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Zeta-Meter, Inc.
Fourth Edition
April 1993
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© Copyright by Zeta-Meter, Inc. 1993, 1991, 1990,
1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed, stored in
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Credits
Conceived and written by Louis Ravina
Designed and illustrated by Nicholas Moramarco
Contents
The removal of suspended matter from The competency of a plant operator de-
water is one of the major goals of water pended on his years of experience with that
treatment. Only disinfection is used more specific water supply. By trial, error and
often or considered more important. In fact, oral tradition, he would eventually encoun-
effective clarification is really necessary for ter every type of problem and learn to deal
completely reliable disinfection because with it.
microorganisms are shielded by particles in
the water. Reliable instruments now help us under-
stand and control the clarification process.
Clarification usually involves: Our ability to measure turbidity, particle
• coagulation count, zeta potential and streaming current
• flocculation makes coagulation and flocculation more of
• settling a science, although art and experience still
• filtration have their place.
This guide focuses on coagulation and We make zeta meters and happen to be a
flocculation: the two key steps which often little biased in favor of zeta potential. In
determine finished water quality. this guide, however, we have attempted to
give you a fair picture of all of the tools at
Coagulation control techniques have ad- your disposal, and how you can put them to
vanced slowly. Many plant operators re- work.
member when dosage control was based
upon a visual evaluation of the flocculation
basin and the clarifier. If the operator’s
eyeball evaluation found a deterioration in
quality, then his common sense response
was to increase the coagulant dose. This
remedy was based upon the assumption
that if a little did some good, then more
ought to do better, but it often did worse.
iii
Chapter 1
The Electrokinetic Connection
1
Chapter 1 The Electrokinetic Connection
Highly Negative
Colloid
Stern Layer
Diffuse Layer
Ions In Equilibrium
With Solution
2
Double Layer Thickness The result is a thinner double layer.
The diffuse layer can be visualized as a Decreasing the ionic concentration (by
charged atmosphere surrounding the dilution, for example) reduces the number
colloid. At any distance from the surface, of positive ions and a thicker double layer
its charge density is equal to the difference results.
in concentration of positive and negative
ions at that point. Charge density is great- The type of counter-ion will also influence
est near the colloid and rapidly diminishes double layer thickness. Type refers to the
towards zero as the concentration of posi- valence of the positive counter-ion. For
tive and negative ions merge together. instance, an equal concentration of alumi-
The attached counter-ions in the Stern num (Al+3) ions will be much more effective
layer and the charged atmosphere in the than sodium (Na+) ions in neutralizing the
diffuse layer are what we refer to as the colloidal charge and will result in a thinner
double layer. double layer.
The thickness of the double layer depends Increasing the concentration of ions or their
upon the concentration of ions in solution. valence are both referred to as double layer
A higher level of ions means more positive compression.
ions are available to neutralize the colloid.
Diffuse Layer
Ion Concentration
Ion Concentration
Diffuse Layer
Zeta Potential
Zeta Potential
Diffuse Layer
4
Balancing Opposing Forces
The DLVO Theory (named after Derjaguin,
Landau, Verwery and Overbeek) is the
classic explanation of how particles inter-
act. It looks at the balance between two
opposing forces - electrostatic repulsion
and van der Waals attraction - to explain
why some colloids agglomerate and floccu-
late while others will not.
Repulsive Energy
Repulsion Electrical
Electrostatic repulsion becomes significant Repulsion
when two particles approach each other
and their electrical double layers begin to
overlap. Energy is required to overcome
this repulsion and force the particles
together. The level of energy required
increases dramatically as the particles are Distance Between Colloids
driven closer and closer together. An
electrostatic repulsion curve is used to
indicate the energy that must be overcome Electrostatic repulsion is always shown as a
if the particles are to be forced together. positive curve.
The maximum height of the curve is related
to the surface potential.
Attraction
Van der Waals attraction between two Distance Between Colloids
colloids is actually the result of forces
between individual molecules in each
colloid. The effect is additive; that is, one
molecule of the first colloid has a van der
Waals attraction to each molecule in the
Attractive Energy
5
Chapter 1 The Electrokinetic Connection
Repulsive Energy
from the larger to get the net interaction
energy. The net value is then plotted -
Net Interaction
above if repulsive, below if attractive - and Energy
the curve is formed.
Energy
Barrier
The net interaction curve can shift from
attraction to repulsion and back to attrac-
tion with increasing distance between
particles. If there is a repulsive section, Distance Between Colloids
then this region is called the energy barrier
and its maximum height indicates how
resistant the system is to effective coagula- Energy Trap
Attractive Energy
tion.
van der Waals
Attraction
In order to agglomerate, two particles on a
collision course must have sufficient kinetic
energy (due to their speed and mass) to
jump over this barrier. Once the energy
barrier is cleared, the net interaction energy
is all attractive. No further repulsive areas
are encountered and as a result the par-
ticles agglomerate. This attractive region is
often referred to as an energy trap since the
colloids can be considered to be trapped
together by the van der Waals forces.
Interaction
The net interaction curve is formed by subtracting the
attraction curve from the repulsion curve.
6
Lowering the Energy Barrier
For really effective coagulation, the energy
barrier should be lowered or completely
removed so that the net interaction is
always attractive. This can be accom-
plished by either compressing the double
layer or reducing the surface charge.
Repulsive Energy
Electrical
Double layer compression involves adding Repulsion
salts to the system. As the ionic concentra-
Net Interaction
tion increases, the double layer and the Energy
repulsion energy curves are compressed
until there is no longer an energy barrier. Energy
Barrier
Particle agglomeration occurs rapidly under
these conditions because the colloids can
just about fall into the van der Waals “trap”
without having to surmount an energy Distance Between Colloids
barrier.
Compression
Double layer compression squeezes the repulsive
energy curve reducing its influence. Further compres-
sion would completely eliminate the energy barrier.
7
Chapter 1 The Electrokinetic Connection
Repulsive Energy
and we can use zeta potential measure- Electrical
ments to control charge neutralization. Repulsion
Net Interaction
Second, it is not necessary to reduce the Energy
charge to zero. Our goal is to lower the Energy
energy barrier to the point where the par- Barrier
ticle velocity from mixing allows the colloids
to overwhelm it.
Distance Between Colloids
The energy barrier concept helps explain
why larger particles will sometimes floccu-
late while smaller ones in the same suspen- Energy Trap
Attractive Energy
Charge Reduction
Coagulant addition lowers the surface charge and
drops the repulsive energy curve. More coagulant
can be added to completely eliminate the energy
barrier.
8
Chapter 2
Four Ways to Flocculate
9
Chapter 2 Four Ways to Flocculate
Compression
Flocculation by double layer
compression is unusual, but
has some application in
industrial wastewaters.
Compare this figure to the
one on page 2.
Highly Negative
Colloid
Stern Layer
Diffuse Layer
Ions In Equilibrium
With Solution
10
Charge Neutralization
Inorganic coagulants (such as alum) and Charge neutralization is easily monitored
cationic polymers often work through and controlled using zeta potential. This is
charge neutralization. It is a practical way important because overdosing can reverse
to lower the DLVO energy barrier and form the charge on the colloid, and redisperse it
stable flocs. Charge neutralization involves as a positive colloid. The result is a poorly
adsorption of a positively charged coagulant flocculated system. The detrimental effect
on the surface of the colloid. This charged of overdoing is especially noticeable with
surface coating neutralizes the negative very low molecular weight cationic polymers
charge of the colloid, resulting in a near that are ineffective at bridging.
zero net charge. Neutralization is the key to
optimizing treatment before sedimentation,
granular media filtration or air flotation.
Charge Reduction
Lowering the surface charge
drops the repulsive energy
curve and allows van der
Waals forces to reduce the
energy barrier. Compare
this figure with that on the
opposite page and the one
on page 2.
Slightly Negative
Colloid
Stern Layer
Diffuse Layer
Ions In Equilibrium
With Solution
11
Chapter 2 Four Ways to Flocculate
Sweep Floc
Colloids become enmeshed in the growing precipitate.
Bridging
Each polymer chain attaches to many colloids.
12
Chapter 3
Selecting Polyelectrolytes
13
Chapter 3 Selecting Polyelectrolytes
Characterizing Polymers
Molecular Weight Type of Polymer
The overall size of a polymer determines its Polyelectrolytes are classified as non-ionic,
relative usefulness for bridging. Size is anionic or cationic depending upon the
usually measured as molecular weight. residual charge on the polymer in solution.
Manufacturers do not use a uniform
method to report molecular weight. For Non-ionic polyelectrolytes are polymers
this reason, two similar polymers with the with a very low charge density. A typical
same published molecular weight may non-ionic is a polyacrylamide. Non-ionics
actually be quite different. are used to flocculate solids through bridg-
ing.
In addition, molecular weight is only a
measure of average polymer length. Each Anionic polyelectrolytes are negatively
molecule in a drum of polymer is not the charged polymers and can be manufactured
same size. A wide range can and will be with a variety of charge densities, from
found in the same batch. This distribution practically non-ionic to very strongly ani-
of molecular weights is an important prop- onic. Intermediate charge densities are
erty and can vary greatly. usually the most useful. Anionics are
normally used for bridging, to flocculate
Molecular General solids. The acrylamide-based anionics with
Weight Range Description very high molecular weights are very effec-
10,000,000 or more Very High tive for this.
1,000,000 to 10,000,000 High
200,000 to 1,000,000 Medium Negative colloids can sometimes be suc-
100,000 to 200,000 Low cessfully flocculated with bridging-type long
50,000 to 100,000 Very Low chain anionic polyelectrolytes. One pos-
Less than 50,000 Very, Very Low sible explanation is that a colloid with a net
negative charge may actually have a mosaic
Structure of positive and negative regions. Areas of
Two similar polyelectrolytes with the same positive charge could serve as points of
composition of monomers, molecular attachment for the negative polymer.
weight, and charge characteristics can
perform differently because of the way the Anionic polyelectrolytes may be capable of
monomers are linked together. For ex- flocculating large particles, but a residual
ample, a product with two monomers A and haze of smaller colloids will almost always
B could have a regular alternation from A to remain. These must first have their charge
B or could have groups of A’s followed by neutralized in order to flocculate.
groups of B’s.
Cationic polyelectrolytes are positively
Charge Density charged polymers and come in a wide range
Relative charge density is controlled by the of families, charge densities and molecular
ratio of charged and uncharged monomers weights. The variety available offers great
used. The higher the residual charge, the flexibility in solving specific coagulation and
higher the density. In general, the relative flocculation problems, but makes selecting
charge density and molecular weight can- the right polymer more complicated.
not both be increased. As a result, the
ideal polyelectrolyte often involves a tradeoff High molecular weight cationic polyelectro-
between charge density and molecular lytes can be thought of as double acting
weight. because they act in two ways: charge
neutralization and bridging.
14
Polymer B
Zeta Potential, mV
0
-5
0.4 Effluent Turbidity, NTU
-5
0.3 -10
-10
0.2 Polymer C
Turbidity -15
-15 $0.50 / lb
0.1
15
Chapter 3 Selecting Polyelectrolytes
Zeta Potential, mV
In water treatment, dual polymer systems Polymer +
have the disadvantage that more careful -5 20 mg/L
control is required to balance the counter- alum
acting forces. Dual polymers are more
common in sludge dewatering, where Polymer
-10 Only
overdosing and the appearance of excess
polymer in the centrate or filtrate is not as
important. -15
Preconditioning
Inorganic coagulants may be helpful as a -20
coagulant aid when a polyelectrolyte alone
is not successful in destabilizing all the
particles. Pretreatment with inorganics can
also reduce the cationic polymer dose and Preconditioning Polymers with Alum
make it more stable, requiring less critical The effect of preconditioning can be evaluated by
control. making plots of zeta potential versus polymer dosage
at various levels of preconditioning chemical. In this
example, the required dosage of cationic polymer was
substantially reduced with 20 mg/L of alum while 10
mg/l of alum was not effective.
16
Polymer Packaging and Feeding
Polyelectrolytes can be purchased in pow- Stock polymer solutions are usually made
der, solution and emulsion form. Each type up to 0.1 to 0.5% as a good compromise
has advantages and disadvantages. If between storage volume, batch life, and
possible, feed facilities should allow any viscosity. Diluting the stock solution by
type to be used. about 10:1 with water will usually drop the
concentration to the recommended feed
Dry powder polymers are whitish granular level. The polymer and dilution water
powders, flakes or beads. Their tendency to should be blended in-line with a static
absorb moisture from the air and to stick to mixer or an eductor.
feed screws, containers and drums is a
major nuisance. Dry polymers are also
difficult to wet and dissolve rather slowly.
Fifteen minutes to 1 hour may be required.
17
Chapter 3 Selecting Polyelectrolytes
Interferences
Cationic polymers can react with negative
ions in solution, forming chemical bonds +10
which impair their performance. Greater
doses are then required to achieve the same pH 8
degree of charge neutralization or bridging.
This is more noticeable in wastewater +5
treatment.
Zeta Potential, mV
Examples of interfering substances include
sulfides, hydrosulfides and phenolics, but 0
even chlorides can reduce polymer effective- 1 2 3 4 5 6
Polymer Dose, mg/L
ness.
-10
+10 -15
+5
pH Effects
Zeta potential curves can be used to evaluate the
Polymer Dose, mg/L
0 sensitivity of a cationic polymer to changes in pH. For
2 4 6 8 10 12 this particular polymer the effect is quite large. It can
Zeta Potential, mV
-5
No
Phenol
30 mg/L
-10 Phenol
-15
-20
Phenol Interference
The effect of phenols on this cationic polymer was
evaluated by plotting zeta potential curves.
18
Chapter 4
Using Alum and Ferric Coagulants
19
Chapter 4 Using Alum and Ferric Coagulants
The type of coagulation which predominates The rules of thumb are based on the ratio
is dependent on both the alum dose and of 600 (alum) to 300 (alkalinity):
the pH after alum addition. In general, • 1.0 mg/L of commercial alum will
sweep coagulation is thought to predomi- consume about 0.5 mg/L of alkalinity.
nate at alum doses above 30 mg/L; below • There should be at least 5-10 mg/L of
that, the dominant form depends upon both alkalinity remaining after the reaction
dose and pH. occurs to keep the pH near optimum.
• Raw water alkalinity should be equal to
Alkalinity is required for the alum reaction half the expected alum dose plus 5 to 10
to successfully proceed. Otherwise, the pH mg/L.
will be lowered to the point where soluble
aluminum ion (Al+3) is formed instead of 1.0 mg/L of alkalinity expressed as CaCO3
aluminum hydroxide. Dissolved aluminum is equivalent to:
ion is an ineffective coagulant and can • 0.66 mg/L 85% quicklime (CaO)
cause “dirty water” problems in the distri- • 0.78 mg/L 95% hydrated lime (Ca(OH)3)
bution system. The reaction between alum • 0.80 mg/L caustic soda (NaOH)
and alkalinity is shown by the following: • 1.08 mg/L soda ash (Na2CO3)
600 300 • 1.52 mg/L sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
Alum Alkalinity
Al2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2 + 6H2O ➜
Aluminum Carbonic
Hydroxide Acid
➜ 3CaSO4 + 2Al(OH)3 + 6H2CO3
20
When to Add Alkalinity
If natural alkalinity is insufficient then add
artificial alkalinity to maintain the desired
level. Hydrated lime, caustic soda, soda +5 Zeta-Potential
ash or sodium bicarbonate may be used to
raise the alkalinity level.
0 0.5
Alkalinity should always be added up-
Zeta Potential, mV
Alum reacts instantaneously and will
proceed to other end products if sufficient -10 0.3
alkalinity is not immediately available. This
requirement is often ignored in an effort to
minimize tanks and mixers, but poor -15 0.2
performance is the price that is paid. Turbidity
21
Chapter 4 Using Alum and Ferric Coagulants
pH Effects
Charge Solubility of Aluminum
There is a strong relation between pH and A second important aspect of pH is its effect
performance, but there is no single opti- on solubility of the aluminum (Al+3 ) ion.
mum pH for a specific water. Rather, there Insufficient alkalinity allows the pH to drop
is an interrelation between pH and the type to a point where the aluminum ion becomes
of aluminum hydroxide formed. This in highly soluble. Dissolved aluminum can
turn determines the charge on the hydrous then pass right through the filters. After
oxide complex. Other ions come into play filtration, pH is usually adjusted upward for
as well. The effect of pH on charge can be corrosion control. The higher pH converts
evaluated using a zeta potential curve and dissolved aluminum ion to insoluble alumi-
direct measurement of zeta potential is a num hydroxide which then flocculates in
better method of process control than pH. the distribution system and almost guaran-
tees “dirty water” complaints.
80
+15 Turbidity
Residual Color
of Filtered 0.8
60 +15 Water
Turbidity, NTU
+10 0.6
40
+10
Color 0.4
+5
20
Zeta Potential, mV
+5
0.2
Zeta Potential, mV
0 0
Residual Aluminum
0 0.0
-5 Zeta 0.4
Potential
-5 0.3
-10 Zeta
Potential Residual
0.2
Aluminum
-10
0.1
-15
-15 0
4 5 6 20 40 60 80 100 120
pH Alum Dose, mg/L
22
Coagulant Aids
Tailoring Floc Characteristics
Polyelectrolytes which enhance the floccu-
lating action of metal coagulants (such as
alum), are called coagulant aids or floccu- +5
lant aids.
Zeta Potential, mV
also be used to increase plant capacity Alum +
without increasing physical plant size. Cationic
-10 Polymer
23
Chapter 4 Using Alum and Ferric Coagulants
Zeta Potential, mV
+5 5
20
0 0
COD
80
-10
14
60
12 -15
Zeta 40
Potential
10
-20
20
8 30 mg/L
Alum + -25 0
0.1 mg/L 10 20 30 40 50 60
6 Non - Ionic
Polymer Fe (III) Dose, mg/L
4
Wastewater Coagulation with Ferric Chloride
2 These curves are for coagulation of a municipal
trickling filter effluent. In this case, the optimum zeta
0
potential is -11mv. Overdosing by only 5 mg/L
720 1440 2160 2880 3600 causes a significant deterioration in performance, and
Overflow Rate, gal per day / sq. ft. is accompanied by a large change in zeta potential.
Overdosing by 10 mg/L results in almost complete
deterioration.
Non-Ionic Polymer Increases Settling Capacity
Jar tests were used to evaluate the effect of a very
small amount of non-ionic polymer on settling rates.
Sedimentation velocities were converted to equivalent
settling basin overflow rates to illustrate the dramatic
effect of the polymer. With no polymer the turbidity
was 8 NTU at an overflow rate of 720 gallons per day
per square foot. After the polymer was added, the
flow rate could be tripled with the settled water
turbidity actually improving at the same time.
24
Chapter 5
Tools for Dosage Control
Jar Test
An Undervalued Tool
We usually associate the jar test with a
tedious dosage control tool that seems to
take an agonizingly long time to set up, run
and then clean up after. As a result the
true versatility of the humble jar test is
often overlooked.
25
Chapter 5 Tools for Dosage Control
26
Settling Studies Predicting Filtered Water Quality
The data from a well thought out jar test For water treatment, it is important to
can be used to realistically size settling remember that our ultimate goal is to
basins and to evaluate the ability of coagu- produce the best filtered water. We often
lant aids to increase the hydraulic capacity assume that the best settled water will
of existing basins. Surface overflow rate always correspond to the best filtered
(gallons per day per square foot) is more water, but that is not necessarily so. In
important than retention time in determin- fact, substantial savings may be realized by
ing the hydraulic capacity of a settling optimizing filtered water quality instead.
basin, and is calculated from the velocity of
the slowest settling floc that we want to Bench scale testing can be used in conjunc-
remove. In practical terms, a settling rate tion with jar tests to predict filtered water
of 1 cm/minute is equal to an overflow rate quality. Whatman #40 filter paper (or
of 360 gallons per day per square foot. equivalent) provides a good simulation. Use
fresh filter paper for each jar and discard
Jar test settling data is obtained by drawing the first portion filtered.
off samples at a fixed distance below the
water surface, at various time intervals
after the end of rapid mixing and floccula- 1000
tion. Settling velocity and overflow rate are
calculated for each time interval and the
500
sample reflects the quality that we can
expect at that overfow rate.
200
The Gator jar has a convenient sample
draw-off located 10 cm below the water 100
surface. Samples are usually withdrawn at
G-value, (sec -1)
27
Chapter 5 Tools for Dosage Control
Turbidity, NTU
are only approximated in the jar test and
Turbidity
treatment is on a batch instead of a flow- of Filtered
through basis. +10 Water 0.2
Good
Conditions to match up include: Poor
Zeta Potential, mV
• sequence of chemical addition +5 Fair 0.1
• rapid mixing intensity and time Poor
Fair
• flocculation intensity and time
0 0.0
Visually evaluated variables include:
• time for first floc formation
• floc size -5
• floc quality
• settling rate
Zeta
-10 Potential
Immediately after rapid mixing the following
can be determined:
• zeta potential -15
• pH
28
Zeta Potential
Easily Understood Our Zeta-Meter 3.0 - Simple & Reliable
Zeta potential is an excellent tool for coagu- The Zeta-Meter 3.0 is a microprocessor-
lant dosage control, and we are proud to based version of our popular instrument.
have pioneered the use of our instrument in The sample is poured into the cell, then the
water treatment over 25 years ago. Opera- electrodes are inserted and connected to
tion of a Zeta-Meter is relatively simple and the Zeta-Meter 3.0 unit. First, the instru-
only a short time is required for each test. ment determines specific conductance and
The results are objective and repeatable helps select the appropriate voltage to
and, most importantly, the techniques can apply. Then, when the electrodes are
be easily learned. energized the particles begin to move and
are tracked using a grid in the microscope
The principle of operation is easy to under- eyepiece.
stand. A high quality stereoscopic micro-
scope is used to comfortably observe tur- Tracking simply involves pressing a button
bidity particles inside a chamber called an and holding it down while a colloid trav-
electrophoresis cell. Electrodes placed in erses the grid. When the track button is
each end of the cell create an electric field released the instrument instantly calculates
across it. If the turbidity particles have a and displays the zeta potential. A single
charge, then they move in the field with a tracking takes a few seconds, and a com-
speed and direction which is easily related plete run takes only minutes.
to their zeta potential.
29
Chapter 5 Tools for Dosage Control
30
Streaming Current
On-Line Zeta-Potential . . . . Almost A Useful Monitor
A limitation on the zeta potential technique Streaming current is useful as an on-line
is that it is not a continuous on-line meas- monitor of zeta potential. However, it is
uring instrument. The streaming current only an indication because the value is not
detector was developed in response to this scaled. That is, a change in 10 streaming
need. Its main advantage is rapid detection current units does not correspond directly
of plant upsets. to a zeta potential change of 10 mV. In
addition, the zero position is often shifted
Streaming current is really nothing more significantly from true zero and is not
than another way to measure zeta poten- stable.
tial, but it is actually related to the zeta
potential of a solid surface, such as the Streaming current and streaming potential
walls of a cylindrical tube, and not the zeta are both excellent ways to keep track of on-
potential of the turbidity or floc particles. line conditions, but should be calibrated
with a zeta meter. A change in the stream-
Forcing a flow of water through a tube ing current tells you that it is time to take a
induces an electric current (called the sample and measure the zeta potential.
streaming current) and voltage difference
(called the streaming potential) between the
ends of the tube. Some of the particles in
the liquid will loosely adhere to the walls of
the cylinder and will affect the zeta poten-
tial of the wall. As a result the streaming
current or streaming potential of the wall Sample Sample
will reflect to some degree the zeta potential In Out
of the particles in suspension.
Electrode AC
Streaming
Commercial Instruments Current
Most commercial streaming current devices
Piston
use an oscillating flow to eliminate back-
ground electrical signals. A piston in a Boot
cylinder (called a boot) is very common.
Electrode
The piston oscillates up and down at a
relatively low frequency (about 4 cycles per
second) causing the sample to flow in an
alternating fashion through the space Oscillating Piston Streaming Current Detector
between the piston and cylinder. The flow The AC signal is electrically amplified and conditioned
of water creates an AC streaming current, to produce a signal that is proportional to the zeta
due to the zeta potential of the cylinder and potential.
piston surface. It is this current which is
measured and amplified by the detector.
31
Chapter 5 Tools for Dosage Control
Most turbidity measurements are based Particle size analyzers quantify the actual
upon nephelometry. A light beam is passed particle count and the distribution with
through the water sample and the particles size. Particle counters are much more
in the water scatter the light. The turbidi- expensive than turbidimeters and are not
meter measures the intensity of scattered commonly found in water treatment plants.
light, usually at an angle of 90° to the light
beam and the intensity is expressed in
standard turbidity units.
1.0 100
0.8 80
+15 +15
Turbidity, NTU
0.6 60
Turbidity
+10 of Filtered +10 Particle
Water Count
0.4 40
+5 +5
0.2 20
Zeta Potential, mV
Zeta Potential, mV
0 0.0 0 0
Zeta Zeta
Potential Potential
-5 -5
-10 -10
32
Chapter 6
Tips on Mixing
Basics
Mixing patterns are often complex and are
difficult to describe, so we usually classify
mixers based upon how closely they ap- A Practical
Approximation
proximate one of two idealized flow pat- of Plug Flow
terns: complete mixing or plug flow.
100
Four
Ideal plug flow means that each volume of
Relative Concentration
33
Chapter 6 Tips on Mixing
Rapid Mixing
Plug Flow versus Complete Mix Mixing Intensity
Recommendations for the best type of rapid The type and intensity of agitation is also
mixing are confusing at best. The ex- important. Turbulent mixing, character-
tremely fast times for the reaction of alum ized by high velocity gradients, is desirable
with alkalinity (less than 1 second) and for in order to provide sufficient energy for
the rapid formation of the aluminum hy- interparticle collisions. Propeller mixers
droxide microfloc (less than 10 seconds) are not as well suited as turbine mixers.
have produced advocates of in-line instan- Propellers put more energy into circulating
taneous blenders (plug flow) as well as the basin contents, while turbine mixers
tubular plug flow reactors, all with reaction shear the water, inducing the higher
times of a few seconds. A plug flow reactor velocity gradients and the small high
insures that an equal amount of coagulant multidirectional velocity currents that
is available to each particle for an equal promote particle collisions.
amount of time. This is important if the
reaction time is truly only a few seconds High intensity throughout the rapid mix
long. basin may not be as important as the scale
and intensity of turbulence at the point of
Others have found that the traditional coagulant addition. In a turbine-type
complete-mix-type basin with turbine- or complete-mix basin, the mixing intensity
propeller-type impellers is entirely adequate will not be uniform throughout the basin.
and have even recommended extending the The impeller discharge zone occupies
reaction time to several minutes (instead of about 10 per cent of the total volume and
the standard 30-60 seconds suggested in has a shear intensity approximately 2.5
some state standards) in order to enhance times the average.
the initial stages of flocculation.
There is an upper limit to mixing intensity
This apparent conflict can be explained by because high shear conditions can break
considering the two possible types of coagu- up microflocs and delay or prevent visible
lation: charge neutralization and sweep floc formation. Coagulants which act
floc. For sweep coagulation, extremely through charge neutralization can some-
short mix times are not required since most times recover from this during flocculation
of the colloids are captured by becoming (examples include alum and low molecular
enmeshed in the growing precipitate. For weight cationic polyelectrolytes). Bridging-
alum, dosages above about 30 mg/L will type flocculants are not as resilient and
produce sweep coagulation. Lower dosages may not recover. This may be because the
result in a combination of sweep and long polymer chains are cut, breaking their
charge neutralization or just charge neu- particle-to-particle bridges. The charge on
tralization, depending on the pH and the the polymer fragments may even interfere
alum dose. Clearly, the choice of mixing with attempts to re-coagulate the system,
regimes is not easy. although a polymer of opposite charge may
help.
34
G-Value Rules of Thumb for Rapid Mixing
The G-value concept is a rough approxima- The purpose of rapid mixing is two-fold.
tion of mixing intensity. It is based upon First, it should efficiently disperse the
input power, basin volume and viscosity. coagulating chemicals. Second, and just as
For water, at 10OC, the G value can be important, it should provide conditions that
expressed in terms of horsepower per 1000 favor the formation of microfloc particles.
gallons of basin volume: The characteristics of this microfloc will
determine the success of the flocculation
G = 387 x (HP per 1000 gal)1/2 step.
0
100
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Chapter 6 Tips on Mixing
Flocculation
Rate of Flocculation Tapered Flocculation
In general the rate of flocculation is con- You can reduce the time required for com-
trolled by two factors: plete flocculation by using a number of
• concentration of particles (both free flocculation basins in series. If possible
colloids and floc) each basin should approximate plug flow
• velocity gradient conditions. The advantage of several basins
is two-fold. First, the overall flow pattern
A greater number of particles provides more begins to approximate plug flow, even if
opportunity for collisions to occur between each basin is well mixed. In other words, it
colloids or between floc particles and col- is unlikely that a specific particle will spend
loids. This increases the rate of capture. a short time period in each basin. With plug
Higher velocity gradients also provide more flow, the average retention time and overall
opportunities for collisions, but the shear basin volume can be reduced by more than
forces from too high a velocity gradient can half as compared to a single well-mixed
break up larger flocs and will limit the basin.
maximum floc size.
Second, the velocity gradient can be varied
Creating Collisions from basin to basin. This is sometimes
The velocity gradients in a full scale floccu- called “tapered flocculation”. The purpose of
lation basin can be created by a variety of the first one or two basins is to capture
mechanisms, including baffled chambers, stray colloids. High shear intensities favor
rotating paddles, reciprocating blades and this, since the high velocities maximize the
turbine-type mixers. Baffled chambers are number of collisions. High shear conditions
limited because the velocity gradient is will also limit floc size, thereby creating
controlled only by the flow rate, while more particles and again increasing the
mechanical systems offer the ability to probability of collision. To achieve this, the
independently control shear intensity. flocculator speed in the first one or two
basins should be adjusted to limit floc size,
The efficiency of a mechanical system with the first basin at a higher speed than
should be judged by its ability to produce a the second.
uniform distribution of eddy currents
throughout the basin. Some of the energy The third and fourth basins are the floc
in a mechanical flocculator will unavoidably growing stages. They should produce a
go into rotating the water rather than large fast setting floc. Velocity gradients are
creating velocity gradients. This is particu- progressively lowered to avoid floc breakup.
larly true in horizontally rotating units with A long chain anionic polyelectrolyte can be
large paddles. Stators can be used to added here if necessary to mechanically
dampen this tendency. A wire-mesh-type bridge and toughen the growing flocs.
paddle provides more shear with less rota-
tion of the basin contents than a solid
paddle. Turbine-type mixers suffer from a
large variation in velocity gradients which
are high near the mixer and low near the
basin walls.
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About Zeta-Meter
Affordable Zeta Potential
We are a small specialty company, and have
been developing and manufacturing zeta
meters for over twenty five years. Our
instruments are reasonably priced and
feature low maintenance costs. In addition,
careful quality control has enabled us to
maintain an excellent reliability record.
Technical Help
We welcome your questions regarding
specific applications of zeta potential,
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ited ZP tests can be made on your own
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Staunton, Virginia 24402
USA
http://www.zeta-meter.com
37