
chemical energy efficiency of 34.8%.[80]
 Water can be directly dissociated at high temperatures (2300-2600 °C). These process
have so far been limited due to their high level of complexity and low solar-to-hydrogen
efficiency (1-2%).[81]

5) Solar mechanical

Crookes radiometer

Solar mechanical technologies use sunlight to produce a mechanical effect. They were
widely investigated by solar pioneers such as Auguste Mouchout, John Ericsson, Charles
Tellier and Frank Shuman. These devices generally concentrated sunlight on a boiler to
produce steam which was then used by a steam engine to perform useful work. Most of
these technologies were displaced early in the 20th century as increasingly cheap fossil
fuels made them economically noncompetitive but several solar mechanical technologies
have since been developed.

A light mill or Crookes radiometer is a simple solar mechanical device consisting of a

glass bulb containing a set of vanes mounted on a spindle. Each vane has a dark side
(which absorbs light energy and changes it to heat energy) and a reflective side (which
stays relatively cool). Due to the motion of gases around the hot and cool sides of each
vane, the vanes rotate with the dark side retracting, and the reflective side advancing
towards the light. The rotation is proportional to the intensity of light. The power levels
are low however and no practical application has been found for this device

Passive solar tracking devices use imbalances caused by the movement of a low boiling
point fluid to track the movement of the sun. These systems can improve performance by
25% over fixed tilt PV systems.

Passive solar shading systems also reposition with the sun according to the movement of
balancing fluids. They are used in buildings to maximize natural lighting during winter,
and reduce summer glare and cooling loads.

5.10 Artificial antenna system – artificial photosynthesis:

We must first understand the basic principles that govern the transport of the excitation
energy. Fortunately, this understanding is very advanced. It goes back to the pioneering
work of Theodor Förster. A chlorophyll molecule consist mainly of a positively charged
backbone and some delocalized electrons. By absorbing a photon, its energy is
transformed into kinetic energy of one of these delocalized electrons. This fast moving
electron causes an alternant oscillating electromagnetic field. An neighboring acceptor
molecule A bearing states that are in resonance with the excited state of the donor D* can
take over the excitation energy. The rate constant for this energy transfer process is
inversely proportional to the 6th power of the D*-A distance R, the matching of the
resonance condition J, the relative orientation of the transition dipole moments of the
donor and the acceptor and inversely proportional to 4th power of the refractive index of
the environment. This principle works not exclusively with chlorophyll molecules but
with any exaction, either in molecules, clusters, quantum dots or semiconductors. Based
on this ….

we made a model that mimics the key functionality of the antenna system of green plants,
JPC B 1997. The model consists of cylinders containing green molecules and at one end
red acceptors. The latter correspond to the “entrance of the reaction center RC”. Light
absorbed by one of the green molecules is hopping among them until it is caught by an
acceptor, which can be seen by monitoring the luminescence of the red dye. This is a
system worthwhile to be tried in the laboratory.
CHAPTER 6:

SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE

6.1 Introduction:

Collecting solar energy is the preliminary stage for harvesting it. The major challenge lies
in storing the solar energy. Solar energy can be stored in form of thermal, electrical,
mechanical or chemical.

Thermal energy can be stored as sensible heat or as latent heat

6.2Sensible heat storage:

It is done in an insulated container containing a liquid like water or a porous solid in the
form of pebbles or rock. The first type is preferred with liquid collectors and the second
one with air collectors. It operates over certain range of temperatures. In the case of latent
heat storage, heat is stored in substance when it melts and extracted when it freezes. This
system operates at temperature at which the phase change takes place.

Solar energy can be stored in form of mechanical energy in compressed air and or in
flywheel.
 Compressed air:

A Solar Compressor

The tanks are operated in pairs disposed above the surface of the earth. Each tank is
adapted with sun shading deflectors selectively operated so as to permit the air contained
within one such tank to be heated and thus elevated in pressure, by the rays of the sun. A
receiving tank, disposed below the surface of the earth, collects the pressurized air and
enables the cooling thereof. Condensation occurs while the pressure level within the
receiving tank is elevated. A plurality of such units comprising above ground pairs of
tanks and below ground cooled receiving tanks are arranged in a series circuit so as to
increase the available air pressure at the last receiving tank. A centralized condensate
tank collects all the water condensed within each receiving tank and utilizes the elevated
air pressure there within to discharge the water as required. The air pressure at the last
receiving tank may be utilized to drive a motor which in turn can operate an electric
generator.

6.3 Fly wheel:

A satellite power regulation and pointing system is disclosed that comprises a power bus
(104) and first and second flywheels (114-116) capable of storing rotational energy. Each
flywheel (114-118) comprises a flywheel motor/generator (202) for increasing the
rotational energy in its associated flywheel when storing power in its associated flywheel
and for reducing the associated flywheel rotational energy when drawing power from its
associated flywheel. The system also includes individual flywheel regulators (108-112)
connected to the power bus (104) and to the flywheel motor/generators (202). Each
flywheel regulator (108-112) includes a power control circuit (204) that allows power to
flow to a flywheel motor/generator (202) from the power bus (104) during an energy
storage period and that allows power to flow to the power bus (104) from the flywheel
motor/generator (202) during an energy drawing period. The flywheel regulators (108-
112) also include feedback control loops.
6.4 Solar batteries (Electrical Storage):

A method of producing an array of photovoltaic cells responsive to incident radiation by

forming heterojunction-forming material layers over a transparent substrate panel having
a transparent electrically conductive coating and thereafter removing selected portions of
the materials to form a plurality of cells on a common substrate. The cells are then
electrically interconnected by depositing electrically conducting materials over
substantially the entire panel and removing only those portions of the deposited materials
required to form series electrical connections.

Solar battery and its array are shown below:

 CHAPTER 7:

APPLICATION: A SOLAR AIRPLANE

“The pioneer is not always the one who succeeds, but the one who is not scared to fail.”

- Bertrand Piccard

7.1 Solar Impulse, The zero fuel air-plane

7.1 History:
The Solar Impulse is not the first solar airplane imagined by man, but it is certainly the most
ambitious. None of its predecessors has ever managed to make an entire night flight with a
pilot on board...

Solar aviation began with reduced models in the 1970s, when affordable solar cells
appeared on the market. But it was not until 1980 that the first human flights were realised.

7.2 United States:

Paul MacCready's team developed the Gossamer Penguin, which opened up the way for
the Solar Challenger. This aircraft, with a maximum power of 2.5 kW, succeeded in
crossing the Channel in 1981 and in quick succession covered distances of several
hundred kilometres with an endurance of several hours.
• In 1990, the American Eric Raymond crossed the United States with Sunseeker in 21
stages over almost two months. The longest lap was 400 kilometres. The Sunseeker was a
solar motor bike-sail plane with a smoothness of 30 for a tare weight of 89 kg and was
equipped with solar cells of amorphous silicon.

7.3 Europe:
 During the 1980’s, Günter Rochelt was making his first flights with the Solar 1 fitted
with 2500 photovoltaic cells, allowing the generation of a maximum power of 2.2kW.

In the middle of the 1990s, several airplanes were built to participate in the "Berblinger"
competition. The aim was to be able to go up to an altitude of 450 m with the aid of batteries
and to maintain a horizontal flight with the power of at least 500 W/sq.m of solar energy,
which corresponds to about half of the power emitted by the sun at midday on the equator.

The prize was won in 1996 by Professeur Voit-Nitschmann's team of Stuttgart University,
with Icare 2 (25 m wingspan with a surface of 26 sq.m of solar cells.)

Even if it did not allow a pilot on board, one could not forget Helios, developed by the
American AeroVironment Society on behalf of NASA. This remote controlled aircraft, with
a wingspan of more than 70 m, established a record altitude of nearly 30'000 m in 2001. It
was destroyed during a flight two years later, probably because of turbulence, and crashed
in the Pacific Ocean.

In 2005, Alan Cocconi (picture), founder of AC Propulsion, succeeded in flying an

unmanned airplane with a 5 m wingspan for 48 hours non-stop, propelled entirely by solar
energy. This was the first time an airplane of this type was able to fly through a whole night,
thanks to the energy collected by, and stored in, the solar batteries mounted on the plane.

7.4 The technology:

The plane uses solar panels along its 80 m wingspan, about the same size as the wingspan
of an Airbus A380, to harness energy from the sun. It is then stored in batteries overnight,
giving the plane enough power to glide at a lower altitude through the night.

The heavy batteries mean the cockpit can only accommodate one pilot, with an advanced
autopilot system designed to tell when the pilot is asleep and awake. The plane will weigh
about 2 T and fly at an altitude of 12,000 metres by day and glide at 3000 m at night.

7.5 The Project:

The Solar Impulse is a revolutionary concept that will push back the limits of our
knowledge in the field of materials, energy management and the man-machine interface.
It is an aircraft with an inordinate wingspan for its weight and of an aerodynamic quality
that to this day has not been equaled, capable of tremendous resistance, despite its light
weight.

From the solar captors to the propellers, it is all about optimizing the different links in the
propulsion chain and integrating an environment that is as hostile to the materials as it is
to the pilot and of course to respect the weight and resistance constraints.

The construction calls on the most advanced technologies and stimulates scientific
 research in the field of composite structures, the so-called intelligent light materials, and
the means of producing and storing energy. It will be possible to use these results as
much in the construction of the aircraft as, subsequently, in numerous other applications
useful to society.

The design of the aircraft, pure and futuristic, will itself be the symbol of the spirit of the
project in the sky.

• The question of energy determines the whole project, from the structure’s
dimensions to the extreme weight constraints.
• At midday, each m2 of land surface receives the equivalent of 1000 Watts, or 1.3
horsepower of light power.
• Over 24 hours, this averages out at just 250W/m2.
• With 200m2 of photovoltaic cells and a 12 % total efficiency of the propulsion
chain, the plane’s motors achieve no more than 8 HP or 6kW – roughly the amount of
power the Wright brothers had a available to them in 1903 when they made their first
powered flight.
• And it is with that energy, optimized from the solar panel to the propeller by the
work of a whole team, that Solar Impulse is striving to fly day and night without fuel.

7.6 Energy Resources:

• Multiple forms of energy have to be managed and their conversion

phenomena understood and optimized:
• Photic – the mechanics of solar radiation
• Electrical – in the photovoltaic cells, the batteries and the motors
• Chemical - inside the batteries
• Potential - when the plane gains altitude
• Mechanical - through the propulsion system
• Kinetic - when the plane increases speed
• Thermal – the various losses (friction, heating…) to be minimized at all
costs

7.7 Efficiency and Storage Capacity:

The 12,000 photovoltaic cells are in 130 micron monocrystalline silicon, selected for
its capacity to combine lightness and efficiency. Their efficiency could have been
higher, following the example of the panels used in space, but their weight would
then have penalized the plane during night flight. This phase being the most critical,
the main constraint of the project today lies with the batteries. Still heavy, they
require a drastic reduction of the weight of the rest of the plane, so as to optimize the
whole energy chain and to maximize the aerodynamic performance provided by a
large wing span and a wing profile designed for low speeds. With an energy density
 of 200W/kg, the accumulators needed for night flight weigh 400kg, or more than ¼ of
the total mass of the plane. Improving battery capacity would eventually allow a
second pilot, a smaller wingspan or a higher flight speed.

7.8 Central Intelligence:

The on-board computing system gathers and analyses hundreds of flight management
parameters, giving the pilot information to interpret for making decisions,
transmitting key data to the ground team and, above all, providing the motors with
optimal power for the particular flight configuration and battery charge/discharge
status. In this way the plane can self-correct and minimize its energy consumption.

7.9 Propulsion system:

Under the wings are four pods, each containing a motor, a polymer lithium battery
consisting of 70 accumulators, and a management system controlling charge /
discharge and temperature. The thermal insulation has been designed to conserve the
heat radiated by the batteries and keep them functioning despite the -40 °C
encountered at 8,500 meters. Each motor has a maximum power of 10 HP. A gear
box limits the rotation of each 3.5 metre diameter, twin-bladed propeller to 200-400
revolutions/minute.

7.10 Structure and materials:

To attain a 61m wingspan with the necessary rigidity, lightness and flight
controllability, and with just 1500kg take-off weight is a challenge which has never
been achieved until now. Solar Impulse is constructed around a sort of skeleton in a
carbon fibre-honeycomb composite using a sandwich structure. The undersides of the
wings are covered with flexible film and the upper surface with a skin of encapsulated
solar cells. One hundred and twenty carbon fibre ribs placed at 50cm intervals profile
these two layers and give the body its aerodynamic shape.

7.11 Aerodynamics:
Maximum altitude …………………………………8500 m

Outside temperatures ……………………………...+ 80°C to -60°C

Maximum weight ………………………………….1500 kg

Average speed ……………………………………..70 km/h

Wingspan: 61 metres
 Comparable to the Airbus A340, in order to minimize induced drag and to provide a

maximum surface area for the solar cells.

Wing-load …………………………………………Less than 10 kg/sq.m

7.12 Propulsion:
Power of the engines ………………………………Max. 30 kW

The average engine power provided by the sun over a 24h period is 12 CV comparable

to that used during the first flight by the Wright brothers in 1903

7.13 Materials & structure:

Essentially constructed from carbon fiber, sandwich structure Using very thin materials
with the lowest possible densities.

7.14 Energy management:

Batteries Lithium, weight of 400 kg, from 200 Whr/kg battery capacities Solar cells
Monocrystalline silicon, 150-micron thickness, about 200 sq.m surface, min 20 %
photovoltaic efficiency Ultra-thin and integrated in the wings
CHAPTER 8:

CONCLUSION