LECTURES ON CHEVALLEY GROUPS

Robert S t e i n b e r g

Yale U n i v e r s i t y

Notes prepared by
John Faulkner and Robert Wilson

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
 LECTURES ON CHEVALLEY GROUPS

Robert S t e i n b e r g

Yale U n i v e r s i t y

1967
Notes p r e p a r e d by
John F a u l k n e r and Robert Wilson

T h i s work w a s p a r t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d by C o n t r a c t ARO-D-336-
8230-31-43033.
 !\!p
/' ,
[
Acknowledgement
$ 1 .
-7

These n o t e s a r e d e d i c a t e d t o my w i f e , Maria. They

might a l s o have been d e d i c a t e d t o t h e Yale Mathematics D e p a r t -

ment t y p i n g s t a f f wliose u n i f o r m l y h i g h s t a n d a r d s w i l l become

a p p a r e n t t o anyone r e a d i n g t h e n o t e s . Needless t o s a y , I
am g r e a t l y i n d e b t e d t o John F a u l k n e r and Robert Wilson f o r

w r i t i n g u p a major p a r t of t h e n o t e s . F i n a l l y , it i s a

p l e a s u r e t o acknowledge t h e g r e a t s t i m u l u s d e r i v e d f r o m my

c l a s s and from many c o l l e a g u e s , t o o many t o mention by name,

d u r i n g my s t a y a t Yale.

Robert S t e i n b e r g

J u n e , 1968
 Guide -
to -
t h e Reader

T h e s e n o t e s p r e s u p p o s e t h e t h e o r y of complex

semisimple L i e a l g e b r a s through t h e c l a s s i f i c a -

t i o n , a s may be f o u n d , f o r example, i n t h e b o o k s
o f E. B, Dynkin, M, J a c o b s o n , o r J.-P. Serre, or

i n t h e n o t e s of kinai ire Sophus L i e . An appen-

d i x d e a l i n g w i t h t h e most f r e q u e n t l y needed
r e s u l t s about f i n i t e r e f l e c t i o n groups and r o o t

systems h a s been included. The r e a d e r i s a

advised t o read t h i s p a r t first. This he

can d o r a t h e r q u i c k l y .
P"?

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.
% l6 A b a s i s f o r 1

5 2. Abasisfor ?k
5 3. The Chevalley g r o u p s

5 4. S i m p l i c i t y of G

% 5. Chevalley g r o u p s and a l g e b r a i c g r o u p s

8 6. G e n e r a t o r s and r e l a t i o n s

3 7. Central extensions

3 8. V a r i a n t s of t h e Bruhat lemma
@

3 9, The o r d e r s of t h e f i n i t e Chevalley g r o u p s

3 10 Isomorphisms and automorphisms

5 11. Some t w i s t e d g r o u p s
9
S 1 2 Representations

% 13. Representations continued

% 14. R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s concluded

Appendix on f i n i t e r e f l e c t i o n groups
 L e c t u r e s on Chevalley Groups
51. A b a s i s f o r %-
We s t a r t w i t h some b a s i c p r o p e r t i e s of semisimple L i e
algebras over $?, and e s t a b l i s h some n o t a t i o n t o be used
throughout. The a s s e r t i o n s n o t proved h e r e a r e proved i n t h e
s t a n d a r d books on L i e a l g e b r a s , e . g . , t h o s e of Dynkin, Jacpbson
o r Sophus L i e ( ~ G m i n a i r e ) .
Let be a semisimple L i e a l g e b r a o v e r Q , and %
a C a r t a n s u b a l g e b r a of . Then %i s n e c e s s a r i l y Abelian
and = % f o x a where a e and
afo
= [X e x 1 [H,X] = a(H)X for a l l H e% . Note t h a t %= 0 -
The a s s a r e l i n e a r f u n c t i o n s on x, called roots. We adopt
t h e convention t h a t x,, Y
= 0 if y i s not a root. Then

c Xu, Z@I
c he r a n k of L , say. The
roots generate %" a s a v e c t o r space o v e r
Write v f o r % Q" ' t h e v e c t o r s p a c e over Q generated
by t h e r o o t s . Then dim
Q V = 4 . Let y e V . Since t h e
K i l l i n g form i s nondegenerate t h e r e e x i s t s an H~ e such t h a t
Y
(H,H;) = y(H) for a l l H e %. Define ( y , F ) = ( H ,Hz)
f

Y
?
for
all y, 6 e V . T h i s i s a symmetric, n o n d e g e n e r a t e , p o s i t f v e
d e f i n i t e b i l i n e a r form on V .
Denote t h e c o l l e c t i o n of a l l r o o t s by C . Then C is a
s u b s e t of t h e nonzero e l e m e n t s of V satisfying:

(0) C generates V a s a v e c t o r s p a c e over Q .

 (1) a e x = + -a e C and ka 4 C for k

an i n t e g e r
+
#- 1 .
(2) 2 ( a , p ) , / ( p , ~ )e 7 for a l l a , f3 e C .
(VJrite < a , @> = 2(a,f3)/(p,p) . These a r e c a l l e d
Cartan i n t e g e r s ) .

( 3 ) C i s i n v a r i a n t under a l l r e f l e c t i o n s
wa(o E. C) (where wa is the reflection in the
hyperplane orthogonal t o a , i.e. ,
wav = v - 2(v,a)/(a,a) a) .
Thus C i s a r o o t system i n t h e s e n s e of Appendix I.
Conversely, if C i s any r o o t system s a t i s f y i n g c o n d i t i o n ( 2 1 ,
then C i s t h e r o o t system of some L i e a l g e b r a .
The group W g e n e r a t e d by a l l wa i s a f i n i t e group
(Appendix 1.6) c a l l e d t h e Weyl group. If lal, ...., a & ] is
a s i m p l e system of r o o t s (Appendix I . 8 ) , t h e n W i s generated
by t h e wa
i
i = 1 .. , n) (Appendix 1.16) and e v e r y r o o t i s
congruent under W t o a s i m p l e r o o t (Appendix 1 . 1 5 ) .

Lemma 1:. F c r e a c h r o o t c. , let

0
Ha e % be such t h a t
v
(H,H,) = o(H) for all H e 3 . .Define Ha = 2 / ( o , a ) Ha
0
and
H 1. = H
"i
(i= 1 ..., 4,) . Then each Ha i s an i n t e g r a l l i n e a r
combination of t h e Hi .
Proof: Write wi f o r w, e W . Define a n a c t i o n of W on
v i0
by w.H
1
0

j
= H
j
- <a.,ai>
J
Hi .
 Then

Then s i n c e t h e wi generate W , wH
j
is an i n t e g r a l l i n e a r
combination of t h e Hi for all w E W . Now i f a is an
arbitrary root then a = wa
j
f o r some w e W and some j .
Then Ha = Hwa = wHa = WH = a n i n t e g r a l l i n e a r combination
j j j
of t h e , Hi .
For e v e r y r o o t a choose Xae a , X a # O D

If a + p # 0 define N
a,B IXa ,Xpl = Na,@ Set
= O if c +'p i s not a r o o t .
N a , ~
If a and ? are roots the a - s t r i n g of r o o t s through p
i s t h e sequence p - ra, ... , p, ... , (3 + q ~ where p + ia

a r e not roots.

Lemma 2 : The Xa can be chosen so t h a t :

 (a) [Xc7X-al = Ho .
(b) If c; and p are roots, fl { -+ a , and ; :
. .

P - ra, ... , p , ... P + qa is the a - s t r i n g of

r o o t s through p then N~
a,?
- q(r+l)lc+~1~/1~1~ .
-
m o o f : , See t h e f i r s t p a r t of t h e proof of Theorem 1 0 , p. 147 i n
,, . . .,.. , . .

Lernma.3: If a , 0 and a +p are roots, then. q(r+l)/a+8(2/~b

-
Proof: We u s e two f a c t s :

(::) r - q = < j3,a > .

(For wa maps p - ra to j3 + qa so @ + qa = w , ( p - ra) =
P - ra - 2(p - ra,a)/(a,a)a = p - < @ , a> c + r a ) .
(::::%) I n t h e a - s t r i n g of r o o t s through p at
most two r o o t l e n g t h s occur.

p and C
P
=C nV , then C
P
i s a rocit 'system and e v e r y r o o t
in the a - s t r i n g of r o o t s t h r o u g h 3! belongs t o X
P
. Now
0
vq i s two d i m e n s i o n a l ; so a system of simple r o o t s f o r C

P ?
under t h e Weyl group of C t o a simple r o o t , C and hence
the a - s t r i n g of r o o t s t h r o u g h p h a s a t most two r o o t l e n g t h s )
 /

We must show t h a t q l a + p 1 2 / / S 1 2= r + 1 . Now by ( * ) :

..
=< P,C >+ 1- q(ulL/[plL - q < a , >
~

= (< p,a > + l ) ( l- q l a 1 2 / ~ p 1 2 ) ..

Set A =< $,a>+ 1 and B = l- q[a12/lel2 ..

We must show A =0 or B = 0 .
If (a[ >
- lpl then I< P,a >( =21i(B,a)[/(a12 <
21 ( f 3 , a ) l / l g 1 2= I< a , $ 21 . By Schwarzvs i n e q u a l i t y
2
< @ , a> < a , @> =4 ( a , ~ /) l a 1 l$l <_ 4 w i t h e q u a l i t y i f and o n l y
if a = kp . Since a and p a r e r o o t s and G #-
+ $ we
have a # k @ so > < 4 , Then s i n c e
< $,a > < a , @

; I< @ , a > I < I < a , P >I we have < @ , a > = - 1, 0 , o r 1 . If

< p,a > = - 1 t h e n A = 0 , If < @ , a > 2 0 t h e n
I@+ 2al > I p + a1 > I @ 1 . S i n c e t h e r e a r e o n l y two r o o t l e n g t h s
+ 2a i s n o t a r o o t and hence q = 1 . S i n c e If! + a ( > la1
and I @ + a 1 > I D ( and a t most two r o o t l e n g t h s o c c u r la1 = 1 0 1 ,

Hence B =0 .
If lai < 1@I , then + p ( <_ 1 p l ( s i n c e o t h e r w i s e t h r e e
(a
r o o t l e n g t h s would o c c u r ) . Hence ( a , @ )< 0 s o < a,g > < 0 .
Then I@ - a1 > > la1 so P - a i s n o t a r o o t and hence r = O .
A s above < a , @> < @,a> < 4 and I< a,p >( < (< P,a >I so
< a , @> = - 1, 0 , or 1 . Hence < a,P > = - 1 . Then by ('::)
q =- < @ , a> =< p,a >/< a,P > =
2
lpl //at2 . Hence B =0 ,
 6
We c o l l e c t t h e s e r e s u l t s i n :

: The Hi (i=l,2 , A*., chosen a s i n Lemma 1 t o g e t h

i n Lemma 2 form a b a s i s f o r Z? r e l a t i v e t
e q u a t i o n s of s t r u c t u r e a r e a s f o l l o w s ( a n d , i n p a r t i c u l

(a) [ H i , ~"i l = 0

(b) IHi,Xal = < a , a i >Xa

(c) [X,,X-,I = H =
a
a n i n t e g r a l l i n e a r combination

(a [X,,XBl= -
-I- ('+1IX
a+P
if a+$ is a root.

if a + 13 # 0 and a+p i s not a root.

Proof: (a) holds since is abelian. (b) holds since

CH~,X,] = a(HB)X, = < a , @ >X a ( c ) f o l l o w s from t h e c h o i c e of
the Xa and t h e Hi and from Lemma 1. ( d ) f o l l o w s from
Lemma 2 ( b ) and Lemma 3.' . (e) holds since [xa,yB]
0 = if
a+p i s not a root.

s i s i s c a l l e d a Chevalley b a s i s . It i s
unique up t o s i g n changes and automorphisms of x.
and Ha span a 3 - d i m e n s i l n a l s u b a l g e b r a

isomorphic t o s t 2 (2x2 m a t r i c e s of t r a c e 0).

1 ( c) A s a n example l e t A = s&,,, .

For i , 1 , ..., ,Z+1 , i # j , defdne a = a ( i , j ) by

( i ,j ) : diag(al, ..., -> ai - a
j
. Then t h e a ( i ,j ) are
the roots. Let Ei be t h e m a t r i x u n i t w i t h 1 in the (i,j)
,j
p s i t i o n and 0 elsewhere. Then

Exercise: If o n l y one r o o t l e n g t h o c c u r s t h e n a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s

L e t & be a L i e a l g e b r a over a f i e l d k and Yua n a s s o c i a -

t i v e algebra over k . We s a y t h a t cg : -> i s a homomorphism

couple (Q,cp) such t h a t :

I
II (1) % i s an a s s o c i a t i v e algebra with 1.
§ A basis for a
Let be a L i e a l g e b r a over a f i e l d k and .a an associa-
t i v e algebra over k . We s a y t h a t cp : -> %, i s a homomorphism
if:

(1) 9 i s l i n e a r .

(2) VCX,YI= cp(~)w(Y) - cp(Y)cp(X) f o r a l l X, Y E: 2

A u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p i n g a l g e b r a of a L i e a l g e b r a ;e is a
couple (%,cp) such t h a t :

(1) % i s an a s s o c i a t i v e algebra with 1.

(2) i s a homomorphism of into% .

I

i ( 3 ) If (a() i s a n y o t h e r such c o u p l e t h e n t h e r e e x i s t s
a u n i q u e homomorphism 6 a
:a-> such t h a t 63 o rn =
and @1=1.

For t h e e x i s t e n c e and u n i q u e n e s s of ( 3 ,9 ) s e e , e.g., Jacobson,

Lie A l g e b r a s .
-c.

~ i r k h o f f - W i t t Theorem: Let be a Lie algebra over a f i e l d k

and (?A! ,rp) i t s u n i v e r s a l enveloping algebra. Then :

(a) q is injective.

(b) If i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i t s image i n and if

X1,X2, ..., Xr is a linear basis f o r , the

monomials kl k2
X1 X2 . , . X r
kr form a b a s i s f o r %
(where t h e ki a r e nonnegative i n t e g e r s ) .

The proof h e r e t o o can b e found i n Jacobson.

Theorem 2 : Assme t h e b a s i s elements iHi,Xa] of are as

i n Theorem 1 and a r e a r r a n g e d i n some o r d e r , F o r e a c h c h o i c e of
2+ .,
numbers
in ?!, ,
n i , ma
of a l l
E.

(::) (i= 1 , 2 ,

and
m
xZ/ma?
; a e ) form t h e p r o d u c t ,
according t o t h e given order,

The r e s u l t i n g c o l i e c t i o n i s a b a s i s f o r t h e z - a l g e b r a 2z
g e n e r a t e d by a l l ~:/m! (m e z+; a e E) .
Remark: The c o l l e c t i o n i s a c - b a s i s f o r by t h e Birkhoff-Witt
Theorem.
 The proof of Theorem 2 w i l l depend on a sequence of lemmas.

Lemma 4: Every polynomial o v e r @ in .t variables H1, ... H*

which t a k e s on i n t e g r a l v a l u e s a t a l l i n t e g r a l v a l u e s of t h e
v a r i a b l e s i s a n i n t e g r a l combination of t h e polynomials

fi
i =1
(") where ni e Ziand ni <
- d e g r e e of t h e polynomial

in Hi ( a n d c o n v e r s e l y , of c o u r s e ) .

-
Proof: Let f be such a polynomial. We may w r i t e
r
f = Z f
j=o j
(y') , each fj b e i n g a polynomial i n H1, ..., .
We r e p l a c e HL by HL + 1 and t a k e t h e d i f f e r e n c e . If we do t h i s
r t i m e s we g e t fr . Assuming t h e lemma t r u e f o r polynomials i n
8-1 v a r i a b l e s ( i t c l e a r l y h o l d s f o r polynomials i n no v a r i a b l e s ) ,

hence f o r fr , we may s u b t r a c t t h e t e r m fr ) from f and

complete t h e proof by i n d u c t i o n on r .
Lemma 5: If a i s a r o o t and we w r i t e X, Y, H for
X - a ~a' then

Proof: The c a s e m =n =1 , XY = YX + H , t o g e t h e r with

i n d u c t i o n on n yield x ( y n / n ? ) = (yn/n!)x + .
( Yn-1 / ( n - l ) ? ) ( ~ - n + l )
T h i s e q u a t i o n and i n d u c t i o n on m y i e l d t h e lemma,

Corollary: Each(Ia ) is i n 2z*

proof: Set rn=n i n Lemma 5 , w r i t e t h e r i g h t s i d e a s

+ r
n-1
( y n - j / ( n - j ) ?) (
H- 2n+2 j
)(Xn-J/(n- j ) ?) , t h e n u s e i n d u c t i o n

on n a n d Lemma 4.

~ernrna6 : ~ e xt z b e t h e -&span of t h e b a s i s {Hi,Xa] of x.

Then u n d e r t h e a d j o i n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , e x t e n d e d t o Q, every
~:/rn? preserves 2Z' a n d t h e same h o l d s f o r
any number o f f a c t o r s .

-
Proof: Making ~:/m? a c t on t h e b a s i s of

(xrn/m!
a Xg = 2 ( r + l )( r + 2 ) . (r+m-l)/m!Xp+m, if B # - a
( s e e t h e d e f i n i t i o n of r =r(a,p) i n Theorem 11,
Xa * X-a = Ha , (x:/~)*x-a = - Xa , Xa O H . = - < a , a i >XG ,
and 0 i n a l l o t h e r c a s e s , which p r o v e s 2 is preserved. The
second p a r t f o l l o w s by i n d u c t i o n on t h e number of f a c t o r s a n d :

Lemma 7: Let U and V be x -modules and A and B additive

subgroups t h e r e o f . If A and B a r e p r e s e r v e d by e v e r y ~:/m!
then so i s AQB ( i n U@V) .
Proof: Since X actson U@V as X @ 1 + 1 @ X itfollowsfrom
t h e binomial expansion t h a t xm/m? a c t s as I: x J / j ? @ X m- j / ( m - j ) ? ,
whence t h e lemma.

Lemma 8 : Let S be a s e t of r o o t s s u c h t h a t (a) a E S => - a 4 S

and (b) a, p c S , a + E X a + 6 E S ( e , g . t h e s e t of
p o s i t i v e r o o t s ) , a r r a n g e d i n some o r d e r . Then { Xuma/mG1 lma > 01
GES
is a b a s i s f o r t h e z - a l g e b r a a g e n e r a t e d by a l l ~:/m?

-
proof: By t h e B i r k h o f f - W i t t Theorem a p p l i e d t o t h e L i e a l g e b r a f o r

which (xa(u e S ] i s a b a s i s we s e e t h a t e v e r y A e a is a
complex combination of t h e g i v e n e l e m e n t s . We must show a l l co-
efficients a r e integers. Write A = c Xama/ma! + t e r m s of a t
most t h e same t o t a l d e g r e e . We make A a c t on XQ~G
(x ma copies) and l o o k f o r t h e component of A.@ X -a @ @X-a
-a
ma c o p i e s
in %@ %'@ * . Any t e r m of A other than t h e first leads t o
a z e r o component s i n c e t h e r e a r e e i t h e r n o t enough f a c t o r s ( a t l e a s t
one i s needed f o r each X -a ) o r b a r e l y enough b u t w i t h t h e wrong
distribution (since X *X
P -a
i s a n o n z e r o element o f o n l y if %
p = a) , w h i l e t h e f i r s t l e a d s t o a non-zero component o n l y if
the Xaqs and t h e X
-a
? s a r e matched u p , i n a l l p o s s i b l e permu-
tations. It f o l l o w s t h a t t h e component sought i s cHa 8 - @JHa .
Now e a c h Ha i s a p r i m i t i v e element o f yz ( t o s e e t h i s imbed a

i n a s i m p l e s y s t e m of r o o t s and t h e n u s e Lemma 1). S i n c e A

preserves yz@zz@ by Lemma 6 it f o l l o w s t h a t c e 2 ,
whence Lemma 8.
Any f o r m a l p r o d u c t of e l e m e n t s of & of t h e form ("i
n
- ')
or ~:/m? (m, n e z+; ' k e 1)w i l l be c a l l e d a monomial and t h e
t o t a l degree i n t h e XVs i t s degree.
~emrna9: If 6, y c .X and m, n e z+, then (xm/m?
Y ) (x;/n? ) is
an i n t e g r a l combination of ( ~ ; / n ? ) (xm/m? ) and monomials of l o w e r
Y
degree.

-
proof: This holds if P = y o b v i o u s l y and i f p = - y by Lemma 5.
Assume B # 2 y . By Lemma 8 a p p l i e d t o t h e s e t S of r o o t s of t h e

form i y + jfl i , j e , arranged i n t h e order 5, y, 8 + y, .. .

we s e e t h a t (xY/m!)( x n / n ? ) i s a n i n t e g r a l combination of t e r m s o f
B
d
t h e form (x;/b? ) (x;/c? ) ( ~ ~ + ~) / d ? The map X-,> .
a (a E S)
leads t o a grading of t h e algebra a with values i n t h e a d d i t i v e

group g e n e r a t e d by S . The l e f t s i d e of t h e p r e c e d i n g e q u a t i o n

has degree np + my . Hence s o d o e s each t e r m on t h e r i g h t ,

whence b, c, a r e r e s t r i c t e d by t h e c o n d i t i o n bp + cy

+ d(B+y) + =nP + my , hence a l s o by b + c + 2d + 9 = n + rn .

Clearly b + c + d + .. t h e o r d i n a r y d e g r e e of t h e above t e r m ,
can be a s l a r g e a s n + m only if b + c =n + m and d = = 0
by t h e l a s t c o n d i t i o n , and t h e n b = n and c =m by t h e f i r s t ,
which p r o v e s Lemma $.

Lemma 1 0 : If a and a r e r o o t s and f i s any p o l y n o m i a l , t h e n

Proof: By l i n e a r i t y t h i s need o n l y be proved when f i s a power

of H and t h e n i t e a s i l y f o l l o w s by i n d u c t i o n on t h e two e x p o n e n t s
B
s t a r t i n g with t h e equation X H = (Hg - a ( H D ) ) X a
a 5 .
Observe t h a t each a(HB) is an integer.

Now we can prove Theorem 2. By t h e c o r o l l a r y t o Lemma 5

 (ti) is in z'hence s o i s each of t h e proposed b a s i s
elements. We must show t h a t each element o f az i s an i n t e g r a l
combination of t h e l a t t e r e l e m e n t s , and f o r t h i s i t s u f f i c e s t o

show t h a t each monomial i s . Any monomial may, by i n d u c t i o n on t h e

d e g r e e , Lemma 9 , and Lemma 1 0 , be e x p r e s s e d a s an i n t e g r a l combina-

t i o n of monomials such t h a t f o r each a the X, t e r m s a l l come

t o g e t h e r and i n t h e o r d e r of t h e r o o t s p r e s c r i b e d by Theorem 2 ,
t h e n a l s o such t h a t each a i s r e p r e s e n t e d a t most o n c e , because
m+n
m+n)! . The H t e r m s may now be
brought t o t h e f r o n t ( s e e Lemma lo), t h e r e s u l t i n g polynomial

e x p r e s s e d a s a n i n t e g r a l combination of (::)'s by Lemma 4 ,

each Hi t e r m s h i f t e d t o t h e p o s i t i o n p r e s c r i b e d by Theorem 2 ,
and Lemma 4 used f o r each s e p a r a t e l y , t o y i e l d f i n a l l y an
Hi
i n t e g r a l combination of b a s i s e l e m e n t s , a s r e q u i r e d .
Let be a semisimple L i e a l g e b r a h a v i n g C a r t a n s u b a l g e b r a
. Let V be a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n space f o r . \lie c a l l a
vector v e V a weight v e c t o r i f t h e r e i s a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n h
P

an % such that Hv = x(H)v for a l l H E%. If such a v # 0

e x i s t s , we c a l l t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g h a weight of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .

Lemma 1 1 : If v i s a weight v e c t o r b e l o n g i n g t o t h e weight h ,

then f o r a a r o o t we have X v i s a weight v e c t o r b e l o n g i n g
a.
t o t h e weight h + a , if X,v # 0 .
Proof: If H ex, then HXav = X,(H + o ( H ) ) v = ( h + a)(H)X,v .
Theorem 3 : If i s a semisimple L i e a l g e b r a h a v i n g C a r t a n
subalgebra Dk( , then

(a) Every f i n i t e d i m e n s i o n a l i r r e d u c i b l e 2 -module V

c o n t a i n s a nonzero v e c t o r v
+ such t h a t v
+ is a
weight v e c t o r b e l o n g i n g t o some weight h and
xn,v+ = o (a > O) .
(b) It t h e n f o l l o w s t h a t if Vh i s t h e s u b s p a c e of V
c o n s i s t i n g of weight v e c t o r s b e l o n g i n g t o h , then

dim Vh = 1 . Moreover, e v e r y w e i g h t ,u h a s t h e form

h - Ca , where t h e a q s a r e positive roots. Also,

V = CV,rl ( a weight ) .

(c) The weight h and t h e l i n e c o n t a i n i n g v

+ are
uniquely determined.

(d) X ( H ~ )&'f o r a >o .

(e) Given a n y l i n e a r f u n c t i o n h s a t i s f y i n g ( d ) , then t h e r e
i s a unique f i n i t e dimensional f - m o d u l e V i n which
A. is realized a s in ( a ) .

Proof: (a) There e x i s t s a t l e a s t one w e i g h t on V since % acts

a s an Abelian s e t of endornorphlsms. lie i n t r o d u c e a p a r t i a l o r d e r

on t h e w e i g h t s by ,u < v if v - ,!; = CG (a a positive root).

S i n c e t h e w e i g h t s a r e f i n i t e i n number, we have a maximal weight h .

Let v+ be a nonzero weight v e c t o r b e l o n g i n g t o h . Since
h + a is not a w e i g h t , f o r ct > 0 , we have by Lemma 11 t h a t

xav+ = o (a > O) .
 (b) and ( c ) Mowlet w=Qv++
rL ,
Z
<
v . ~ e t x- (x+)
be t h e L i e s u b a l g e b r a o f g e n e r a t e d by X_ w i t h o < 0 (a > 0) .
a- , x0, %+
\j.

Let and be t h e u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p i n g a l g e b r a s
of x- , %, x+ and respectively. By t h e B i r k h o f f - W i t t

theorem, 2-h a s a b a s i s [ a < O Xam ( a ) ] ?u

has a basis

[ fi H r i ] , 2' h a s a b a s i s [ > Xap ( c ) ] and 2 , t h e

i=l a. 0 3

u n i v e r s a l enveloping a l g e b r a of , has a basis

Hence, % =%-v 2 f Now W i s i n v a r i a n t u n d e r /2C- . A l s o ,

V = X v + =a-bk"
v+ =%- s i n c e V i s i r r e d u c i b l e , %+v+ = 0
V+ 9

and Q0v+ = @ . Hence V = W and ( b ) and ( c ) f o l l o w .

V+

(d) Hn i s i n t h e 3-dimensional s u b a l g e b r a g e n e r a t e d by

Ha; X a , X-a . Hence, by t h e t h e o r y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h i s

subalgebra, h(H
C"
) a z + (See Jacobson, Lie A l g e b r a s , pp. 83-65. )

(e) See SBminaire "Sophus L I E , " Expos6 no 17.

Corollary: If ,: i s a weight and a a root, then :((Ha) a E.

Proof: T h i s f o l l o w s from ( b ) and ( d ) of Theorem 3 and

B(H,) = < R,a > E Zf o r C, B F E .

Remark: h, v
+ a r e c a l l e d t h e h i g h e s t w e i g h t , a h i g h e s t weight
vector, respectively.

By Theorem 2 , we know t h a t t h e -algebra Uz

by ~:/m! ( a E ,Y, m F z+) has a H - b a s i s
 We s e e t h a t f k ( P ) = 1 and fk takes t h e value zero a t a l l other
p o i n t s of & ' w i t h i n a box w i t h edges 2k and c e n t e r P . For
k s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e , t h i s box c o n t a i n s S .
If V i s a v e c t o r space over and M is a finitely

I generated ( f r e e A b e l i a n ) subgroup of V which h a s a z-basis

which i s a c-basis for V , we s a y M is a l a t t i c e i n V .
We can now s t a t e t h e followj..ng c o r o l l a r i e s t o Theorem 2.

C o r o l l a r y 1:

( a ) Every f i n i t e dimensional f-module V contains a

lattice M i n v a r i a n t under a l l ~:/m? ( a a X, m a z+) ;
. . .. , M i s i n v a r i a n t under /Z1z-
'{b) Every such l a t t i c e i s t h e d i r e c t sum of i t s weight
components; i n f a c t , e v e r y such a d d i t i v e group is.

Proof: (al; By t h e theorem o f complete r e d u c i b i l i t y of r e p r e s e n t a -

t i o n s of semisimple L i e a l g e b r a s over a f i e l d of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

I (See Jacobson, -
L i e A l g e b r a s , p . 7 4 ) , we may assume t h a t V is
irreducible. Using Theorem 3 , we f i n d v+ .
and s e t M = 2-v+
z
M i s f i n i t e l y g e n e r a t e d o v e r 2 s i n c e o n l y f i n i t e l y many monomials
i n a- f a i l t o a n n i h i l a t e v + . S i n c e ?A!-V+ v and s i n c e 2- =
z z
spans o v e r (f , we s e e t h a t M spans V over . Before
completing t h e proof of ( a ) , we w i l l f i r s t show t h a t i f
Tcivi = 0 with c.
1
EQ , vi E M and vl # 0 , then there exist
ni a z, nl # 0 , such t h a t Zcini = 0 . To s e e t h i s , l e t

be such t h a t t h e component of uvl in V+ i s nonzero.

 18

4-
Then Eciuvi = 0 implies Zcini = 0 where n 1. v i s t h e component
of uvi- in v+ . We have ni o by Lemma 12 and nl # 0 by
choice of u . F i n a l l y , suppose a b a s i s f o r M i s not a basis f o r
y . Le 4 be minimal such t h a t t h e r e e x i s t vl, ..., vL F M

G 4
that cini=O. We s e e t h a t 0 = nl L: civi = I: ci(nlvi - n.v ) ,
11
i=l i=2

we have a c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o t h e choice of vl, v 2 , ..., vL . Hence,

M is a l a t t i c e i n V .
(b) Let M be any subgroup of t h e a d d i t i v e group of V

S = { pXlh a weight, h # p] . Let f be as i n Lemma 13 with

and u acts
on V l i k e t h e p r o j e c t i o n of V onto V
Y
. Thus, i f v e M , the
p r o j e c t i o n of v to V is i n M , and M i s t h e d i r e c t sum of
fi
i t s weight components.

C o r o l l a r y 2 : Let be f a i t h f u l l y r e p r e s e n t e d on a f i n i t e dimensional
v e c t o r space V . Let M be a l a t t i c e i n V i n v a r i a n t under

f o r a l l weights L of t h e g i v e n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ] . In particular,
 4z i s
Giw
independent of PI - (But, of course,
z i s n o t inde-
$endent o f t h e : * a p r e s e n t a t i o n . )
... ...
,
,.:
:.: :,
proof:
-.
We re~allthz-5 a s s o c i a t e ? w i t h t h e r e p r e s e n t ? - t i o n on V
...*
...,. .I*

...,..
t h e y e i s a rep*-r:;sntation on t h e d u a l space v". of V called
,
<+.' : .I. Jr

&: @:?!
the . .c o r ~ t r a g r e d i e n tr e p r e s e n t a t i o n g i v e n by
---<. < x,.&y-.> = - < &x,yq' >
[&
;
..
0' I
..
:here x e V , y .c V
'.a.
I ,

= 4, e 2 and where < x,ya i

J,
denotes t h e
,
.8I
.
'

fi 8
v a l u e of t h e l i n e a r f u n c t i o n y at x , If I( is t h e d u a l
4
:
.1.1:
,;
?*,:>:
&
*,:
lattice in V ' 0.1 1
. .
; i.e.: < M,I<'' "/. c- ,-A>..! c -i C ~ . . - 4 &
.'-

%
....
:.:.
rp r e s e r v e s PC i f and o n l y i f ;p r e s e ~ ~ r e s5 We know t h a t
.,,-;.,
.,
F, T
J 0 v* i s isc:::or-phic with EI?<('\T? ;fiG ;ithat, t;he tensor. product
"'.
of t h e t x o r ; - : p ~ e . ; z n - t . c . t l s ~co:-re
s sponds t o t h e i - e p ~ e s e n t a t i o n

$-: 4,: A --+-[ & > A : Y

i C L 2 cu ;
-, - z n d ; ~ > j of
,
:
i n End(Vj (See Jacobeoa,
., ..
.I,

-.Lie Al~ebx.2.::
----y
"I C ,
.
3

LLOC: E M ) -.- ? 1.'' j-s 2 l ~ t t i c ei n rnd(V)

s i n c e t h e t e i i z o r x - c u ~ c toi' i:-~:ol a t t i c e s i s a l a t t i c e , Also,
2 since 4 ' 4
xz
is a l a t t i c e In C End(M) 2nd dim A > dim
because z.:tl..
7 .

i: ::;,s i n
---4
dz . S i n c e
A-, zpz-
.
reserves
c
z
. 7 - > :
i:- .
- 2 . r,

7 , and hence 2.L

.'.,..
"
-r, !

. .e "c: ./,> N::: Sy Lenlna

k
11. and
- ~ r a c a - r x r n -
14.
t ;iL
,( ,!
A > --(,,.G2
<--
.latti ~e
.,-
.3
2
'
rn
- - # , :*7L ) <I, ?,<.

.- -- -
.d

w
// >T-- 4 --- ,,he adj o i n ,
z yn-nncnnt .rt4 r n
a
11

spans x 2:
Ox' o v e r y for n 2 h , n 21 , then

a d ( x-2G. / 2 ! ) ( x a / n ) -- X -a /n e LIZ . Hence - ( a d xa/n12 ( X -a / n )

- 2 Xu /n3 s . The, 2/n3 c (l,), xhich implies 2/n2 e H
and n = I . Hence, C ra nL:=Z'x
a
.
L
 Example: Let be t h e 3 dimensional L i e a l g e b r a g e n e r a t e d by
g'
X, Y, and H with [x,Y] = H , [ H , X ] = 2X, and [H,Y] = - 2Y .
i Let V = and l e t M be t h e l a t t i c e i n 2 spanned by X, Y,

1 and H . Then s i n c e t h e o n l y weights of t h e a d j o i n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

+
are - a , 0 with a ( ~ =) 2 ,g7=zx+ZY+ Z ( H / 2 ) . Now cz?

is isomorphic w i t h xq r, 1-
= s t 2 on a 2 dimensional v e c t o r space
n 1 I
VD .
l! Here H corresponds t o 1 1 and t h e w e i g h t s a r e T D,O

with B(H) = 1 . Hence x qz Z X +

Z Y + & - I and
=

We a r e now i n a p o s i t i o n t o t r a n s f e r o u r a t t e n t i o n t o a n
k arbitrary field k . We have a l r e a d y d e f i n e d t h e l a t t i c e s

Mp
fE , M p = V/, fl M , and Xa . Considering t h e s e
t l a t t i c e s as-z-modules and c o n s i d e r i n g k as a z - m o d u l e ,
we can form t h e t e n s o r p r o d u c t s , vk = M azk , x k = x z @ z k ,
Xk= y z ~ z k , V kI t = % O z k , and kxi=Zxa @ We
t h e n have :
zk .
j Corollary 3:

1 (a) vk k
= iV,< ( d i r e c t sum) and
k
dimkViL = d i m Q v ,t:
k
(b) = ~ k ~ +%
_ k ( d i r e c t sum), each

I Proof
X,k # 0, d i r n k x k = dimc%,

T h i s f o l l o w s from C o r o l l a r i e s 1 and
an
 IF
F
21

, 6 7. The C h e v a l l e y g r o u p s . We wish t o s t u d y automorphisms of vk

y
of t h e form exptXa ( t a k , c e C) , where

8 , ~ h er i g h t s i d e of t h e above e x ~ r e s s i o ni s i n t e r ~ r e t e da s f o l l o w s .

Since x ? / ~ . Pa -u7,we have a n a c t i o n of ~ n / n ? on M . Thus,

n n
.
C '

iwe g e t a n a c t i o n of h X,/nj on M Q zZ [ A ] s i n c e X: acts

r-X3
-
ns zero f o r n s s u f f i c i e n t l v l a r g e . we s e e t h a t C hn X n /n:? a c t s

@-
on M Bp7[ h ] and hence on M Oh [h] B z k . Following t h i s
&
4
.&
l a s t a c t i o n by t h e homomorphism of M @
zZ[ A ] O Z k into
C3
n n
I , vk =M O H k g i v e n by A -> t , we g e t a n a c t i o n of C t xa/n?
I- n=O

We w i l l w r i t e ~ , ( t )f o r exptX, and 'Faf o r t h e group

1
[ ~ , ( t )t a k ] ( c l e a r l y ~ , ( t ! is additive i n t). Our main
o b j e c t of s t u d y i s t h e group G g e n e r a t e d by a l l a, ( a a X) .
We w i l l c a l l i t a C h e v a l l e y group.
\
Exercise : Interpret
~3 - /H
C t" ( _1 (H a
Q

A, , t
L
E: k, t #- 1).

Lemma 14: Let be a n a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a , A and l e t

dA be t h e d e r i v a t i o n of a , dA = -LA - rA where
LA B = AB, r A B = BA , B a a. suppose exp d A , exp CAP exp r A ,
and exp A have meaning and t h a t t h e u s u a l r u l e s of e x p o n e n t i a t i o n
apply. Then exp dA = 'exp A r exp(-A) (= con j u g a t i o n by exp A ) .

Proof: exp dA = exp -LA e x p ( - - r A )= 2 exp

.
A r exp(-A) '
Lemma 15: Let a , f3 be r o o t s w i t h a + 6# 0 . Then i n t h e r i n g
of f o r m a l power s e r i e s i n two v a r i a b l e s t, u over% , [ [ t , u ] ],
we have t h e i d e n t i t y
z Z
( e x p tX,, exp;:ul( ) =
B
n exp c ij
tiuJ X
i a + j-0

where ( A , B ) = ABA-~B-' , where t h e product on t h e r i g h t i s

taken over a l l r o o t s i.a + jfi ( i ,j e z+)
arranged i n some f i x e d
o r d e r , and where t h e c? s a r e i n t e g e r s depending on a , P , and
ij
t h e chosen o r d e r i n g , b u t n o t on t o r u .
Furthermore Cll = N
a7P

proof: In %[[t,u]] set f(t,u) =

tXa,
(~XP exp u x p ) exp ( - c i j t i u j x ~1 ~ + ~ ~
where cij E: . We s h a l l show t h a t we may choose t h e cijqs
in such t h a t f(t,u) =1 .
We n o t e t h a t t d ( e x p t X a ) = t Xa exp t X a .
Thus, u s i n g t h e product r u l e we g e t

+ I: ( e x p t X , , exp u X )
B
 We b r i n g t h e t e r m s -tXa and ( * ) - ~ ~ ~ k t ~ tuo %
th~
e f~r o+n t~

I
using, e.g., the relations

( e x p u X 9 ) ( - ' t ~=
, )( e x p ad u X B ) ( - t X 0- exp u X R

( s e e Lemma 1 4 ) and

We g e t a n e x p r e s s i o n of t h e form A f ( t, u ) with A F f [[t ,u]] .

Because f(t,u) i s homogeneous of d e g r e e 0 relative t o the
grading t -> - a , u -> - 0 , x - > Y , A i s a l s o , and from
f o r m u l a s such a s t h o s e above we s e e t h a t ckL i s involved i n t h e
term (:::) above but o t h e r w i s e o n l y i n terms o f d e g r e e > k + %

in t and u . Thus A = C
(-Ck~
+ P ~ L ) ~X k a + ~ Rw i t h
k .e
pkL
k ,L 2 l

a polynomial i n cijss f o r which i + j <k + C .

Now we may i n d u c t i v e l y determine v a l u e s of ckL e @
u s i n g t h e $ e & e a g r a ~ h + - oc r d e r i n g of t h e c
ij
? s such t h a t A =0 .
Then t
d
f(t,u) = 0 implies f ( t , u ) = f (0,u) = 1 .
To show t h a t t h e c
ij
? s a r e i n t e g e r s , we examine t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t of ti uj i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n of f(t,u) . T h i s co-
efficient is -c X
ia+Jf3
ij
+ ( t e r m s coming from e x p o n e n t i a l s of
m u l t i p l e s of Xkc+&@ w i t h k + % < i + j) . Using i n d u c t i o n , we
see t h a t X
ij ia+jp €
c
Z
. Hence, f7L cij F , by Theorem 2.
If i = j = 1 , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t is - ell Xa+@ + N0 , p X
a+p '
so t h a t c =N
11 a,P
Examples: (a) If a + @ i s not a r o o t , t h e r i g h t s i d e of t h e
formula i n Lemma 1 5 i s 1 . (b) If a + 0 i s t h e only r o o t of t h e
form ia + JB , the right side is exp N tu , and N =
+- '
[r+l) ,
a70 a7B
with r=r(a,p) a s i n Theorem 1. (c) If a l l t h e r o o t s have one
length, t h e right side i s 1 i n case ( a ) and e x p (+
- tu) i n case (b).

Corollary: If e x p tXa , e t c . i n t h e f o r m u l a i n Lemma 1 5 a r e r e p l a c e d

by xa(t), e t c . , then t h e r e s u l t i n g equation holds f o r a l l t, u e k .

We c a l l a s e t S of r o o t s c l o s e d i f a, e S , a + P e C

implies a + e S . The f o l l o w i n g a r e examples o f c l o s e d s e t s of

roots: (a) P = s e t of a l l p o s i t i v e r o o t s . (b) P - {a] , a a
simple r o o t . (c) Pr = [ a l h t a > r , r >
-1- .
We s h a l l c a l l a s u b s e t I o f a c l o s e d s e t S an ideal if
a e I , l3 e S , a + p e S implies a + e I . We s e e t h a t
( a ) , ( b ) and ( c ) above a r e i d e a l s i n P .
Lemma 16: Let I be a n i d e a l i n t h e c l o s e d s e t S . Let Xs and
yI d e n o t e t h e g r o u p s g e n e r a t e d by a l l (0. e S and a 8 I ,
respectively). If a E S implies - a 4S , then i s a normal
subgroup of xS.
Proof: T h i s f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m Lemma 15.

Lemma 1 7 : Let S be a c l o s e d s e t of r o o t s s u c h t h a t a e S implies

- a 4S , t h e n e v e r y element of Ys c a n be w r i t t e n u n i q u e l y a s
, Xa(ta) where ta e k and t h e p r o d u c t i s t a k e n i n any
a e S
fixed order.
I -
Proof: We s h a l l first prove t h e lemma i n t h e c a s e i n which t h e

I ordering i s consistent with heights; i . e . , h t a

If al i s t h e f i r s t element o f S , then S -
<
{a,]
h t fl implies

is an
a <P .
-
-
ideal i n S . ~ence XS = X X s - b l l . Using i n d u c t i o n on
al
t h e s i z e of S , we s e e X g = rt X ' a '

Now suppose y e Ks , y = rt ya(tc) . Since xka l # O ,

t h e r e i s a weight v e c t o r v e M corresponding t o a weight h such
that Xa v # 0 . Now yv = v +Xa v + z where v e Vh ,
t
1 "1 1
t X v 6Vhh , and z i s a sum of t e r m s from o t h e r weight
a1 1

spaces. Hence t
a1
e k i s u n i q u e l y determined by y . Since

s-{a,) , we may complete t h e p r o o f o f t h i s

c a s e by i n d u c t i o n .
The p r o o f Lemma 1 7 f o r a n a r b i t r a r y o r d e r i n g f o l l o w s immediately
from:

Lemma 1g: Let be a group w i t h subgroups X , x2,..., X r

such t h a t :

(a) X = yl g 2 . . .xr 7 with uniqueness of expression.

(b) .
1 i + l .. . r i s a normal subgroup o f X for

If p i s any p e r m u t a t i o n o f 1, 2 , ... , r then X- = x p l X p2 P'

w i t h u n i q u e n e s s of e x p r e s s i o n .
 C o r o l l a r y 1: The map t -> xa(t) is an isomorphism of t h e
a d d i t i v e group of 'k onto .
C o r o l l a r y 2 : Let P be t h e s e t of a l l p o s i t i v e r o o t s and l e t
U = X . Then a w i t h u n i q u e n e s s of e x p r e s s i o n , where
U =
t h e p r o d u c t i s t a k e n o v e r a l l a e P a r r a n g e d i n any f i x e d o r d e r .

I
Corollary 3: U i s u n i p o t e n t and i s s u p e r d i a g o n a l r e l a t i v e t o an

a p p r o p r i a t e choice of a b a s i s f o r vk . Similarly, U- = g-
is u n i p o t e n t and i s s u b d i a g o n a l r e l a t i v e t o t h e same c h o i c e of b a s i s .

Proof: Choose a b a s i s of weight v e c t o r s and o r d e r them i n a manner

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r t i a l o r d e r i n g of t h e w e i g h t s :
p precedes v if - I i s a sum of p o s i t i v e r o o t s .

Corollary 4 : If i 1 let Ui be t h e group g e n e r a t e d by a l l a

with ht a 2 i . We have t h e n :

(a) Ui i s normal. i n U .
.

I
(b) (U,ui) C Ui+l , in particular, (U,U) C U2

(c) U is nilpotent.

Corollary 5 : If P = QUR w i t h Q and R c l o s e d s e t s such

that Q n R = f l , tHen U = x g X R and XQnx = l . (e.g.,
R
if a i s a s i m p l e r o o t , one can t a k e Q = { a ] and R = P - {a) .
Example: If = , we have s e e n t h a t t h e r o o t s c o r r e s p o n d
t o pairs ( i ,j ) i # j , the positive r o o t s t o pairs ( i ,j ) i < j ,
and t h a t we may t a k e Xij -
- Eij , the usual matrix unit. Thus,

xij ( t ) = 1 + t E i j . We s e e t h a t U = { a l l unipotent, superdiagonal

matrices), U- = { a l l x n i p o t e n t , subdiago.na1 m a t r i c e s ) , and t h a t

G is SLL+l , t h e group of L + 1 s q u a r e m a t r i c e s of d e t e r m i n a n t 1.
Thb n o n t r i v i a l commutator r e l a t i o n s a r e : ( Xi ( t) , Xjk(u) )

= Xik(tu) if i ,k are distinct.

.@.
Lemma 1 9 : For any r o o t a and any t e k"' define

wa(t) = - t a t and ha(t) = wa(t)wa(l)-l .

Then :

(a) wa(t)X w ( t ) - l= c t - < Q ' a > ~ w where

13 a a ;

c =c(a,fi) = - 1
+ i s independent of

t,k and t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n chosen, and

c(a,g) = c ( a , -?) .
P k
(b) If v e v k there exists v Vw ,,,
kf ar'
independent of t such t h a t

w ( t ) v = t - < p , a>v .
a

(c) ha(t) a c t s v v d i a g o n a l l y 3on vk1C a s multiplication

by .
(Note t h a t wa i s b e i n g used t o d e n o t e both t h e d e f i n e d
automorphism and t h e r e f l e c t i o n i n t h e h y p e r p l a n e o r t h o g o n a l

to a).

-
Proof: We prove t h i s assuming k = . The t r a n s f e r of c o e f f i -
c i e n t s t o a n a r b i t r a r y f i e l d i s almost immediate.

We show f i r s t t h a t w ( t) H w G ( t ) - l = wcH
01.
for all H B x.
By l i n e a r i t y i t s u f f i c e s t o prove t h i s f o r f o r if
Ha ,
a(H) = 0 then Xa commutes w i t h H so t h a t both s i d e s equal H .
If H = H t h e l e f t s i d e , because of Lemma 2 and t h e d e f i n i -
a
t i o n s of X ( t ) and w ( t . ), i s a n element of t h e t h r e e
C: a
dimensional a l g e b r a < X , Ya,
C? a
> whose v a l u e depends on
H
c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h i s a l g e b r a , n o t on t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
chosen. Taking t h e u s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n sL we g e t
2 '

so t h a t t h e desired equation fqllows.

We n e x t prove ( b ) . From t h e d e f i n i t i o n s of Y , ( t )
and wa ( t) it f o l l o w s t h a t i f

vv=wa(t)v, then va= X t iv i where V. B V,l+ia

1
c
i- 5 I.

( t h e sum i s a c t u a l l y f i n i t e s i n c e t h e r e a r e o n l y f i n i t e l y many
weights). Then f o r H e %, Hvit = Hw ( t ) v = w ( t ) w ( t ) - ' ~ w ~ ( t =) v
0: a Ci
w ( t ) ( w H)v = ?:{w H ) V " = ( w , ! r ) ( H ) v x . Hence vi? c o r r e s p o n d s
a. a a C.

t o t h e weight w ,:: = ,!: -

C!
< tt,ci. > c! . Thus t h e o n l y nonzero t e r m
i n t h e sum o c c u r s f o r i = - < !!,a > .
 29

By ( b ) a p p l i e d t o t h e a d j o i n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
-
= ct
<R,a>
X
WCL " where c e (? and i s independent

of t a n d of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n c h o s e n . Now wa(l) i s an
automorphism o f yz and X
Y
i s a p r i m i t i v e e l e m e n t of
xz
for a l l y so c =
+- 1 . Hw,B = wa(l)HRwcL(1)-' =

so c(a,p) = c(c,-0) , ~ h i c h ~ p r o v e( sa ) .

Note t h a t wa(t)-' = wa(-t) so t h a t h c L ( t ) = wa(-t)-'wa(-1) .

By ( b ) w ( - t ) v = ( - t )- <,!$,a> v
and w ( - 1 ) v = (-1)- <$,a>v 9 .
a C.
<;<,a>
Hence wa ( - t ) - lwQ ( - 1 ) v = t v , p r o v i n g ( c 1.

Lemma 2 0 : Write
@0
for wa(l) . Then:

h (t)o-l= h ( t )= a n e x p r e s s i o n a s a
(a) g C1
wup
p r o d u c t of hvs , independent of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

space.

(b) oC! x R ( t ) w-1c = X, O ( ~ tw )i t h

,
c as in
a-
Lemma 13(a).

(c) h c ( t ) x R ( u ) h a ( t )-1 = Y, (t<R ,a> u ) .

Proof: To p r o v e ( a ) we a p p l y b o t h s i d e s t o v e Vk .
,! l

<wfrR> -1
-I .=, t c'.'
Qhl (t)iuo a v ( b y Lemma 19 ( c ) a p p l i e d
u ?
Lemma 1 9 ( a ) cu a X ? LO-'-
a
= cX
wop . Exponentiating t h i s g i v e s ( b ) .
By Lemma 1 9 ( c ) a p p l i e d t o t h e a d j o i n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
<p ,a>
h a ( t ) x n h a ( t )-1 = t XR . Exponentiating t h i s g i v e s ( c ) .

Denote by ( R ) t h e f o l l o w i n g s e t o f r e l a t i o n s :

( xa ( t ) , x R ( u ) ) = ( c i j t i'u j 1
xia+jB ( a + f~ # 0 )

with the a s i n Lemma 15.

'i j

( t )= xa(t)x ( - t - l ) r a ( t.)
a -a

LD h ( t) w=- l
some e x p r e s s i o n a s a p r o d u c t o f
a 9 a

h g s ( i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s p a c e ) .

-1
(R7) bcxe(t)wa = (ct) c a s i n Lemma l F ( a ) .
wap

Since a l l t h e r e l a t i o n s i n ( R ) a r e independent of t h e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s p a c e c h o s e n , r e s u l t s proved u s i n g o n l y t h e
r e l a t i o n s ( R ) w i l l be i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s p a c e
 R e s u l t s proved u s i n g o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be l a b e l e d ( U )
(usually f o r uniqueness).

Lemma 21:
. ~
Let U be t h e group g e n e r a t e d by a l l
a (a > 0) ,
H t h e g r o u p g e n e r a t e d by a l l ha(t) and B t h e group generated
by U and H . Then:

(a) U i s normal i n B and B = UH . (E

(b) U n H = l . (u

Proof: S i n c e c o n j u g a t i o n by ha(t) preserves

i s normal i n B and ( a ) holds. Relative t o an a p p r o p r i a t e
b a s i s of V a n y element of UnH i s b o t h d i a g o n a l and u n i p o t e n t ,
hence = 1 .
Example: In SLn H = !diagonal m a t r i c e s ] , U = {unipotent

superdiagonal matrices], B = {superdiagonal matrices].

Lemma 2 2 : Let N be t h e group g e n e r a t e d by a l l wa(t), H be

t h e subgroup g e n e r a t e d by a l l h ( t)
a.
, and W t h e Weyl group.

I Then :

1 (a) H

(b)
i s normal i n N

T h e r e e x i s t s a homomory,hism
.
cp of W onto N/H
(El

su-ch t h a t y(wa) = H w a ( t ) for a l l roots a . (E)

(c) i s a n isomorphism. (u)

Proof: S i n c e by ( ~ 6 c) o n j u g a t i o n by w preserves H a n d by
0:

( R 4 ) and ( R 5 ) w a ( t ) = h , ( t ) w, , ( a ) holds. Since

Hwa(t) = Hwa(t) wa(l)" w a ( l ) = Hwa(l) , Hwa(t) i s independent

of t . Write
A
w
a = Hwa(t) . Then s i n c e wa(l) e 3a and

wa(-1) f
A
w, , ~2
1w ( l ) w ( - 1 ) e w
a
. Aence ( ) d CS
=1 .
Also - -1 #\ h A - 1

p - wrj(l) € GB so LO UI 0 v'awowa

But (by (R3))

Wa 0:

4-1
Thus ( )
A
=w
A
wa,wgwa . A
By Appendix I V . 40 t h e relations
wa.fl
(*) form a defining s e t f o r W . Thus t h e r e e x i s t s a homo-
morphism p : W -> N/H such t h a t q3wa = w,
A
= Hw, ( t) . y is
c l e a r l y onto.
Suppose w e k e r cp . If w =w w ... , a p r o d u c t of
a2
reflections, then wa ( l ) w a (1) .. . = h e H . Conjugating xa
1 2
by wa ( 1 ) (1)
~ ~ ... we g e t Xwa and c o n j u g a t i n g by h we
1 2
get %a . Hence %wa = C; a
Y f
for all r o ~ t sG . Since wa = a

for all a implies w = 1 t h e proof i s completed by:

Lemma 23: If c and p a r e d i s t i n c t roots then xc #&

Proof: We know t h a t is nontrivial. If a and 9 have

t h e same s i g n , t h e r e s u l t f o l l o w s f r o m Lemma 17. I f t h e y have

o p p o s i t e s i g n s , t h e n one i s s u p e r d i a g o n a l u n i p o t e n t , t h e o t h e r
s u b d i a g o n a l ( r e l a t i v e t o a n a p p r o p r i a t e b a s i s ) , and t h e r e s u l t
 again follows.

Convention: If n e N represents w e W (under .rp : W -> N,/H)

we w i l l w r i t e wB (Bw) i n p l a c e of nB (Bn) .
Lemma 24: If a is a simple r o o t then

B u BwaB i s a group.

Proof: Let S =B u BwaB . Since B i s a group and

q(wa) = r n ( w a ) - l ,S i s c l o s e d under i n v e r s i o n , and s i n c e

s2 C- BB LJ BBwG B u BwcBB u BwaBwaB -

C S u BwaBwaB it s u f f i c e s t o

show waBwa CS . We f i r s t show t h a t -a CS . If 1# y B

-a
then there e x i s t s t e kS such t h a t y =x (t)
-a
= x , ( t -1) w a ( - t -1)xa(tml) e B w a B . Hence C S . Nowlet P
-a -
be t h e c o l l e c t i o n of a l l p o s i t i v e r o o t s . Then waBwa = waBwa-1

= w

(since
a
x a X P-{a)
wa preserves
c
= w X w-I
HW-I
a a a wa
P-{a)
-1
~ - I a ] ~- Wa
o
by Appendix 1.11) C SB = S
HW;' = ' .x-
-a p-iaj H

I Lemma 25:

(a)
If

If
w e 14 and

wa > 0
a

(i.e. if
i s a simple r o o t , t h e n :

N(wwa) = N ( w ) + 1

( s e e Appendix 1 1 . 1 7 ) ) t h e n - - BwwaB
BwB-BwaB C . (El

.,. (b) I n any case BwBmBwaB C BwwaB u BwB

-
. (E)
Proof: (a) BwB*Bw,B = B w Ya &{a]
Hw B =
a,

BW Ya W-'W a W-l
CL p - i a ] waWa- ~ H W ~ B= BWW~B

(for wyawm1 B , wa yp - I a ~wa B and c1Hwa B) .

(b) If wa > 0 ( a ) gives the result. If wa < 0 set
w
0
=T . Then w a > 0
0
and w=wwa
0
. By ( a ) BwB*BwaB=
0 0 0
Bw w B - Bw,B = Bw B-BwaB-BwaB = Bw B ( B I
J BW,B) ( b y Lemma 24) =
a
Bw B
0
u
P
Bw waB = BwB u BwwaB .
C o r o l l a r y : If w e tJ and w =w w
a B
...
i s an e x p r e s s i o n of
minimal l e n g t h of w a s a product of simple r e f l e c t i o n s t h e n
BwB = BwaBBw B o g *
P
.
Lemma 26: Let G be t h e Chevalley group (G = < a
la11 a > ) .
Then G i s g e n e r a t e d by a l l Fa , wa for a a simple root. (E)

Proof: We have mu%

P
U J - ~
a
= X. .
S i n c e t h e simple r e f l e c t i o n s
wa@
geherate W and e v e r y r o o t i s c o n j u g a t e under W t o a simple r o o t
t h e r e s u l t follows.

Theorem 4: (Bruhat , C h e v a l l e y )

( b ) ,BwB = Bw B
P
=> w = wq .
Thus any system of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f o r N/H is alsd
a system of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f o r B\G / B .
I for G .

(b)
Since U BwB i s c l o s e d u n d e r m u l t i p l i c a t i o n by t h e s e
we W
g e n e r a t o r s ( b y Lemma 2 5 ) and r e c i p r o c a t i o n it i s e q u a l t o G

Suppose BwB = Bw B
v
with w, w
9
e W .
.

We w i l l show by i n d u c t i o n on N(w) that w =w

0
. (Here N(w)
i s a s i n t h e Appendix 11.) I f N(w) = 0 t h e n w = 1 so w
0
e B .
v v 0
Then w Bw ' - l = B so w P = P and w = 1 ( s e e Appendix 1 1 . 2 3 ) .
Assume ~ ( w>
) 0 and choose a simple so t h a t N(wwa) < N(w) .
Then wwa e Bw BBwaB
0
5 Bw 0 0
B u Bw waB = BwB u Bw waB
9
. Hence
I
II by i n d u c t i o n wwG = w or
-
wwa - w wa
9
. But wwa = w implies

wa
= 1 which i s i m p o s s i b l e . Hence wwa = w w
a
0
so w =w
0
.
Remark: The g r o u p s B, N form a B - N p a i r i n t h e s e n s e of
J. T i t s (Annals of Math. 1 9 6 4 ) . We s h a l l n o t a x i o m a t i z e t h i s
concept b u t a d a p t c e r t a i n a r g u m e n t s , such a s t h e l a s t one, t o t h e
present context .
Theorem 4 :
0
For a f i x e d w e W choose w w r e p r e s e n t i n g w i n N .
-1
Set Q = P n w (-P) , R = P n w-l P ( a s before P denotes t h e

s e t of p o s i t i v e r o o t s ) . Write U
W
for Y Q . Then:
(a) B w B = B wW UW . (E)

(b) Every element of BwB h a s a unique e x p r e s s i o n

i n t h i s form.

I
 Proof:
_C__
(a) BwB = Bw X R X Q ~( b y Lemma 17 and Lemma 21)

= ~ 4 w - Xl Q
~ =~B W X ~ H ( s i n c e wjERw-' c B) = B ww x ~

0 0
(b) If bw x = b owx then
W
P -l
b - l b q = w x x w -1
w w .
R e l a t i v e tQ a n a p p r o p r i a t e b a s i s t h i s i s b o t h
s u p e r d i a g o n a l and s u b d i a g o n a l u n i p o t e n t ' a n d hence = 1 .
v
Thus b = b
0
, x = x .
Exercise: ( a ) Prove B is t h e normalizer i n G of U and
a l s o of B . (b) Prove N i s t h e normalizer i n G of H if

I
k h a s more t h a n 3 elements.

Examples: Let . X=stn - SO that G=SLn , and B , H, N

I a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y t h e s u p e r d i a g o n a l , d i a g o n a l , monomial.subgroups,

I. and W may be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e group of p e r m u t a t i o n s of

1 t h e coordinates. Going t o G = GLn f o r c o n v e n i e n c e , we g e t from

I Theorem 4: (*) t h e permutation m a t r i c e s Sn form a system of

' representatives f o r B\G/B .
We s h a l l g i v e a s i m p l e d i r e c t proof
Assume g i v e n x e G .
of t h i s . Here k can be any d i v i s i o n r i n g . / Choose b e B t o

I maximize t h e t o t a l number of z e r o s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f a l l of
t h e rows o f bx . These b e g i n n i n g s must a l l be of d i f f e r e n t
(
I l e n g t h s s i n c e o t h e r w i s e we c o u l d s u b t r a c t a m u l t i p l e o f some row

II from a n e a r l i e r one, i. e.
number of z e r o s .
, modify b
It f o l l o w s t h a t f o r some
, and i n c r e a s e t h e t o t a l
w 6 Sn , wbx is

I . P
s u p e r d i a g o n a l , whence x e BW-~B Now assume BwB = Bw B
with w, w
9
e Sn . Then w-lbw
9
i s s u p e r d i a g o n a i f o r some b e B .
P
Since w, w a r e p e r m u t a t i o n m a t r i c e s and t h e m a t r i c p o s i t i o n s

where t h e i d e n t i t y i s nonzero a r e i n c l u d e d among t h o s e of b ,

-1 q P
i s s u p e r d i a g o n a l , whence w = w ,
,
we conclude t h a t w w
which p r o v e s ) . Next we w i l l g i v e a g e o m e t r i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of t h e r e s u l t j u s t proved. Let V be t h e u n d e r l y i n g v e c t o r s p a c e .
A f l a g i n . .V, i s a n i n c r e a s i n g sequence o f s u b s p a c e s
V1 C V2 C - * * C Vn , where dim Vi = i Associated with t h e

chosen b a s i s {vl, ... , v n ] of V there is a f l a g F1 C * C Fn

d e f i n e d by Fi = < v l , ..., v > called thestandard flag. Now

-i

G a c t s on V and hence on f l a g s . B i s t h e s t a b i l i z e r of t h e

standard f l a g , so B \G /B i s i n one-to-one correspondence

with t h e s e t of G - o r b i t s of p a i r s of f l a g s . D e f i n e a simplex
t o be a s e t of p o i n t s [ pl, ... , pn ] of
.
V
.
such t h a t
dim < pl, ..., pn > = n . A flag V1 C a * - C Vn i s s a i d t o be
i n c i d e n t w i t h t h i s s i m p l e x if Vi = < pTl, ... , P r i > f o r some
T 6 Sn . Hence t h e r e a r e n! f l a g s i n c i d e n t w i t h a g i v e n simplex.

It can be shown, by i n d u c t i o n on n (see Steinberg,

T.A.M.S. 1951), t h a t ($:) g i v e n any two f l a g s t h e r e i s a s i m p l e x
i n c i d e n t with both. Thus a s s o c i a t e d t o each p a i r o f f l a g s
t h e r e i s a n element of t h e p e r m u t a t i o n which t r a n s f o r m s
Sn ,
one t o t h e o t h e r . Hence B\ G / B corresponds t o Sn . Thus
) i s t h e g e o m e t r i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e Bruhat decomposi-

tion.
 (b) Consider x = [X e simern/~~ + AX^ = 01

where A .
i s f i x e d and n o n s i n g u l a r ( i e . , c o n s i d e r t h e i n v a r i a n t s
of t h e automorphism X -> A(-xt)A-') . If rn = 2n and A is
skew t h i s g i v e s a n a l g e b r a of t y p e C if m = 2n and A is
n j

[fl
symmetric t h i s g i v e s a n a l g e b r a o f t y p e and i f rn = 2 n + l
D
n '
and A i s symmetric t h i s g i v e s a n a l g e b r a o f t y p e Bn If we .
t a ~ e A = i n t h e first case

-1'

and

Y E
A = I1 -1 i n t h e second and t h i r d c a s e s a n element

i s s u p e r d i a g o n a l i f and o n i y i f a d y p r e s e r v e s
X0
a> xa
( w i t h t h e u s u a l o r d e r i n g of r o o t s ) . E x p o n e n t i a t i n g we g e t t h e
i n v a r i a n t s of X z>AX- It A-l (that is X A X ~= A ) . I n t h e first
c a s e we g e t GC Spm i n t h e s e c o n d and t h i r d c a s e s G C SO,
( r e l a t i v e t o a f o r m of maximal i n d e x ) . ( F o r t h e proof t h a t e q u a l i t y
h o l d s s e e Ree, T.A.M.S. 1957.) The autornorphisrn cr above pre-
serves the basic ingredients B ,H , N of t h e B r u h a t decomposi-

t i o n of SLm . From t h i s a B r u h a t d e c o m p o s i t i o n f o r Spm and

can b e i n f e r r e d . By a s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e d u r e ,
'Om
we c a n a t t h e same t i m e t a k e c a r e of u n i t a r y g r o u p s .
 (c) If i s of t y p e G2 it i s t h e d e r i v a t i o n a l g e b r a
of a s p l i t C a y l e y a l g e b r a . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g g r o u p G is the
g r o u p of autornorphisrns o f t h i s a l g e b r a .
S i n c e t h e r e s u l t s l a b e l l e d (E) depend o n l y on t h e r e l a t i o n s
( R ) (which a r e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n c h o s e n ) we may
e x t r a c t from t h e d i s c u s s i o n s o f a r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t .

v
Proposition: Let G b e a g r o u p g e n e r a t e d by e l e m e n t s l a b e l l e d
0
x,(t) (arE z, t E k) such t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s ( R ) h o l d and l e t
9
U , H
P
, ... b e defined a s i n G .

v
(1) E v e r y e l e m e n t of U can be w r i t t e n i n t h e
form TT
v
xa(ta) .
a> 0

(2) F o r each w E W , write w = w w

a P"'
0 Y 9
a p r o d u c t of r e f l e c t i o n s . Define w w = u a m B .*.

v v
(where wa = wa(l) )
9
. Then e v e r y e l e m e n t of G
0 0 7 V
can be w r i t t e n u h wWv

(where u
v
E U
P
h
?
E H
v
,v
0
E
v
UW) .
v
C o r o l l a r y 1: Suppose G i s a s above and cp i s a homomorphism
of G? onto G such t h a t
0
cp(xa(t))= x a ( t ) for all a and t .
Then:

( a ) U n i q u e n e s s of e x p r e s s i o n h o l d s i n (1) a n d ( 2 ) above.
 (b) ker cp c e n t e r of G' c H' .
Proof : (a) Suppose rr P
xa ( ta ) = fT xa ( ta )
q b

. Applying cp we

get x t = fT x
Tu

t and by Lemma 1 7 ta -
N
- ta for a l l a .
0 P Y P P ,,YN? V m P
Hence c p I ~ i s a n isomorphism. Now i f u h ww v = u h ww v

by a p p l y i n g cp we g e t
0 D
v ( u ) y ( h ) u wcp(v ) =
P
o(Gq )rn(xq)ww ' ~ ( v v
rJ

By Theorem 4
0
and Lemma 2 1
0
cp(u ) = m("u ) and
F
cp(v ) = cp(? ) .
Hence u =u
9 -0
and v =v
,q
so
P
h ww= h w
P -9 0
W
so h
Y rnP
= h .
<

(b) Let x
0
= u h wwv
P O P O
o k e r cp . Then

P 0 P 0 0
1 = m(u )m(h ) wwrp(v ) o U H o w U w ; so w = 1 , ww = 1, rp(u ) = 1 ,

P
0
m(v ) = 1
0
. Hence u
P
= v
0
= 1 so x
Y
= h
0
=rr 0
hc(ta) . Then
u) by ( R B ) . Applying qo we s e e
a

that t <?,a> = 1 Hence x .

commutes w i t h xR(u) for
1 0

a a
all B and u , so i s i n c e n t e r of G ' To complete t h e proof
9

.
i t i s enough t o show t h a t c e n t e r of G C H ( f o r we have shown
P
k e r m C H ). If x = u h w w v e c e n t e r of G and w # 1
then t h e r e e x i s t s a > 0 such t h a t wa < 0 . Then =xa(l)x
which c o n t r a d i c t s Theorem 4
0
. Hence w = 1 so x = uh .
Let wo be t h e element of W making a l l p o s i t i v e r o o t s n e g a t i v e .
Then x = xail i s b o t h s u p e r d i a g o n a l and subdiagonal. Since
Wo 0

h is diagonal, u i s d i a g o n a l , and a l s o u n i p o t e n t .
Hence u = 1 and x =h e H .
Corollary 2: Center G C H .'
Corollary 3: The r e l a t i o n s ( R ) and t h o s e i n H on t h e h,(t)
form a d e f i n i n g s e t of r e l a t i o n s f o r G .
0
Proof: If tKe r e l a t i o n s i n H a r e imposed on H then m in
C o r o l l a r y 1 becomes a n isomoqphism by ( b ) .

C a r o l l a r y 4:
- If G
0
is constructed a s G from ,
Y
k, ...
but using a perhaps d i f f e r e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n space V i n place
0
of V , t h e n t h e r e e x i s t s a homomorphism of G onto G
0
such t h a t y(x,(t) ) = x,(t) i f and o n l y i f t h e r e e x i s t s a
0 0
homomorphism 9 : H -> H such t h a t 0 h a ( t ) = h ( t)
C:
for a l l
a and t .
Proof: Clearly if y e x i s t s then 8 exists. Conversely assume
P
8 exists. Matching up t h e g e n e r a t o r s of H and H , we s e e
that the relations i n H
D
form a s u b s e t of t h o s e i n H . By
C o r o l l a r y 3 and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s ( R ) a r e t h e same
. .

for G
P
and G , t h e r e l a t i o n s on
3'
xa(t), . in G
Y
form
a s u b s e t of t h o s e o n xa(t), ... in G . Thus exists.
 So f a r t h e s t r u c t u r e of H h a s p l a y e d a minor r o l e

i n t h e proceedings. To make t h e p r e c e d i n g r e s u l t s more p r e c i s e

we w i l l now d e t e r m i n e it.
We r e c a l l t h a t H i s t h e group g e n e r a t e d by a l l
ha(t) (a E. X, t e k) and ("*) h,(t) a c t s on t h e weight s p a c e V
,cr.

a s m u l t i p l i c a t i o n by t< ' ' Y>~. A l s o , we r e c a l l t h a t by

Theorem 3 ( e ) , 2 l i n e a r function ,u, on % i s t h e h i g h e s t weight of

some i r r e d u c i b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n provided < I:, a > = ,!a(Ha) e Z +

for a l l a > 0 . C l e a r l y , it s u f f i c e s t h a t < ::, a i > o Z+
f o r a l l simple r o o t s ai . Define hi, i = 1, 2 , ..., L by

< hi, a
j
> = Gij . We s e e t h a t hi o c c u r s as t h e h i g h e s t weight
of some i r r e d u c i b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , and we c a l l hi a fundamental
weight.

Lemma 27:

(a) The a d d i t i v e group g e n e r a t e d by a l l t h e w e i g h t s of

a l l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s forms a l a t t i c e L1 having {hi] as
a basis.

(b) The a d d i t i v e group g e n e r a t e d by a l l r o o t s i s a sub-

lattice Lo of L1 . Moreover, (< a i , a
j
>) i , j = 1, 2 , ..., 4,

i s a relation matrix f o r which i s t h u s f i n i t e .

L~'LO ,
(c) The a d d i t i v e group g e n e r a t e d by a l l w e i g h t s o f a
f a i t h f u l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on V forms a l a t t i c e L between
v
Lo and Ll .
 Proof: P a r t ( a ) i s immediate from t h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
weights. (b) If a
i
i s a s i m p l e r o o t and ai = C c i j h . ( c i j e
J
c)
then < a i y ak > = cik and ai = X < ai, a
j
> XJ. . (c) If a

is a root, then since Xa # 0 t h e r e e x i s t s 0 #v E V

,I
l
f o r some
weight ;r with 0 # Xav E V,,,+a . Hence a = (/s + a) - p E

and Lo C_ LTi 2 L1 . -,

Remark: A l l l a t t i c e s between Lo and L1 can be r e a l i z e d as

i n Lemma 27 ( c ) by an a p p r o p r i a t e c h o i c e o f V . In particular,
hJ = Lo if V c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e a d j o i n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , and
LV = L1 if V c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e sum o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
h a v i n g t h e fundamental w e i g h t s a s h i g h e s t w e i g h t s .

Lemma 2 8 ( S t r u c t u r e of H ) :

( a ) For each a , ha(t) i s m u l t i p l i c a t i v e a s a f u n c t i o n of t .

(b) H i s an Abelian group g e n e r a t e d by t h e hi(t)9s
(with hi(t) = h
a4
(t)) .
&
(c) hi(ti) = 1 i f and o n l y if
i =1

t. 4, < p , a i >
(dl The c e n t e r o f G = {
i= 1
hi(ti)]
i =l
.n
ti = 1

for all p E L") hence i s f i n i t e .

Proof: ( a ) , ( b ) , and ( c ) f o l l o w f r o m (::) above. ( a ) and ( c ) are

11. ( Ha ) kr(XniHi )
< /.(,a> =
1 immediate and ( b ) r e s u l t s from t =t ti

Eni < ! h a i >

if Ha = Xn. H For ( d ) , we n o t e
1 i *
 < @,ai>=1
that rr
4,
hi(tik,)
i=l
commutes w i t h x (u)
B
i f and b n l y i f
4,
rr
i=l
ti

by Lemma 1 9 ( c ) .

Corollary:

(a) If LV = Ll , t h e n every h e H can be w r i t t e n u n i q u e l y

(b) If LV = L o , then G has center 1 .

P
C o r o l l a r y 5 (To Theorem 4 ): Let G be a C h e v a l l e y g r o u p a s
0
u s u a l and l e t G be a n o t h e r C h e v a l l e y g r o u p c o n s t r u c t e d from
t h e same and k as G but using V
0
i n p l a c e of V . If
0
L v 9 2 LV , t h e n ' t h e r e e x i s t s a homomorphism m: G -> G such
P P
that cp(xa(t)) = x a ( t ) for a l l a, t and ker o L C e n t e r of G ,
v
where
P
xa(t) corresponds t o xa(t) in G . If L
then o i s a n isomorphism.
P
Proof: T h e r e e x i s t s a homomorphism 8 : H -> H such t h a t
0
@hi(t) = h i ( t ) by Lemma 2 8 ( c ) . If a i s any r o o t and
m
11

Ha = I: niHi , ni e 2 , then ha(t ) = hi(t ) and s i m i l a r l y

v
for h i ( t) . Hence 8ha(t) = ha(t ) . By C o r o l l a r y 4 t o Theorem 4
?
,
9 exists. By C o r o l l a r y 1, k e r cq -
C C e n t e r of G
P
. If L. = L
v v' '.
we have a homomorphism I : G -> G
v
suTh t h a t i ( x a ( t )) = x a ( t )
P
.
Hence, $om = i d G ? : go$ = idG , and i s a n isomorphism.
 We c a l l t h e C h e v a l l e y g r o u p s Go and Gcorresponding
1
t o the lattices Lo and L1 t h e a d , j o i n t group and t h e u n i v e r s a l
group r e s p e c t i v e l y . If G = GV i s a Chevalley group c o r r e s p o n d i n g
t o the l a t t i c e LV , t h e n by C o r o l l a r y 5, we have c e n t r a l
homomorphisms a and , p such t h a t a : G1-> Gv and p : GV -> G
0 -
We c a l l ker a t h e fundamental g r o u p of 5 , and
- we s e e
k e r p = c e n t e r of G .
Exercise: The c e n t e r o f t h e u n i v e r s a l group, i . e . , t h e fundamental
group of t h e a d j o i n t group i s isomorphic t o H O ~ ( L ~ / L k~ *, ) .
E.g., if k = , t h e l a s t group i s isomorphic w i t h L ~ / L ~ .
Also i n t h i s c a s e t h e C e n t e r of GV L ~ / L, ~ and t h e
N
fundamental group o f GV = L1/L;,

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e , we l i s t some i n f o r m a t i o n known
a b o u t t h e l a t t i c e s and C h e v a l l e y g r o u p s o f t h e v a r i o u s Lie
algebras x:
Type of

Spin
4n
 Here GV i s a C h e v a l l e y group o t h e r t h a n Go and G1 ,
i s t h e c y c l i c group o r o r d e r n , 'On is t h e s p e c i a l orthogonal
group, Spinn i s t h e s p i n group, Spn i s t h e s i m p l e c t i c group, a n d
PG d e n o t e s t h e p r o j e c t i v e group of G .
To o b t a i n t h e column headed by L1/LC one r e d u c e s t h e
relation matrix (< ai, a >) t o d i a g o n a l form. To show, f o r
j
example, t h a t SLn i s t h e u n i v e r s a l g r o u p of 2 = s&, of t y p e

j
,,; .
An-1 )
we l e t wi be t h e weight oi : d i a g ( a l , ... , a n ) -> ai .
g,
<*,
.7,

Then if hi - cu + m 2 +
,,?-4t

:. .
.1.'.,',
1 **. +W
i
l S i < , n - 1 , we have

hi(Hj) =hi (E
jj
- Ej+l,j+l ) = Fij . Hence t h e f u n d a m e n t a l w e i g h t s

a r e i n the l a t t i c e associated with t h i s representation. Since t h e

c e n t e r of SLn is g e n e r i c a l l y c y c l i c of o r d e r n , it follows t h a t
L ~ / L ~i s isomorphic t o Z i n t h i s case.

I
Exercise: If G i s a Chevalley group, G1, G2, ..., Gr subgroups

I of G c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o indecomposable components of 2. , then:

(a) Each Gi i s normal i n G and G = G1G2 '.* Gr .

(b) G i s u n i v e r s a l ( r e s p e c t i v e l y a d j o i n t ) i f and o n l y i f
each G, is.

(c) I n each c a s e i n ( b ) , t h e p r o d u c t i n ( a ) i s d i r e c t .

Corollary 6: If a is a r o o t , t h e n t h e r e e x i s t s a homomorphism

va : SL2
 =x
-a (t4 [ -1
O yI=-
0 a '
k e r aa = 11) or {+ 1 ) so that<xa, i s isomorphic t o

either SL2 or PSC2 .

Proof: Let be of rank 1 spanned by X, Y and H with
[X, Y] = H , [H, X] = 2X and [H, Y] = - 2Y . Now 2)- has a

. . representation x -> i], Y - H - -:]as s t 2 on a

9
v e c t o r space V and a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n X -> XG , Y -> X -a , H -> Ha
on t h e same v e c t o r space V a s t h e o r i g i n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of x.
Since SL2 i s u n i v e r s a l , t h e r e q u i r e d homomorphism CQ e x i s t s and
has ker u C {t 1) by C o r o l l a r y 5.

Exercise: If G i s u n i v e r s a l , each aCl i s an isomorphism.

9 4 S i m p l i c i t y of G . The main purpose of t h i s s e c t i o n i s t o

prove t h e f o l l o w i n g theorem:

Theorem 5 ( C h e v a l l e y , D i c k s o n ) : . Let G be an a d j o i n t group and

assume i s simple ( X indecomposable). If (kl = 2 , assume 2?
i s n o t of t y p e A1, B2, or G2 . If (kt = 3 , assume is not
of type A1 . Then G i s simple.

Remark: The c a s e s excluded i n Theorem 5 must be excluded. If

lkl = 2 , then G has a3, Q6 , SU ( 3 )

3 a s a normal subgroup
: %&"',

9 4 S i m p l i c i t y of G . The main purp6se of t h i s s e c t i o n i s t o 97

prove t h e f o l l o w i n g theorem:

Theorem 5 ( C h e v a l l e y , D i c k s o n ) : Let G be a n a d j o i n t group and

assume 2 i s simple (I) indecomposable). If 1 kl = 2 , assume 2
i s n o t of t y p e A1, B2, or G2 . If 1 kl = 3 , assume is not
of t y p e A1 . Then G i s simple.

Remark: The c a s e s excluded i n Theorem 5 must be excluded. If

lkl = 2 , then G has a3, , SU3(3) a s a normal subgroup
of i n d e x 2 if i s of t y p e A1, B2, G; respectively. If
(kI = 3 and xis of t y p e A1, then a4 i s a normal subgroup
of G of i n d e x 2. Here a d e n o t e s t h e a l t e r n a t i n g group.
A proof of Theorem 5 e s s e n t i a l l y due t o Iwasawa and T i t s
w i l l be g i v e n h e r e i n a sequence of lemmas.

Lemma 29: Let G be a Chevalley group. If w E: W , w =w w

a B
...
i s a minimal e x p r e s s i o n a s a product of simple r e f l e c t i o n s , t h e n
w, , w g , ...
e G1 , t h e group g e n e r a t e d by B and wBw
-1 .
-
Proof: We know w-l a < 0 by t h e rninimality of t h e e x p r e s s i o n
( s e e Appendix 11.19 and 1 1 . 2 2 ) . Hence i f p = - w-l a > 0 , then
G~ 2 W x B W- -
1WP - X -a . ~ h u s , wa e G~ . Since

wawBw -1wa-1 GI and s i n c e l e n g t h waw < length w , we may complete

t h e proof by i n d u c t i o n .

Lemma 30: If G a g a i n i s any Chevalley group, i f T i s a subset

of t h e s e t of s i m p l e r o o t s , i f WT i s t h e group g e n e r a t e d by a l l
w
a'
a e T , and i f G
7~
= 'd BwB , t h e n
we

(a) GT i s a group.

(b) The 2' groups so obtained a r e a l l d i s t i n c t .

c ) Every subgroup of G containing B i s e q u a l t o one of them.

Proof: P a r t ( a ) f o l l o w s from BwB - B wwaB W BwB

BwaB C .
0
(b) Suppose T , 7~ a r e d i s t i n c t s u b s e t s of t h e s e t of simple
r o o t s , say a E rT a 4 1~ . NOW W, a = - a and wa = a + cg8
Be*
if w B WT . Thus waa # wa , s i n c e simple r o o t s a r e l i n e a r l y
independent. Hence, wa t$ WT , W*, # W, , and GT, # GT since

d i s t i n c t e l e m e n t s o f t h e Weyl group c o r r e s p o n d t o d i s t i n c t double

cosets. (c) Let A b e any subgroup c o n t a i n i n g B . Set
r = [a la s i m p l e , we B A] . We s h a l l show A = G* . Clearly,

A 3 G, , Since G = BwB and A 2 B , we need o n l y show

weW
w B A implies w E G, t o g e t A C G, . Let w B A ,
w w w
=
a B
..., a minimal e x p r e s s i o n of w a s a product of simple
reflections. By Lemma 29, w,, wg, ... B A . Hence, a , p, ... r ,
w e W' , and w B GT ,

A g r o u p c o n j u g a t e t o some GT is called a parabolic

subgroup o f G . We s t a t e w i t h o u t proof some f u r t h e r p r o p e r t i e s
of p a r a b o l i c subgroups which f o l l o w from Lemma 29.

(1) No two G,'s a r e conjugate.

(2) Each p a r a b o l i c subgroup i s i t s own n o r m a l i z e r .

3 G7T n G*' = G * ~ * q

(4) B U B w B (w B W) i s a group i f and o n l y i f w = 1 or w

i s a simple r e f l e c t i o n ,

Example: If G = SLn , then r corresponds t o a p a r t i t i o n

of t h e n x n m a t r i c e s i n t o b l o c k s w i t h t h e d i a g o n a l b l o c k s b e i n g
s q u a r e m a t r i c e s , C l e a r l y , t h e r e a r e 2n-1 p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r such
 prtitions. GTT i s t h e n t h e s u b s e t of SL, of m a t r i c e s whose

subdiagonal blocks a r e zero.

~emma31: Let ,
?
c . b e s i m p l e and l e t G be t h e a d j o i n t Chevalley
group. If N f 1 is a normal subgroup of G , then NB = G .
proof:
-I
We f i r s t show N (B . Suppose N c- B and 1f x E N ,
~ . = u h ,U E U , h E H . If u f 1, t h e n f o r some
w E W w xwa1 4B , a contradiction. ' If u = 1, then h # 1 .
v
Since G i s a d j o i n t , it h a s center 1 , and hxa(t)h-I = x,(t )
v v
.Irith t # t f o r some t, t E k , a E Z . Hence (h, xa(t))
v T
= x a ( t -t) E N , x a ( t -t) f 1 , and w e a r e back i n t h e f i r s t c a s e .

We now p r o v e t h e lemma. By Lemma 3 0 ( c ) , NB =. G for

'T

some IT . We must show n- contains a l l simple r o o t s . Suppose i t

does n o t . Since N d_ B , we s e e .s f @ . Also s i n c e Z is
indecomposable, we c a n f i n d s i m p l e r o o t s a,f3 with a E s , B & q

and a not orthogonal t o P . Let blwab2 E N , bi E B , then

bwa E N with b = b2bl E B . Then w
P
bw w - l ~ N
a p
n (BwawP BVBwgwawg B)

by Lemma 2 5 ( b ) . . Hence e i t h e r w w
a P
E W
T
or w w w
B a P
E W
n-
.
NOW w w w
P U P
= W
Y
where
= wBa
= a -< a, p> p . Since

I < a, $ >f 0 , y

>
i s n o t a s i m p l e r o o t and N(wgwawg) f 1, so

I that

w w w
a P a
N(w w w )
$ a @ -3 by Appendix 11.20.

a r e b o t h e x p r e s s i o n s of minimal l e n g t h .
Hence w w
a P
By Lemma 29,
and
 51

% ,a contradiction. Thus, ?r i s t h e s e t of a l l simple r o o t s

P
a 32: If and G a r e as i n Theorem 5 , t h e n G =G , the
ed group of G .
Before p r o v i n g Lemma 32, we f i r s t show t h a t Theorem 5
w s from Lemmas 3 1 and 32. Let N # 1 be a a normal subgroup
. By Lemma 31, NB = G so G/N 2 B/B nN . Now G/N equals
e r i v e d group and B/B nN i s solvable. Hence G/N = 1

.-,5c,.
. ., .
:$;?r
. .:
, (.
I n s t e a d o f p r o v i n g Lemma 32 d i r e c t l y , we prove t h e
.-
...>:
, .:, ..
,,,*,.. ,

; following s t r o n g e r s t a t ernent :

0
; lemma 32 : If i s a s i n Theorem 5 then G = G h o l d s i n any
group G i n which t h e r e l a t i o n s ( R ) h o l d , i n f a c t i n which t h e
relations:

hold.

-
Proof: Since G i s g e n e r a t e d by t h e j f a v s we must show t h a t
every a G
0
. We w i l l do t h i s i n s e v e r a l s t e p s , e x c l u d i n g a s
we proceed t h e c a s e s a l r e a d y t r e a t e d . The f i r s t s t e p t a k e s u s
almost a l l t h e way.

(a) Assume lkl >4 . We may choose t E kQ , t2 # 1 .

 2
Then (ha(t) 2 x,(u)) = ~ , ( (-1)~)
t : Since a and .u are
a r b i t r a r y , every g, -C G . 0

By ( a ) we may henceforth assume t h a t t h e rank t is

at least 2 and t h a t (k( = 2 or 3 . By t h e c o r o l l a r y t o
Lemma 1 5 , we may w r i t e t h e r i g h t s i d e of ( A ) as x
B + Y ( ~ B , Yt u ) mq ,
t h e f a c t o r with i = j = 1 having been i s o l a t e d . We w i l l use t h e
fact (*) that No
. ,Y
= +
- (r + 1) with r = r(j3,y) as in
Theorem 1, t h e maximum number of t i m e s one can s u b t r a c t y from f3

and s t i l l have a r o o t .

(b) Assume t h a t a i s a r o o t which can be w r i t t e n f3 + y

so t h a t no o t h e r p o s i t i v e i n t e g r a l combination of B and y is
.a r o o t and N
B,Y
# 0 . Then a C G' , a s f o l l o w s a t once from
( A ) with n9 . =1 T h i s covers t h e f o l l o w i n g c a s e s :

(1) If a l l r o o t s 'have t h e same l e n g t h :

types A4, DL, E L .
(2) BC(*>3) , a long ; B2, a long, lkl = 3 .
(3) CL ( & 2 3 ) , a short; or a longand lkl = 3 .
(4) Fq

(5) G2 , a long.

To s e e t h i s we use t h e f a c t t h a t a l l r o o t s of t h e same
l e n g t h a r e congruent under t h e Weyl group, imbed a i n an
a p p r o p r i a t e r o o t system based on a p a i r of simple r o o t s , and
use ( * ) . I n a l l c a s e s b u t t h e second c a s e s i n ( 2 ) and ( 3 )
t h i s system can be chosen of t y p e A2 with p and y roots
of t h e same l e n g t h a s a , while i n t h o s e c a s e s it can be chosen o f
type B2 with P and y short roots.

Because oi t h e e x c l u s i o n s i n t h e theorem, t h i s l e a v e s
the following cases:

( 6 ) B t ( t >-- 2 ) a short.

( 7 ) G ,-l , o: sh3rtJ jkl = 3 .

(8) ct i t 2 3) ? a long, /kl =- 2 .

(c) If ( 6 ) o r ( 7 ) h ~ l l d st ~
hen x a -c G
Y
~ n b o t hof
.L 7
.,?ese c a s e s we can f i n d r o o t s 5, y so t h a t a =p + y , all
other roots ip + jy (i,j p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s ) a r e l o n g , and
N
BY
# 0 : i n ( 6 ) we can choose l o n g and y short, i n (7)

both s h o r t . Then us belongs t o G

P
by c a s e s a l r e a d y t r e a t e d ,
hence so d c e s X , by ( A ) .

(d) If ( 8 ) h o l d s , t h e n C G
P
. Choose r o o t s 8, y
with lonz, y s h o r t , and a = p + 2y . Since p+Y C Gy

because + "f i s s h o r t , o u r a s s e r t i o n w i l l f o l l o w from C12 # 0

in ( A ) , hence from t h e n e x t leirma.

Lemxa 33 : If p and Y form a simple system of t y p e D2 with

$ l o n g and y short, then i xp(t), x y ( u ) ) = ~ @ + ~ ( tf u- ) xP+2y(' tu') .
 By Lemma 1 4 , we have

-1
x Y iu)Xg ?(u) = exp ( a d u X y ) X P

=X +uN
-7

i-u 2
B Y ,fl iip+y N ~ B ',~ Y , B+Y /2

Here Ny , = -+ 1 and
V,P+y -
N = + 2 since p it a roo
we m u l t i p l y t h i s e q u a t i o n by -t , exponentiate, observe t h a t t h e
t h r e e f a c t o r s on t h e r i g h t s i d e cormute, and t h e n s h i f t t h e first
of them t o t h e l e f t , we g- e t Lemma 33,
The proof of Theorem 5 i s now compl
I n t h e c o u r s e o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , we have e s t a b l i s h e d
the following r e s u l t ,

Corollary: If C i s indecomposa.ble and of rank > 1 and i f

is any r o o t , t h e n t h e r e e x i s t r o o t s 9 and y and a p o s i t i v e
integer n such t h a t a = R + nv and c,- # 0 i n the relations

I .
7
( A ) of Lemiia 32

C o r o l l a r ~(To Theorem 5 ) : If [kl >_ 4 and G i s a Chevalley group

based on k , thel, evt;, y d l v a b l e no:-ilLdl subgroup of G is central
and hence f i n i t e .

Proof: S i n c e t h e c e n t e ~of a Chevalley group i s always f i n i t e

by Lemiia 2 8 ( d j j we need o n l y prove t h e f i r s t s t a t e m e n t . Also we may
assume G = Gg , t h e a d j o i n t group, s i n c e by C o r o l l a r y 5 t o
v
Theorem 4 , t h e r e i s a homomorphisrn Q of G onto G .with
0
 er y c e n t e r of G and Go h a s c e n t e r 1. Now we may w r i t e
= G1 G 2 * * Gr where Gi i = 1, 2 . ,r is the adjoint
rcup c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a n indecomposable subsystem of C . By
h e o r e n 5, each Gi
A
i s simple. Thus any normal subgroup o f G is
a product of some of t h e Gifs . If i t a l s o i s s o l v a b l e , t h e
:$ product i s empty and t h e subgroup i s 1.
 56

>
' I
- g5. Chevallzy g ~ o u p sand a l g e b r a i c groups.
5 3

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e r e s u l t s s o f a r t o t h e t h e o r y of semi-
simple a l g e b r a i c groups w i l l now be i n d i c a t e d .

Let k be a n a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d . A subset V C
- kn
s s a i d t o be a l g e b r a i c i f t h e r e e x i s t s a s u b s e t ?C
- k[xl,. .,%I
,

such t h a t V = [v = (vl,. .. ,vn) E

n
k Ip(vl,. .., v n ) = 0 for a l l
p e p]. The a l g e b r a i c s u b s e t s of kn a r e t h e c l o s e d s e t s of
t h e Z a r i s k i t o p q ~ o ~ony kn . For v c kn s e t Ik(V] =

(p E k[%, ...,xn ] I p ( v l , . ..,vn) = 0 for a l l (vl,. ..,vn) V) . E

Let r = nz + 1 . Define D(x) E k[x0;xijll < i, <- by

D(x) = 1 - xo det(xij) . Then GL,(~) = [v E krlD(v) = o ] i s an
a l g e b r a i c s u b s e t of kr . G i s a rnatric a .e b. r a i c group if G
i s a subgroup of GL,(k) f o r some n and some a l g e b r a i c a l l y
2
closed f i e l d k , and G i s a n a l g e b r a i c s u b s e t of
kn +l
.
If ko i s a s u b f i e l d of k ,G - -ko
i s d e f i n e d over if Ik(G)
has a b a s i s of polynomials w i t h c o e f f i c i e n t s i n ko .
,
Examples :

(c)
(a)

Diagonal subgroup,
YLn( k ) (b)

(d) :I)
Superdiagonal subgroup,

= Ga = a d d i t i v e g r o u p ,

= G
n =multiplicativegroup, (f) Sp2, ,
h) any f i n i t e subgroup,

The groups i n ( a ) - ( e ) a r e defined over t h e prime f i e l d . Whether

S P ~ son
~ , a r e o r n o t depends on t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e d e f i n i n g
forms, The groups i n ( h ) a r e n o t connected i n t h e
Zariski topology, t h e others a r e .
 57
A map of a l g e b r a i c groups cp: G -> H i s a homomorphism
if it i s a group homomorphism and each of t h e matric c o e f f i c i e n t s
rp(g)ij i s a r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n of t h e gij . H homomorphism
ep: G -> H i s a n isomorph* i f t h e r e e x i s t s a homomorphism

y/: H>- G such t h a t cpy = i d H and Y/rp = i% . A homomor-

phism cp : G -> H i s defined over k0 i f each of t h e r a t i o n a l
f u n c t i o n s above has i t s c o e f f i c i e n t s i n ko
Except f o r t h e l a s t a s s e r t i o n , t h e following r e s u l t s a r e proved
i n ~ e s i n a i r eChevalley (1956-8) , ~ x ~ o s e3'.

( i ) Let G be a m a t r i c a l g e b r a i c group, Then t h e f o l l o w i n g

a r e equivalent :
%'
. Lr Ar (a) G i s connected ( i n t h e Z a r i s k i t o p o l o g y ) .
d-.

<+ (b) G i s i r r e d u c i b l e ( a s an a l g e b r a i c v a r i e t y ) .
(c) Ik(G) i s a prime i d e a l .
(ii) The image of a n a l g e b r a i c group under a r a t i o n a l homo-
morphism i s a l g e b r a i c .
(iii) A group generated by connected a l g e b r a i c subgroups i s
a l g e b r a i c and connected (e.g. (a) - (g) a r e con-
nected). It i s d e f i n e d over t h e p e r f e c t f i e l d ko
i f each of t h e subgroups i s .

If G i s an a l g e b r a i c group, t h e r a d i c a l of G (rad G) is
t h e maximal connected s o l v a b l e normal subgroup. G is semisirpple
if (1) r a d G = (1) and (2) G i s connected,
 For t h e remainder of t h i s s e c t i o n we assume t h a t k i s alge-.
b r a i c a l l y closed, k i s t h e " prime f i e l d , G i s a Chevalley
0
,

; - grciup
,
b a s e d on
t . .
. .
lc and M the lattice. (Since a change of b a s i s
in M is g i v e n by polynomi.als with i n t e g r a l c o e f f i c i e n t s we may
speak of a b a s i s over M ,)

?heorem 6: With t h e preceding n o t a t i o n s :

(a) G i s a semisimple a l g e b r a i c group r e l a t i v e t o M .

(b) B is a maximal connected s o l v a b l e subgroup (Bore1 &-
FOUP
, (c) H t i s a maximal connected d i a g o n a l i z a b l e subgroup
i
(maximal t o r u s ) .
(d) N i s t h e normalizer of H and N/H 2 W .
( e ) G , B, H, and N a r e a l l d e f i n e d over ko relative t o
M .

Remark: B and H a r e determined by t h e a b s t r a c t group G;

1 (a) B i s maximal s o l v a b l e and has no subgroups of f i n i t e

(b) H i s maximal n i l p o t e n. t and every subgroup of f i n i t e l a d e x

.

i s of f i n i t e index i n i t s normalizer.

Proof of Theorem 6: (a) Map Ga -> #, by x

,
: t -> x,(t) .
This i s a r a t i o n a l homomorphism. So s i n c e Ga i s a connected
 , ~ g e b r a i c group s o i s Xa . Hence G i s a l g e b r a i c and connected..
Let R = rad G . Since R i s s o l v a b l e and normal it i s f i n i t e
by t h e C o r o l l a r y t o Theorem 5. Since R i s a l s o connected
R s 1 , and hence G i s semisimple.
4,
( b and c ) H is t h e image of Gm under ->)
(t1,-*-,tC
4
fl h i ( t i )
and hence i s a l g e b r a i c and connected; s o B = U H is
i-1
connected, a l g e b r a i c , and s o l v a b l e . Let G1 3 B Then
#
.
-
G1 3 B wa B (some simple r o o t a) , so G1 >- <xa, #-a> , and
hence by C o r o l l a r y 6 of Theorem 4' G1 i s n o t s o l v a b l e and hence
( b ) holds. H i s a maximal connected d i a g o n a l i z a b l e subgroup of
B ( f o r any l a r g e r subgroup must i n t e r s e c t U nontrivially) .
Hence H i s a maximal connected d i a g o n a l i z a b l e subgroup of G
( b y a theorem i n Chevalleyts jgminaix-e); 30 ( c ) holds.

1 (d) is c l e a r . To prove ( e ) it s u f f i c e s by (iii)t o prove:

Lemma 34: Let %, = [ x a ( t ) l t E kl and ha= [ h a ( t ) l t E k"]

Then: (a) Fa i s d e f i n e d over ko and xa: Ga -> $a is
an isomorphism over ko .
( b ) 3, i s d e f i n e d over ko and ha: Gm ->h is a
a
homomorphism over ko .
-
Proof: Let {vi] be a b a s i s o f M formed of weight v e c t o r s .
Choose vi so that Xavi # 0 , then write Xavi = 2 c .
15 j
.V , and
choose v
j
so that cij # 0 . If vi i s of weight
-
p , then
2 2
v i s of weight p + a . Since x,(t) = 1 +t X a + t x a / 2 + * * =
j
it follows t h a t if a i j is the ( i ,j ) m a t r i c coordinate (i# j)
 function then a i j ( % ( t ) ) = c .t
i~
. A l l o t h e r c o e f f i c i e n t s of
x,(t) a r e polynomials o v e r k
0
in t , hence also i n
aij
This s e t of polynomial r e l a t i o n s d e f i n e s )(a a s a group over

k, . Now
1
b-a i j : x a ( t ) ->
ij
t i s a n i n v e r s e of ia , so the

map x, i s an isoinorphism over ko . The proof of ( b ) i s l e f t

a s an excercise.

We can r e c o v e r t h e l a t t i c e s and L from t h e group G

=o
a s follows. Let ;i e L . 3efine
A
: H --> Gm by $(wi(ti) ) =

~ t ~ .~ T(h i s ~i s ia c)h a r a c t e r d e f i n e d over ko . $1 generates

a lattice
A
L , the c h a r a c t e r group of H . The X,'s a r e deter-
. mined by H a s t h e unique minimal u n i p o t e n t subgroups normalized
by H . If h = mhi(ti) then h x,(t)hel =
A
xa(e(h)t) where
A
a(h) = ntia(Hi)
. A
a is c a l l e d a global . Define
A
Lo --
t h e l a t t i c e g e n e r a t e d by a l l
A
a . Then
A
Lo CL
h
.
A
Sxercise: There e x i s t s a W-iscmorphism: L -> L such t h a t
Lo ->
h
L
0'
!J ----> c-;
A
, and a ->
h
a . (The a c t i o n of W on
A
L
i s g i v e n by t h e a c t i o n of N/H on t h e c h a r a c t e r g r o u p ) .

We summarize our r e s u l t s i n :

E x i s t e n c e Theorem:
-.--
Given a r o o t system C ,a lattice L with
Lo C L C L1 (where Lo and L1 a r e t h e r o o t and weight l a t t i c e s ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , and an a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d lc , then there
e x i s t s a semisiinple a l g e b r a i c group G d e f i n e d over k such t h a t
L0 and L a r e r e a l i z e d a s t h e l a t t i c e s of g l o b a l r o o t s and char-
a c t e r s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , r e l a t i v e t o a maximal t o r u s . Furthermore
 61

G, ga,... can b e t a k e n o v e r t h e prime f i e l d .

The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t h e o r e m , t h a t up t o k-isoixorphism every

'%

.&
!!- semisimple a l g e b r a i c group o v e r k h a s been o b t a i n e d a b o v e , i s
... ,
<???

$! much m o r e d i f f i c u l t . (See Grninair ChevaJJey, 1956-8).

-
.g
+. ,.

?kF- %- n ez
\"
.g,
We r e c a l l t h a t
#:? .,
*jq, .+,
,.'+,, = {H E %[p(H) E 72 for a l l p E Lj .
.+..:, .
...
,:
-<

: Lemma 35; Let k be a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d , G a C h e v a l l e y group

....
..
,.....
.., ...
...
;- over H t
H1 a basis for . Define hi
t
by
t
hi(v)
;,.;
fl(Hi) z
.
I..

4,
= t v for v E V Then t h e map rp: Gm -> H g i v e n by
" I-'-
1 1
( tl, > t 4-)
> ) i s a n isomorphisin over k of a l g e -
j= 0
b r a i c groups.

-
Proof: Write . .H
Hi = X n 1
T
ni j E . Given
t
itj] we can f i n d
I1
Tti
L
.

{ti] such t h a t tT.= iJ (for d e t ( n . . ) # 0 and kq. i s

J -!
I
1J
t 1
divisible). Then n h .(t.) a c t s on V as m u l t i p l i c a t i o n by
i J J
J
P
$(Hi)
J
pi , i . e . a s n h i ( t i ) . T h i s shows t h a t cp
=
1
maps G~m o n t o i! . C l e a r l y rp i s a r a t i o n a l ii1agi2ing d e f i n e d
over k
0
. L e t { p i ] b e t h e b a s i s of L d u a l t o { H i ] l ( i . e .
;;. (H . )
1
t

J
= 6. .)
13
. Write pi= .Z n p .
,LELP
Then n(n"t j
,P(Hj)
j
np
1
-..1
, ,
= ti
I
2 SO CP e x i s t s and i s d e f i n e d over lc
0
.
Theorem 7: Let k be a n a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d and ko the

prime s u b f i e l d . Let G be a C h e v a l l e y group p a r a n e t r i z e d by k

and viewed a s a n a l g e b r a i c group d e f i n e d o v e r ko a s above.

Then;
 62
(a) U-HU i s a n open s u b v a r i e t y of G d e f i n e d over ko .
(b) If n i s t h e number of p o s i t i v e r o o t s , t h e n t h e map
kn k*.L
CP: x kn -> U-HU d e f i n e d by

a 0
v'xa(ta)nhi(ti)
a
YO xa(ta) i s an isomorphism of
of v a r i e k i e s over k
0
.
-
Proof: (a)
relative t o a basis
We c o n s i d e r t h e n a t u r a l a c t i o n of
(Yl , Y 2 , . .., Y r ) over k
G on An
made up of p r o d u c t s
0
of His
t
and
1
Xas such t h a t Y1 = Ax,(u > 0) . For x E G we
set xYi = Z, a . . (x)Y
1~ j
and t h e n d = afl ,a f u n c t i o n on G over

ko
.
We c l a i m t h a t x E U-HU = U-B i f and o n l y i f d ( x ) # 0 .
Assume x E U-B .
S i n c e B f i x e s Y1 up t o a nonzero m u l t i p l e
and if u E U- then uX, E Xa + %+
ht(p)
x< h t ( a )kXg , it follows

that d(x) # 0 . If x E U- w B with w E W, w # 1 , the same

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s show t h a t d(x) = 0 . If wo E E makes a l l p o s i -
t i v e r o o t s n e g a t i v e t h e n by t h e e q u a t i o n woU'- w B = B wow B and
1
Theorem 4 t h e two c a s e s above a r e e x c l u s i v e and e x h a u s t i v e ,
whence ( a ) .

(bj The map cp i s composed of t h e two maps

Y'= (y1y\Y2, Y3) : (tala > 0 x (ti)x ( t a l a > 0 -> U- x H x u ,

and 8: U- x H x U -> U-HU . We w i l l show t h a t t h e s e a r e i s o -
morphisms over ko . For y2 t h i s f o l l o w s from Lemma 35. Con-
sider y3 . Let [vi] be a b a s i s f o r V , the underlying vector
s p a c e , made up of weight v e c t o r s i n t h e l a t t i c e i , and fij the
 ?.

norresponding c o o r d i n a t e f u n c t i o n s on End V , For each r o o t a

-qm
choose i = i ( a ) , j = j(a) ni = n(a) a s i n t h e proof of Lemma
34. set x = 1.1.-xg(tg) .
Choosing an o r d e r i n g of t h e p o s i t i v e
8 > 0
r o o t s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a d d i t i o n , we s e e a t once t l i a ' ~
f i ( a ) , j ( a )( X I =
n ( a ) t a + an i n t e ~ r a lpolynomial in t h e e a r l i e r t t s and t h a t
fij(x) i s an i n t e g r a l polynomial i n t h e t f s for a l l i,j .
Thus v3 i s an isomorphism over k
0
, and sinilarly for Yl .
To prove 0 i s a n isomorphism we o r d e r t h e vi so t h a t U-,H;U
c o n s i s t r e s p e c t i v e l y of s u b d i a g o n a l u n i p o t e n t , d i a g o n a l , super-
:, .<.,<....,
, .:._
. .. .
-c
. ..
d i a g o n a l u n i p o t e n t m a t r i c e s ( s e e Lemma 18, Cor. 3 ) , and t h e n w e
, ..

. may assume t h a t t h e y c o n s i s t 'of a l l of t h e i n v e r t i b l e m a t r i c e s of

these types. Let x = u-hu be i n U-HU and l e t t h e s u b d i a g o n a l
e n t r i e s of u
- , t l i e d i a g o n a l e n t r i e s of h , the su~erdiaaonal
e n t r i e s of u be l a b e l l e d ti with i > j i = j i < j re-

I spectively. We o r d e r t h e i n d i c e s s o t h a t
* # .
ij precedes kg in

I
I
case i 5 k, j
f . .(x) = t . i t . . resp.
5
,
and i j

t . .t . .
kt Then i n t h e t h r e e c a s e s above
, i n c r e a s e d by a n
1J 1J JJ t i j ~ 11 1J

i n t e g r a l polynomial i n t ' s p r e c e e d i n g t i j . We may now induc-

t i v e l y s o l v e f o r tlie t f s a s r a t i o n a l forms over i n the
fls , the d i v i s i o n by t h e forms r e p r e s e n t i n g t l i e t..
JJ
I s being
j u s t i f i e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e nonzero oil UoHU . Thus 8

i s a n isomorphism over and ( b ) f o l l o w s .

ko
c o n s i s t s of a l l (aij ) such t h a t t h e

minors Call 1, /:::21 are n~nsing~lar.

I
64
Remark : It e a s i l y f o l l o w s t h a t t h e L i e a l g e b r a of G is dk
We can now e a s i l y prove t h e f o l l o w i n g i m p o r t a n t f a c t ( b u t

w i l l r e f e r t h e r e a d e r t o ~ g m i n a i r eBourbaki, Exp 219 i n s t e a d ) .

Let G b e a Chevalley group over Q, viewed a s above a s a n
a l g e b r a i c maLric group over $ , t h e prime f i e l d , a n d I t h e cor-
r e s p o n d i n g i d e a l over 22 ( c o n s i s t i n g of a l l polynomials over
which v a n i s h oil G) . Then t h e s e t of z e r o s of I i n any a l g e -
braically closed f i e l d k i s j u s t t h e Chevalley group over k
of t h e same t y p e (same r o o t s y s t e m and same weight l a t t i c e ) a s
G . Thus we have a f u n c t o r i a l d e f i n i t i o n i n t e r m s of e q u a t i o n s
of a l l of t h e semisimple a l g e b r a i c groups of any g i v e n t y p e .
1
-
C o r o l l a r-y -.
1: Let k,ko , G ,V be as above. Let G b e a Chevalley
group construcZzd u s i n g V' i n s t e a d of V b u t w i t h t h e same .
Assume t h a t LV > LVT . Then t h e homomorphir;ia ~ 3 : G -> G
I

I
taking x,(t) ---3 x,(t) for a l l a and t i s a homomorphism
I of a l g e b r a i c groups over ko .

1 Proof: Consider f i r s t cp U-HUI . By Theorem 7 we need o n l y show

that cp [ H i s r a t i o n a l over The nonzero c o o r d i n a t e s of
1 ko
P (Hi)
T
hi(ti) are TT -L
i
(
1
E LV1) . The nonzero c o o r d i n a t e s
AHi)
of h .
1 1
. are ti (ii E LV) . Each of t h e former i s a

1 monomial i n t h e l a t t e r ( b e c a u s e LVl - LV) ,

C
1
and hence i s r a t i o n a l
over k
0
. Now f o r w E W ,uW ( r e s p . w ), can be chosen w i t h
coefficients i n ko (for wa(l) = ( 1 )( - 1 ) a ( 1 ) ), s o t h a t

1 cp J(JU
: -B i s r a t i o n a l over ko . Since B.LB C w w-'u-B , we con-
clude t h a t i s r a t i o n a l over ko
 65
C o. r o l l a r y 2 :
. The homomorphism c p
a
.: SL
2
--><Ka,)(-a>
(of
1
C o r o l l a r y 6 t o Theorem 4 ) i s a homomorphism of a l g e b r a i c groups

over lco .
Proof:
7
T h i s i s a s p e c i a l c a s e of C o r o l l a r y 1.

CorollaryL: Assume Z,V, and 4 are fixed, t h a t V i s uni-

versal, k C 1; a r e f i e l d s and Gk and GK a r e t h e corresponding

Chevalley g r o u p s . Then Gk = GK n GLM, .

Proof: Clearly G
1c - GK n GLM,
C . Suppose x E GKnGLMjk .
I
Then x = uhw,v ( s e e Theorem 4) with Ww d e f i n e d over t h e
prime f i e l d . We must show t h a t xu,' E Gk , i.e. uhu- E Gk
-= -..1
.
> oAa ('17h i ( t i I a F1
where u UWvwW Write uhu- = x,(%)
a 0
with t a , ti E K . Applying cp-' of Theorem 7 , we g e t

> 0 X (ti) X ( t a l a < 0 Since uhu- i s defined over k

and cp-' i s d e f i n e d o v e r ko , all t,, ti E k . Hence
uhu- E Gg .
Remark: Suppose k = (t and G i s a Chevalley g r o u p o v e r k .
Then G h a s t h e s t r u c t u r e of a complex L i e g r o u p , and a l l t h e
p r e c e d i n g s t a t e m e n t s have obvious m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n t h e l a n g u a g e

of L i e g r o u p s , a l l of which a r e t r u e . For example, a l l complex

semisimple L i e grougs a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , and
i n Theorem 7 i s a n isomorphism of complex a n a l y t i c m a n i f o l d s .
 66
1

I 36. G e n e r a t o r ~ m dr e l a t i o n s

I n t h i s s e c t i o n we g i v e a p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e u n i v e r s a l

I' !
Chevalley grou;3 i n terms o f g e n e r a t o r s and r e l a t i o n s .
i; a r o o t System and k
If
a f i e l d we c o n s i d e r t h e group g e n e r a t e d
C

by t h e c o l l e c t i o n of symbols [ x a ( t ) la e Z, t e k ] subject t o
t h e following r e l a t i o n s , taken from t h e corresponding Chevalley

I groups :

xa(t) is a d d i t i v e i n t .
If u and p a r e r o o t s and a + B # 0 , then (x,(t) , x g ( u ) ) =

lT Xis+ j p ( c i jt iu j ) , where i and j are positive integers

and t h e cij a r e a s i n Lemma 15.
wa(t)x,(u)wL(-t) = x-,(-t
-2
u) for t E. k" , where w,(t) =

x,(t)x,(-t
-1
)\(t) for t E k': .
h,(t) i s multiplicative i n t , where hL(t} = wu(t)wa(-l)
for t E, k'" .
The r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o t h e l e c t u r e r f s paper i n Colloque la
thkorie -
des groupes al,q/ebriqies, B r u x e l l e s , 1962.
I Theorem 8 : Assume t h a t C i s o r t h o g o n a l l y indecomposable. Then:

(a) The r e l a t i o n s (R) (see 3~ ) a r e consequences of (A)

and (B) if rank C -
> 2 and of ( 8 ) and (B1 ) if
rank C = 1 .
(b) I n e i t h e r c a s e i f we add t h e r e l a t i o n (C] we o b t a i n a

*I . complete s e t of r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e u n i v e r s a l Chevalley

.
I group c o n s t r u c t e d from C and k
 The proof depends on a sequence of lemmas.
t
Throughout we l e t G be t h e g r o u p g e n e r a t e d by
1 '

Ix,(t) la E C, t E k] subject t o relations (A) and (B) if

rank C -
> 2 or (A) and (B') if r a n k C = 1, G b e the. u n i -
v e r s a 1 Chevalley group c o n s t r u c t e d from C and k , and
t 1
n: G -> G b e t h e homomorphism d e f i n e d by n ( ~ a () t=)x,(t)
for a l l a E C, t E k .
I.,emma 36: Let S be a s e t of r o o t s such t h a t :

(a) a E S implies -a $ S .
(b) a, p E S and a + /3 E C implies a + P E S .
t
Let XIs b e t h e subgroup of G g e n e r a t e d by
lxA(t)la E 3, t E k] . Then n maps yts isomorphically onto

t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g group i n
9
G .
Proof: Using (11) and (B) we can r e d u c e e v e r y element of ls

t
t o t h e form x a ( t F , ) (t, E k) a n d we know by Lemma 1 7 t h a t
a c 3
e v e r y element of gs can b e w r i t t e n u n i q u e l y i n t h i s form.

Lemma 3'7.: The f o l l o w i n g a r e consequences of (A) and (B) if

rank C -
> 2 a n d of (A) and ( B ' ) if rank C = 1 :

(a)
t 0
wa(t)xB(u)wa(-t) = x r ( c t
1 1
- 'La>u)
1 t ? P
(b) w a ( t ) w (u)wa(-t) = wa(ct- < B j a > ~ )
P

where Y = w,B, c = c(a,p) = 2 i s independent of t

and u , and c(a,p) = c(a,-B) .
I ( d ) , h i ( t ) ~ g ( u ) h ; ( t ) -=~ x ( t<kba>ul
- '
B
I
t
(el hi(t)wg(~)h:(t)-l = wg(t
<B,a>u) '
B ( t<p ? a>]-l
( f ) h i ( t ' ) h L ( ~ ] h ; , ( t ) -=~ h t (t<Pya>u)hT .
-
Proof: (a) assume a # +p . Let S be t h e s e t of r o o t s of t h e
form ia + j p where i and j a r e i n t e g e r s and j > 0 . By

(B) X's i s normalized by ' and xt, and hence by

t
wa(t) Thus
t I
w,(t)xB(ujwa(-t)
t
E g S.
T
By Lemma 36 we need
o n l y prove t h a t r e l a t i o n ( a ) h o l d s i n G . But i n G (a) follows

from t h e r e l a t i o n s (R) . Now assume a = and rank C 2 2 .

I n t h i s c a s e we u s e t h e f a c t ( s e e t h e C o r o l l a r y t o Lemma 33)
( There e x i s t r o o t s 6 and 7 and a p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r j such

that a = 6 + jr and

t t t (c tmun) and clj# 0.

( X 9 ! Xm*+nr m,n
Y * n , >
~o /
Set T = {mwa6 + nwarlm,n positive integers] Transforming b o t h

s i d e s of t h e above e q u a t i o n by wA(t) and a p p l y i n g t h e c a s e of

( a ) a l r e a d y proved we s e e t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m of every t e r m except
I

X*+j7 13.t uJ) E

(C KT .
Hence ~ , ( t ) x g + ~ ~ u(jc)w,(-t)
~ t &
1 1
XT ,
1

s o by t h e e a r l i e r argument, w i t h T i n p l a c e of S , ( a ) h o l d s .
If a = p and r a n k C = 1 t h e n ( a j h o l d s by (B )
I
. Since
t
wa(t)-' =
1
wa(-t) , the case a = -B f o l l o w s from t h e c a s e a = .
I
(b) -..(f) f o l l o w from ( a ) and t h e d e f i n i t i o n s of w,(t)
and
t
h,(t) .
Part ( a ) of Theorem 8 f o l l o w s from p a r t s ( a ) - ( d ) o f Lemma 37.
 69
1
Lemma 3 8 : Let h i b e t h e group g e n e r a t e d by a l l h,(t) ,
%(.
1
= h'
a , and H~ t h e gr,oup g e n e r a t e d by a l l ha
1
. Then:
i
(a) Each ka
T
i s normal i n H
1
.

Proof:
L
(a) f o l l o w s from Lemma 37 ( f ) .
(b) Let $ be any r o o t , and w r i t e B = w ai with ai

s i m p l e and w E M . Let w = w,. .. b e a minimal e x p r e s s i o n f o r

w a s a p r o d u c t of s i m p l e r e f l e c t i o n s . Set I= wa$ . Then

T t
$(t) -<B,a>l-lwT(-l)
= w a ( l ) h g ( c ( - l ) - < B y a > t ) h k ( c(-1) a by ~ e m a

37 ( c ) , a n d hence by Lemma 37 (e)

t
h A ( t ) = h r ( c ( - l ) - < B , a > t ) h k ( ~ ( - l )-<B , a > ) - l waT ya>)w~(-l)

E %$*hi. By i n d u c t i o n on t h e l e n g t h of w , (b) follows,

P r o o f of T h e o r e m u : - --- Let G" b e t h e group g e n e r a t e d by

I1
{x,(t) l a E 2, t E k] subject t o t h e relations ( A ) , ( B ) if
rank C > 1 or ( B f ) if rank C = 1 , and ( C ) . Let
It
w a y h ( t ) , .
rf
b e d e f i n e d a s u s u a l i n t e r m s of t h e
11
xa(t) .
'IT it
We wish t o p r o v e t h a t .T, : G ->
i s an isomorphism. G Let
x E ker n
.O

. S
By C o r o l l a r y 1 of t h e p r o p o s i t i o n i n 3 3 , x E H
It
.
ByLemma 36 and ( C ) Y = nhi(ti)
i9
(ti E ki'] . Applying
91
3 we
obtain 1= 17. h i ( t i ) . Since G i s u n i v e r s a l each ti = 1 ,
so x = l ,

F f --.
imlrl-s:
- 7 2 -%..
(a) In (A) and (B) it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o u s e a s gen-

erators x,(t) where a i s a l i n e a r combination of 2 s i m p l e

<
r o o t s and t h e r e l a t i o n s (1) and (B) which can b e w r i t t e n i n
t e r m s of s u c h elements.

(b) It i s s u f f i c i e n t t o assume (C) f o r one r o o t i n

each o r b i t under W .
Exercise: If C i s ' i . n d e c o m p o s a b l e , prove t h a t it i s s u f f i c i e n t
t o assume (C) f o r any l o n g r o o t a .
We w i l l now show t h a t i f k i s an a l g e b r a i c e x t e n s i o n of a
f i n i t e f i e l d then (1) and (B) imply (C) .
f 1
Lemma 39: Let a b e a r o o t and G a s above. In G set
f ( t, u ) = h,(t)h,(u)h,(tu)-' . Then:

(a) 2
f ( t,u v ) = f ( t,u ) f ( t, v )
2
.
.I.

(b) If t ,u g e n e r a t e a c y c l i c subgroup o f kq' t h e n

f ( t, u ) = f ( u , t ) n

(c) If f(t,u) = f(u,t) , then f ( t , u2) = 1 .

(d) If t Y u0
# and t + u = 1 , then f(t,u) = 1.
1
Proof: Since f ( t, u ) E k e r n, f ( t , u ) E c e n t e r of G Set
h,(t) = h(t) .

(b) Let t = vm, u = v

n with m,n E . Then

h(t) = h ( ~ ) ~ hc( u, ) = h(v)"d with c, d E center G

1
, since
1 G' is a c e n t r a l extension of G . Thus h ( i ) , h(u) c ~ m m u t eand
I, f(t,u) = f(u,t) .
I so that
(c) h ( t )
2
f ( t ,u ) = 1
= h(u)h(t)h(u)-l = h(tu )h(u )

.
2 - ( b y Lemma 37 ( f ) ) ,

(d) A b b r e v i a t e x a , x W a , Wa ha t o x , y , w, h , respec-
tively. We have:
2
(1) w ( t ) x ( u ) w ( - t ) = y ( - t u )

1
(3 w ( t ) = y(-t-l)x(t)y(-t-l) (by (11, (2L (3))-

Then h(tu)h(u)-l = v(tu)w(-u)by d e f i n i t i o n of h

-1 -2
= x(t)x(-t)w(tu]w(-u) = x ( t ) w ( t u ) y ( t u )w(-U) (by (1))
-1 -1 -1 -1
= x ( t ) ~ ~ ( -ut ) x ( t u ) y ( - t u ) y ( t - 1 ~ - 2 j ~ ( - ~ ) ( b y ( 3 r) I

= x(t)y(-i
-1v.*-1
) x ( ~ u ) ~ ( u - ~ ) w () b- yu )( A )
for y ( - t -1u -1) y ( t-1u -2 ) = y ( t -1u -2 ( 1 - u ) ) = y ( u-2 ) )
= x(t)y(-t u
-1 --1 ) w ( - u ) y ( - t ~ - ~ ) x ( - l ) ( b y (1) and ( 2 ) )

I = = w(t)w(-1)
~(t)~(-t~~]x(t]x(--1)~(l)x(-l) = h(t) , proving (d) .
Lemma 4 0 : In a field k of f i n i t e odd o r d e r t h e r e e x i s t elements
.
I t,u

Proof:
such t h a t

If I k[ =
t

q
and u

there are
a r e n o t s q u a r e s and

(q+1)/2 squares.
t + u = 1

Since
((q+1)/2)# t h e s q u a r e s do n o t form a n a d d i t i v e g r o u p , s o we can

I find a,b ,c so that a + b = c where a and b a r e squares

 and c is not. Then t a k e t = a / c , u = b/c .
Theorem 9: Assume t h a t C i s indecomposable and t h a t k i s an
a l g e b r a i c e x t e n s i o n of a f i n i t e f i e l d . Then t h e r e l a t i o n s (A)
and (B) (or (By) i f r a n k C = 1) s u f f i c e t o d e f i n e t h e c o r -

responding u n i v e r s a l Chevalley group, i . e . t h e y imply t h e r e l a -

tions (C) .
-
Proof: Let t , u e k"' . We must show f ( t, u ) = 1 where f is
a s i n Lemma 39. By Lemma 3 9 ( b and c ) i f e i t h e r t or u is a
I.
square f(t,u) = 1 . Assume t h a t b o t h a r e n o t s q u a r e s . By Lemma
40 ( a p p l i e d t o t h e f i n i t e f i e l d g e n e r a t e d by t and u)
t = r 2t l , u =
4
.

w i t h r 7 s ~ k * , t l + u l = 1 , t l a n d ul
u1
n o t s q u a r e s . T h e n f ( t , u ) = f ( t , s 2 ul) = f ( t , u l ) = f ( r 2 t l , u l )

= f(t17u1) = 1 by Lemma 3 9 ( a a n d d ) .

Example: If n -
> 3 and k i s a f i n i t e f i e l d , t h e symbols

x i j ( t ) (1 i j n, i # j t E k) subject t o t h e relations:

(a) xij(t)xij(u) = xij(t+u)

(B) (xi j ( t ) yxj k ( ~) ) = x i k ( k ) if i k are distinct,

( x i j ( t) ,xkL(c)) = 1 if j f k, i f & ,

d e f i n e t h e group SLn(k) .
s7. C e n t r a l at e n s i o n s .
T
Our o b j e c t i s t o prove t h a t i f n, G , and G are as i n
P
36, t h e n (n , G ) i s a universal c e n t r a l extension of G in a
sense t o be defined. The r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o t h e 1 e c t u r e r T s

-- -
p a p e r i n Colloque s u r l a t h e o r i e d e s groupes a l g 8 b r i q u e s ,

B r u x e l l e s , 1962 and f o r g e n e r a l i t i e s t o S c h u r f s p a p e r s i n J. R e i n e
Angew. Math. 1904, 1907, 1.911.
t
Definition: A c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n o f a group G i s a couple ( n , G )
1 1
where . G fs a group, n i s a homomorphism o f G onto G, and
ker n C
- center of G' .
Examples :

(a) n, G I , G as i n 36.
t
(b) n :G -> G t h e n a t u r a l homomorphism o f one Chevalley
g r o u p o n t o a n o t h e r c o n s t r u c t e d from a s m a l l e r weight
lattice. E. g . , x : SLn -+P PSI,,, n : Spn ->PSpn ,
and n : Spinn -+ SOn .
f
(c) n :G >- G a t o p o l o g i c a l c o v e r i n g o f a connected
t o p o l o g i c a l group; i . e. , x i s a l o c a l isomorphism,
c a r r y i n g a neighborhood of 1 i s o m o r p h i c a l l y o n t o one

of G. We n o t e t h a t n i s central since a discrete

normal subgroup o f a connected group i s n e c e s s a r i l y
central. To s e e t h i s , l e t N b e a d i s c r e t e normal

subgroup o f a c o n n e c t e d group G and l e t EN. S i n c e

n
t h e map G>
- N g i v e n by g -> gng-' , ~ E Gh a,s a
 -1
d i s c r e t e and c o n n e c t e d image, gng = n for a l l

g E G-
Definition: A c e n t r a l extension ( n , ~ ) of a g r o u p G is
1
u n i v e r s a l if f o r any c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n (n , E') of G thwe
Y t
e x i s t s a u n i q u e homomorphism cp 2 E-> E such t h a t n Cp = n ,
i. e . , t h e f o l l o w i n g diagram i s commutative :

We a b b r e v i a t e u n i v e r a l c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n b y u. c. e. We
d e v e l o p t h i s p r o p e r t y Xn a s e q u e n c e o f s t a t e m e n t s .

(i) If a u. c . e . e x i s t s , it 1s unique up t o isomorphism^

t F
Proof:. If ( n , ~ ) and (n , E ) are u.c.e. of G, let
? ?
rp : E-> E' and rpi : E ->E be such t h a t n g ~= n a n d
ncq
1
= n
P
. Now rp'p : E ->E and n(.p cp)
1
= n. Hence cp y
?

i s t h e i d e n t i t y on E by t h e l ~ n i q u e n e s sof cp i n the definition

of a u. c . e . Similarly ?;ji i s t h e i d e n t i t y on E~ .
(ii) I f ( n , ~ )is a u . c . e. of G then E = E and hence
G = G, where H i s t h e derived group of H.
1
P r o o f : Consider t h e c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n (n ,E 1 ) where
E' = E x E / & E and nr(a,b') = n(a), a E E , b E E / O E . Nowif
t
yl(a) = ( a , l ) and y 2 ( a ) = (a,a+B E), then a p- = n , 1 = 1 , 2 ,
1

and hence if1 = y2 . Thus, E l D E = 1 and E = a E .

(iii) If G = D G and ( s , ~ )i s a c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n o f G,
then E = C, fi E where C i s a c e n t r a l subgroup o f E on which
rr i s t r i v i a l . Moreover, QE = & E .
-
Proof: We have n B E - d g ( r r E ) = & G = G. Hence, E = C J ~ Ewhere
C =kern. Also, B E= & ( c ~ E )= D * E .

(iv) If G = f!G , then G possesses a u. c . e .

-
Proof: For each x G we . i n t r o d u c e a symbol e(x) . Let F be
t h e group g e n e r a t e d by Ee (x),x G] subject t o t h e condition -
that e ( ~ ) e ( ~ ) e ( x y ) -commutes
l with e(z) for a l l x,y,z G .
If n : e(x) >
- x, t h e n by u s i n g i n d u c t i o n on t h e l e n g t h o f a n
expression i n F, we s e e t h a t n e x t e n d s t o a c e n t r a l homo-
morphism o f F onto G.

(a) ( n , ~ ) covers a l l c e n t r a l extensions of G. To s e e

1 t
this, l e t (E , n ) b e any c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n of G. Choose
t 1 1 t
e (x) E E' such t h a t n. e (x) = x . bince n is central, the
1
e ( x ) ~ ss a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n on t h e e(x)ts. Hence, t h e r e i s
e ( x ),
1 1
a homomorphism rp :F >
- E such t h a t rp e ( x ) = and
thus
1
n rp = n. .
(b) If E = DF and TI; a l s o denotes t h e r e s t r i c t i o n of
n to E, then ( n , ~ ) covers a l l c e n t r a l extensions uniquely.
By ( i i i ), we have t h a t ( n , ~ ) covers a l l c e n t r a l extensions. If
t
( n , ~) i s a c e n t r a l extension of G and i f
f
a cp = n = 71
1
rp
1
,
-1
then
t
cp(x)cp ( x ) - l E center of E . Thus,'y: x--> tp(x)cp (x)
i s a homomorphism of E i n t o an Abelian group. Since E = k ) ~ ,
?
i s t r i v i a l and rp = cp
 Remark: P a r t ( a ) shows t h a t i f G i s any group t h e n t h e r e i s
a c e n t r a l extension covering a l l others.
. t
(iv) If (71,~) is a central extensionof G which c o v e r s
a l l o t h e r s and i f E = BE,t h e n ( n , ~ ) Is a u. c . e.

(v If n :E -> F and Y : F >- G a r e c e n t r a l extensions, then

sois yn:E->G , provided E =BE.
-
Proof: If a ker n, let g, b e t h e map rg : x >
- (a,x) =
axa-1x-1 , x E E . Now cp(x) E center of E, since
n ( a , x ) = (na,m) = 1 b e c a u s e n a E center of F. Now 7 i s
a homomorphism, s o ep i s t r i v i a l , and a center of E.

(vi) Exercise: I n v , ( n , ~ ) is a u. c. e of F if and o n l y

if (Ifrn,~) is a U.C. e. of G.

Definition: A group G i s said t o be centrally closed i f id,^)

is a u. c. e . of G.

(vii) Corollary: If ( n , ~ )is a u. c. e. of G, then E is

c e n t r a l l y closed.

(viii) If E i s c e n t r a l l y c l o s e d , t h e n every c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n
y : F+ E of E splits; i.e, t h e r e e x i s t s a homomorphism
9 : E -3 F such t h a t fp = id .
(1x1 ( n , ~ )is a u. c. e. of G i f and o n l y i f e v e r y dlagram
o f t h e form E---
.
, nJ ' i t

G!
G
P >
can b e uniquely completed, where (n
t
,E 9
) i s a c e n t r a l extension
of G' and f i s a homomorphism.

-
Proof: One d i r ' e c t i o n i s immediate by t a k i n g G' = G and 7 = id.
Conversely, suppose t h e diagram i s g i v e n and (y, E ) is a u. c. e.
t t t
Let H b e t h e subgroup o f G y E' , H = [(x,e Ifx=n e 1. If
?
U/: H->G i s g i v e n by (x,e 1 = x , then Y is central. Since
( n , ~ ) is a u. c. e. of G, t h e r e i s a unique homomorphism
0 :E +H such t h a t Q = a. Now t h e homomorphism rp : E+E' ,
=Y@ ,
P
whereyl : H+E
1
IS g i v e n b y y ( x , e ) = e
1 7 1
,
satisfies
1
r n = p y e = n y/ e = n r p .
1 1
If frr=nrp
1 1
, then
? 1 t
let 0' :E -> H be given, by 0 ( e l = (rr(e) , y ( e ) 1. S i n c e y/ 9 = z ,
wG have d = 9 and p
t
= p
= y t g 1 =y18 , proving t h e uniqueness

D e f i n i t i o n : A l i n e a r ( r e s p e c t i v e l y p r o j e c t i v e ) r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
a group G i s a homomorphism o f G i n t o some GL(v) (re-
s p h ~ t i v c ~FGL(V)
- ).

Since GL(v) i s a c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n of PGL(V) we have

t h e following r e s u l t :

(r) C o r o l l a r y : If (71,~) is a U. c.e. of Gp t h e n every

p r o j e c t i v e representation of G can b e l i f t e d u n i q u e l y t o a
l i n e a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of E.

(x') -
Topological s i t u a t i o n : If G i s a t o p o l o g i c a l group one ,'

can r e p l a c e t h e c o n d i t i o n G = DG by G i s connected, t h e

condition ( n , ~ ) is a u.c.e. by ( x , ~ )i s a u n i v e r s a l coveringgroup

i n t h e t o p o l o g i c a l s e n s e , and t h e c o n d i t i o n G i s c e n t r a l l y closed
by G i s simply connected i n t h e above d i s c u s s i o n and o b t a i n s i m i l a r

results.

Definition: If ( n , ~ ) is a U.C. e o f t h e group G, t h e n we c a l l

ker n -
t h e S c h ~ rm u l t i p l i e r o f G..

If we w r i t e ker n = M(G) t o i n d i c a t e t h e dependence on G,

1
t h e n a homomorphism. :' G 4G l e a d s t a a corresponding one
M(?) :. M ( G ) ->
f
M(G ) by ( i X ! . Thus M i s a f u n c t o r from t h e
c a t e g o r y o f groups G such t h a t G =aG t o t h e category of
Abelian groups w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t y : if q) i s o n t o ,. t h e n
so i s go).
Remark: Schur used d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n s (and terminology) s i n c e
he c o n s i d e r e d o n l y f i n i t e groups b u t d i d not r e q u i r e t h a t G = &G.

If G = d4 G our d e f i n i t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o h i s . One o f Schurr s

r e s u l t s , which we s h a l l not u s e , i s t h a t i f G i s f i n i t e t h e n so
is M(G).

Theorem 10: Let C b e an indecomposable r o o t system and k a

f i e l d such t h a t ]kl >4 and, i f rank 'E = 1, t h e n ] k l $ 9.
If G i s t h e corresponding u n i v e r s a l 3hevaUey group
?
( a b s t r a c t l y d e f i n e d by t h e r e l a t i o n s ( A ) , ( B ) ,(B 1, ( c ) of 3 6 ) , if
7
G' i s t h e group d e f i n e d b y t h e r e l a t i o n s ( A ) , ( B ) , ( B ) (we u s e (B')
o n l y if r a n k C = 1) , and i f n i s t h e n a t u r a l homomorphism from
1
G~ to G, then ( n , ~ ~ s u.c.e.
a of G.

Bemark: There a r e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e conclusion. E.g.. SL2(4) and

SL ( 9 ) a r e such. Indeed sL2 ( 4 ) 2 PSL ( 5 ) and sL2 ( 5 ) i s a c e n t r a l
2 2
e x t e n s i o n of P S L ~ ( ~ ) For
. ~ ~ ~ s( e e9 Schur.
1 It c a n b e shown
t h a t t h e number of c o u p l e s ( C , k ) f o r which t h e c o n c l u s i o n f a i l s
is finite.

-
Proof: Since lkl > 4, G = B G G,t =&G
t
, - and u.c.e. exist
f o r both G and GI. The c o n c l u s i o n becomes GT is centrally
c l o s e d , b y t h e above remarks. We need o n l y show t h a t e v e r y c e n t r a l
t
extension (y, E ) of G' s p l i t s , i . e . , t h e r e e x i s t s 9 : G-> E
so t h a t y 0 = i d , ; i . e . , t h e r e l a t i o n s d e f i n i n g G' can b e
G
lifted t o E.

We may assume E = B E ; but then (n*,~) is a central

extension o f G by (v 1. We need o n l y show
(1) If ( y,E ) i s a c e n t r a l extension of G, then t h e
t
r e l a t i o n s ( A ) , ( B ) , ( B ) can b e l i f t e d t o E.
Let C = ker , a c e n t r a l subgroup o f E. We have:
(2) A commutator (x,y) with x,y E E depends o n l y on
the classes mod C t o which x and y belong.
Choose a E k" so that c = a2 - I f 0. Then i n G
(ha(a),xa(t)) = xa(ct) for a l l a E Z , t E k. We d e f i n e

'PXa(t) E E (aEZ, t E k ) so t h a t rpxa ( t ) = x a ( t ) and s o

that

(3) (rpha(a), c p x a ( t ) ) = y x a( c t ) and t h e n phts (and

later po w 1s) i n t e r m s of t h e rp xTs by t h e same f o r m u l a s which
define the hts and t h e wfs i n terms of t h e xfs. Note t h a t
t h i s choice i s not c i r c u l a r because of (2). We s h a l l show t h a t
the relations ( A ( B (B ), T
hold with p x f s i n p l a c e of xts.
 set h x, (t)h-' = xa(dt) with d E K" . Conjugating ( 3 ) by

yh, we g e t ( c p h a ( a ) , y x a ( d t ) ) = c ~ h y x a ( c t ) c (ph ) - I , and the left

side equals cp x a ( c d t ) = ( h x a ( c t)h - l ) by ( 3 ) . S i m i l a r l y we h a v e
-
(4')Cp n q~ xu (t)(cpn)-' = cp(nxa ( t ) n ') for a l l n E Ny a E E,
t E k .

(5) If a and 3j are roots, a+B 0, and a+j3 is not

a root, then rp x a ( t ) and rp x g ( u ) commute f o r a l l t,u E k. Set

must show f ( t , u ) = 1. C l e a r l y , from t h e d e f i n i t i o n s we have

(6) f is additive i n both positions.

(5a) Assume a f f3 . If (a,~=

) 0, then f(t,u)
=f(tv2,u)(vf0) by Lemma 2 0 ( c ) and b y (4)w i t h h = ha(v). If

(a,$) > 0, then d

f ( t , u ) = f ( t v ,u) where d = 4 - <a,@><f3,a>
by Lemma 2 0 ( c ) and by ( 4 ) w i t h h = h a ( v 2 ) h (v
P
-( @ , a >
In .
b o t h c a s s , f ( t ( l - v d ) , u ) = l by (6) f o r some d = 1 , 2 , o r 3.
Choose v so v d - I # 0. Then we g e t f z l .

(5b) Assume a = j3 and r a n k C > 1. I f there i s a root

sothat < a , r > = 1, s e t h = h (v) inthepreceding
argument and o b t a i n (:K) f ( t, u ) = f (tv,uv). Choose v so t h a t
v - v2f0 and 1 - v + v 2 f 0. By (o) and (61,
f ( t ( v - v 2 , , u ) = f ( t ,U/ (V-v i) = f ( t, U / V ) f ( t , ~ / ( l - - V )=) f ( v t , u ) f ( ( l - Y )t , u )
= f ( t, u ) , whence f[t(l-v+v2) , u ) = 1 and f 1. I f t h e r e i s no
such d\ , t h e n Z . i s of t y p e Cn and a i s a long root. In
t h i s c a s e , however, a = 8+ 2 f with and roots. Thus,

( y x g ( t ) , y x Y ( u ) ) = g r f x b + y ( +t u ) x 8+2 (ktu2) with g E C,

by Lemma 33. Since cp x a ( v ) commutes w i t h a l l f a c t o r s b u t t h e

l a s t by ( 5 - a ) , i t a l s o cOI?-Imutes w i t h t h e l a s t .

(5c) Assume a = p and r a n k C = 1. A t l e a s t we have

f ( t , u ) = f ( t v2 , u v 2 ) , t , u ~ k v, ~ k ' ", u s i n g h = h a ( v ) i n t h e
argument above. We may a l s o assume t h a t [k 1 i s n o t a prime.
\

If it were, t h e n xa(t) and xa(u) would b e powers of xa(l)

and ( 5 ) would be immediate. R e f e r r i n g t o t h e proof of (5b ) , we
s e e i t w i l l s u f f i c e t o b e a b l e t o choose v so t h a t v, 1 - v
a r e s q u a r e s and v - v 2 #0, 1- v + v2 # o . If k i s f i n i t e of
characteristic 2, this i s p o s s i b l e s i n c e a l l elements o f k are
2
squares. Otherwise, s e t v =(2w/(l+w2))
%
Then.
2
1 -v = ((1-ut?)/(l+w2)) , and we need o n l y choose w so t h a t
1 + w 2 #o, v-v2f 0, and 1 - v + v 2 # 0. S i n c e a t most 1 3
v a l u e s of w a r e t o b e avoided and ]kl >_ 25 i n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e ,
this t o o i s possible. T h i s completes t h e proof o f ( 5 ) .

(7) preserves t h e r e l a t i o n s (A). The element

-.a
x = y X U (tc-l)gxa(uc-l)(rx a ((t+u)c-'1) i s i n C, andhence
t h e t r a n s f o r m of x by ha(a) is x itself. However, by (31,
(4.1, ( 5 ) t h i s transform i s a l s o x cp xa ( t )cp x,(u) 6x 31
(t+u)rl .
(8) p r e s e r v e s t h e r e l a t i o n s (B). We have

where f (t,u) E C. One proves f = 1 by i n d u c t i o n on n, the

number o f r o o t s of t h e form ia+jP i , j aF. If n = 0, t h i s
i s just (5). If n > 0 , t h e i n d u c t i v e h y p o t h e s i s and ( 7 ) imply
f s a t i s f i e s ( 6 ) , and t h e n t h e argument i n ( 5 a ) may be used.

( 9 ) p, p r e s e r v e s t h e r e l a t i o n s (B )
t
. T h i s f o l l o w s from ( 4 )!,
t.

T h i s c o m p l e t e s t h e p r o o f o f t h e theorem.

Exercise: Assume i s t h e o r i g i n a l Lie a l g e b r a w i t h c o e f f i c i e n t s

t r a n s f e r r e d by means o f a C h e v a l l e y b a s i s t o a f i e l d k whose
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d o e s n o t d i v i d e any N # 0. A l s o assume C
a,0
i s indecomposable o f rank > 1. Prove:
(a) The r e l a t i o n s [Xa,Xp] = N X a + P # 0 , form a
a,B a + $ '
defining s e t for 1. H i n t : d e f i n e Ha = [Xu, X-,]
and show t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s o f Theorem 1 h o l d .
(b) = & de , t h e derrved algebra of 2.
(c) Every c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n of % splits.
Hint: p a r a l l e l t h e p r o o f o f Theorem 10.
t
C o r o l l a r y 1: The r e l a t i o n s (A) ,(B), ( B ) c a n b e l i f t e d t o any
c e n t r a l extension of G.

Corollary 2 :

(a) G' i s c e n t r a l l y closed. Each o f i t s c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n s

splits. I t s Schur m u l t i p l i e r i s t r i v i a l . It y i e l d s t h e

u . c. e . o f a l l t h e Chevalley groups of t h e given t y p e ,

and c o v e r s l i n e a r l y a l l of t h e p r o j e c t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
o f t h e s e groups.
(b) If k i s f i n i t e o r more g e n e r a l l y a n a l g e b r a i c e x t e n s i o n
1
o f a f i n i t e f i e l d , t h e n ( a ) holds w i t h G r e p l a c e d by G.
 Proof:
-7
T h i s f o l l o w s from v a r i o u s o f t h e g e n e r a l i t i e s a t t h e
beginning o f t h i s section.

E.g., if k is finite, lkl >4 and sL2(9) i s excluded,

then SLn(k) , pi ( k ) , and Spi.nn(k) a l l h a v e t r i v i a l Schur

m u l t i p l i e r s , and t h e n a t u r a l c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n s SLn 4 PSL, ,
, S~
SP, 4 ' ' ~ pinn4SOn a r e a l l universal.
?
Corollary 1: Assume G, G , and n a r e as above. If k* is
i n f i n i t e and d i v i s i b l e ( u E k * , n E Z implies t h e r e e x i s t s
v E'k with vn = u ) , t h e n t h e Schur m u l t i p l i e r of G; i . e . ,

C = ker n , is a l s o d i v i s i b l e .

-
Proof: Elements o f t h e f o r m f ( t , u ) = h a ( t ) h a ( u ) hr:. ( t u ) - l in G ~ '

a E generate C. We have f (t,vw2) = f (t, v ) f ( t,$) by Lemma

n
39(a). By i n d u c t i o n , we g e t . f ( t , $ n ) = f (t,$) f o r arbitrary n..
Since f o r u E k" we c a n f i n d .w E k" such t h a t u = w2n , the
p r o o f i s complete.

Corollary 3a: If kt i s i n f i n i t e and d i v i s i b l e by a s e t of p r i m e s

including 2, then C i s a l s o d i v i s i b l e by t h e s e p r i m e s .

Corollary 3q: If k" i s i n f i n i t e and d i v i s i b l e , t h e n any c e n t r a l

e x t e n s i o n of G by a k e r n e l which i s a r e d u c e d g r o u p (no d i v i s i b l e
s u b g r o u p s o t h e r t h a n 1) i s t r i v i a l ; i . e. , it splits.

Proof: Let ( E be a c e n t r a l extension of G with ker

? t
reduced. Since , (n,G ) is a U.C. e, we have FO $ G 4 E so
that ?y ~q = TC . Since C = ker TI IS d i v i s i b l e r s o i s

tp C - ker y
C . Hence cp C = 1 and k e r eo 2
.-.k e r n . Thus, t h e r e
i s a homomorphism 0 : G>
- E so t h a t 8 n = cp . Tnerefore,
 y e g = n on G' and ye - 1 on
-
I,.

Gorolkry 22: If k" i s i n f i n z t e and d i v i s i b l e , t h e n any f i n i t e

dimensional p r o j e c t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of G can b e l i f t e d
uniquely t o a !.Ti_~?~;-lr ?ep~~~e~+,~.ti_on.

J -
P r o o f : Assume 0- : G >
- PGL(V). Since G - G, we have
o- : G -> PsL(V). Let f : SL(V) -+ PSL(V) be t h e natural
projection. S i n c e dim V i s f i n i t e , we have k e is finite
and t h u s ker p i s reduced. Consider t h e c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n

( y ,E ) of G where ~ = { i x , ylox
) = p y , XEG, yESL : v ) T -GCX
A - SL(V)
and y/ ( x , y ) = x , ( x , y ) E E . Now her ? = I X kerp i s roduced,
s o by C o r o l l a r y 3 b , we have 0 :G >
- E with = 1 on G.

1f Y s( x , Y ) = Y~ ( x , Y ) E E , then Q' = Y'CI: G + S L ( V ) c GL(V)

I Example
--.l
; Corollary 3c s a y s , f o r example, t h a t e v e r y f i n i t e

dimensional r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f sLn(C ) can b e l i f t e d t o a l i n e a r

one. (The n o v e l t y i s t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s n o t assumes t o b e
continuous. )

Theorem 3-.. 1 :.
--.---P,
11 2 1s an lnaclcomposable r o o t s y s t e m , i f
chark= p d O : , and i f G::BG ( i . e . t:e exclude lkl = 2 , .Z. o f

type A x , B2 0.r 2 and /i;1 = 3 E of type A ~ ) , then

( n , ~) ' u n i q u e l y COVbrS a l l c c n t r a l e:ctensions o f G f o r which
t h e k e r n e l h a s no p-torsion,

--
Proof: By Tneorem 1-0; ~ . I P could assume Jk 154 or / k( = 9.
However, t h e p r o o f does not u s e t h l s assumption o r Theorem 10.
If , E i s a c e n t r a l extension of G such t h a t C = ker
 h a s no p-torsion, t h e n we w i s h t o show ( A ) , ( B ) , and (B') can
\

be l i f t e d t o E.

(1) Assume, C i s divisib!e by Choose cpxa ( t )6 E

p.
P
so t h a t Y c px , ( t ) =.: a ( t ! and ( y s a ( t ) )= l , a E z , t E k We .
0
c l a i m r e l a t i o n s ( A ) , ( B ) and ( B ) h o l d on t h e cp x i s .

(la) If a,p areroots, a + B not a r o o t , and a + ~ f0 ,

then rp x a ( t ! and ipx (u) commute, t,uEk. We have
B
9 x, ( t ) xp ( u ) y x a ( t 1 - l = f cpxa(u) with f E C. Taking p-th
. powers, we g e t 1 = f P which i m p l i e s f = 1 since C h a s no
p-torsion.

(lb) The r e l a t i o n s ( A ) h o l d . Taking p-th powers of

v x a ( t )$ x a ( u ) = f ya(t+u) , f E C, we g e t f = 1 as b e f o r e .
Y
(LC) Exercise: R e l a t i o i l s ( B ) and ( B ) a l s o hold.
(2) General cass. ,

(2a) C can b e embedded i n a g r o u p C ' which i s d i v i s i b l e by

p and h a s no p-torsion. We have a homomorp'hism 9 of a f r e e

A b e l i a n g r o u p I: o r t o C. Now FQ Q i s a d i v i s i b l e g r o u p , and we
z
can i d e n t i f y F i 3
z7 - C Pa2 Q . Hence
C = ~ / k e r8 CF@ Q/ker 8 = D, s a y , and D i s a d i v i s i b l e group.
2.-
Moreover, s i n c e C has no p-torsion, C r! D
= 1 where D is
P P
the p-component of D- Thus, C projects faithfully into
D / D ~= C ' which i s d i v i s i b l e and has no p-torsion.
7 ?
(2b) Conclusion of p r o o f . Form E = EC , the direct
P 0 9
p r o d u c t of E and C with C amalgamated, and d e f i n e :E --> G

by y 7 ( e c ' ) = W ( e ) , e E E, c
P
EC
F
.
Now (y",E') s a t i s f i e s t h e assumptions o f (1) s o t h e r e l a t i o n s
T f
( A ) , ( B ) , (B' ) can be l i f t e d t o E . However, by Lemma 32 , the
l i f t e d group i s i t s own d e r i v e d group and hence c o n t a i n e d i n E.

Coroll.ary 1: Every pro j e c t i v n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of G' i n a f i e l d of

characteristic p can b e l i f t e d t o a l i n e a r one.

C o r o l l a r y 2 : The Schur m u l t i p l i e r o f G' is a p-group.

Proofs: These a r e e a s y e x e r c i s e s .
f
S i n c e t h e k e r n e l of t h e map n .: G .->G above t u r n s o u t t o
b e t h e Schur m u l t i p l i e r of G, its structure f o r k arbitrary is
o f some i n t e r e s t . The r e s u l t i s :

heor or em 12: (Moore, ~ a t s u m o t o ) Assume C i s a n indecomposable

r o o t system and k a field with Ik 1 >4 . If G is the universal

Chevalley group b a s e d on E and k, if G' i s t h e group d e f i n e d
?
by ( A ( B , ( B andif n i s t h e n a t u r a l m a p from G to G

with C = k e r n; , t h e Schur m u l t i p l i e r of G, then C i s isomorphic

t o t h e a b s t r a c t group A g e n e r a t e d by t h e symbols f ( t, u ) ( t, u E k")

subject t o the relations:

(a) f (t,u)f (tu,v) = f ( t , u v ) f ( u , v ) , f ( 1 , ~= )f ( u , ~ )= 1

and i n t h e c a s e Z i s n o t of t y p e Cn ( n 2 1)(cl = A ~ ) t h e
 I (ab ) f i s bimultiplicative .
I n t h i s case r e l a t , i o n s (a) -(el may be r e p l a c e d by (ab') and

(cl) f i s skew

The isomorphism i s given by ? : f ( t ,u)->ha(t)ha(u)ha(tu)-l , a a

f i x e d long r o o t .

Remark: These r e l a t i o n s a r e s a t i s f i e d by t h e norm r e s i d u e symbol

- i n c l a s s f i e l d t h e o r y , which i s a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t of Moorets work.

P a r t i a l Proof:
(1) I f fia i s t h e group generated (in G' ) by a l l ha(t),
a a f i x e d long r o o t , t h e n C %a . We know t h a t
ha ( t ) h a ( u ) h a ( t u ) - l ,a E C , t E k9, form a g e n e r a t i n g s e t f o r C.

Using t h e Weyl group we can narrow t h e s i t u a t i o n t o a t most two

roots a,p with a long, p s h o r t , and (a,B) > 0 . Hence,
<B,a> = 1 and (h u ( t ), h p ( u ) ) = hB(t

= )-' by Lemma 37 ( f ) . T h i s shows a

w i l l suffice.

(2) i s a mapping onto C. T h i s f o l l o w s from (1).

(3) i s a homomorphism. We must show t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s

hold i f f (t, u ) i s r e p l a c e d by h a ( t )ha ( u ) h ( t u ) - l
a
.
The r e l a t i o n s
( a ) a r e obvious. A s p e c i a l c a s e ( u =I) of (e) has been shown

.,--.mp,-,7,.-. . .- , .
F?-
. . !,.. -.:. .. . ,
, .
 i n Lemma 3 9 ( d ) . The o t h e r r e l a t i o n s b , c ,d f o l l o w from
t h e commutator r e l a t i o n s connecting t h e h f s and t h e w's.

( 3 ' ) Assume X i s n o t of t y p e Cn. I n t h i s case

there is a root Y' so t h a t a > = 1 Thus f (t , v )

= hd' ( ~ )( ft, ~ ) h ( U ) - l = h a ( t u )ha (U)-' ha ( U V ) ha ( t U V ) - l = f (t,u) -lf (t,Uv)

o r f ( t , u v ) = f ( t , u ) f ( t , v ) . By r e l a t i o n ( c ) , f ( u v , t ) = f ( u , t ) f ( v y t ) .

(4) rp i s a n isomorphism. This i s done by c o n s t r u c t i n g a n

e x p l i c i t model f o r G' .
Now l e t G b e a connected t o p o l o g i c a l group. A coverinG

of G i s a couple ( n , ~ ) such t h a t E i s a connected t o p o l o g i c a l

' group and n i s a homomorphism o f E onto G which maps a
neighborhood o f 1 in E homeomorphically o n t o a neighborhood o f

1 in G; i.e., which i s a l o c a l isomorphism. A covering i s

u n i v e r s a l i f i t c o v e r s a l l o t h e r c o v e r i n g groups. If id,^) is
a u n i v e r s a l c o v e r i n g , we s a y t h a t G i s s i m p l y connected.

Remarks .:

(a) A covering ( n , ~ ) of a connected g r o u p i s n e c e s s a r i l y

c e n t r a l a s was n o t e d a t t h e beginning o f t h i s s e c t i o n .

(b) If a u n i v e r s a l covering e x i s t s , t h e n i t i s unique and

each o f i t s coverings of o t h e T c o v e r i n g groups i s unique.
This f o l l o w s from t h e f a c t t h a t a connected group i s
g e n e r a t e d by any neighborhood of 1 .
 (c) If G i s a Lie group, t h e n a u n i v e r s a l covering f o r
G e x i s t s and s i m p l e connectedness i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e
p r o p e r t y t h a t e v e r y c o n t i n u o u s l o o p can b e shrunk t o a
point - -
( s e e C h e v a l l e y , L i e Groups o r Cohn, L i e ~ r o u p s . )

Theorem 1 3 : If G i s a u n i v e r s a l Chevalley group o v e r a viewed

a s a L i e group, t h e n G i s simply connected.

B e f o r e p r o v i n g Theorem 1 3 , we s h a l l f i r s t s t a t e a lemma
whose proof we l e a v e a s an e x e r c i s e .

Lemma 41: If tl,t 2 , . . .

-
.
,t a r e complex numbers such t h a t
n
Iti\ < € , A = 1,2,=..,n and X ti = 0 , t h e r e e x i s t ti and t.
i =l 3
*such that ]ti+t-1 < E .
3
Proof of Theorem 1 3 : Let ( n , ~ ) be a covering of G. Locally n
i s i n v e r t i b l e s o we may s e t = hL on some neighborhood o f 1
in G. We s h a l l show t h a t rp can b e extended t o a homomorphism
of G onto E3 i . e . , id,^) covers n , . I t s u f f i c e s t o show
that rp can b e extended t o a l l o f G so t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s
A , , B , C holdon the yxts.

Consider t h e r e l a t i o n s

(A $D a ( t )rpxa(u) = rpxa (t+d aEC.

Since y i s l o c a l l y an isomorphism, there is E> 0 such that
(A) holds f o r It1 E, lul E. If t E K ,t = Ct,, ] t i ]< E ,
then set rp xa ( t ) = rpxa(ti). Using i n d u c t i o n and Lemma 4.1, we
see that cp x u ( t ) i s w e l l d e f i n e d . Clearly, (A) then holds f o r

all t ,u E k. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , we c o u l d n o t e t h a t Xa is topolcgic-
a l l y equivalent t o and hence simply connected. Thus, m
 e x t e n d s t o a homomorphism o f Xa into E and (A) holds. '

Clearly t h e extension of $9 to i s unique.

a
To o b t a i n t h e r e l a t i o n s (B), l e t a ,p be roots a f 2 f3 ,
let S be t h e s e t of r o o t s of t h e form l a + j p (1,j EZ'), and
let X be t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g u n i p o t e n t subgroup o f G.
Topologically, * i s equivalent t o cn f o r some n, and i s
hence simply connected. A s before P, can b e extended t o a
homomorphism of XS into E, and t h e r e l a t i o n s (B) h o l d .
This e x t e n s i o n i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e above, by t h e uniqueness
of t h e l ~ ~ t t e r .

. We now c o n s i d e r h a ( t ) = x a ( t ) x-a (--t-')xa(t) wa(-1) =

-1 x a (-1) wa(-l)
x,(t-1)xda(l-t ) xu it-$ where xY = y-1 x y .

Hence, if t i s near 1 in , then y ha ( t ) i s n e a r 1 in E.

Thus, ~ o h , ( t ) i s m u l t i p l i c a t i v e near 1 and hence Abelian every--
where ( r e c a l l t h a t -+' is central). We t h e n have
-1
pa( u ) = y ha ( t)?ha (u)rpha( t) = r ? h a ( t 2 u ) ( o h a ( t 2 ) - l by Lemma 3 7 ( f ) .

Since a 'has s q u a r e r o o t s , we have ?ha

i s m u l t i p l i c a t i v e , i .e . ,

(c) holds.

Examples: SLn( Q ) , Spn ( a; ) , and Spinn( ) a r e simply

connected. These c a s e s can a l s o b e proved by i n d u c t i o n on n.

-
(See C h e v a l l e y , Lie Groups, Chapter 11.)

Remarks :
(a) If i s r e p l a c e d by i n t h e preceding discussion,
then,relations ( A ) , (B) can be l i f t e d e x a c t l y a s b e f o r e . Also

c~h, i s s t i l l m u l t i p l i c a t i v e i f one o f t h e two arguments i s

positive. Further ker n i.s g e n e r a t e d by y h a (-1)2,a a fixed
long r o o t , and, i f t.ype Cn (n -
> 1) i s excluded, then
n a (-114 = 1 or ( - 1 )8 = 1. Prove a l l o f t h i s .

(b) Moore h a s c9:lstructed a u n i v e r s a l c o v e r i n g of G and

h a s determined t h e fundamental group i n c a s e k is a p-adic field,
u s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e m o d i f i c a t i o n s of t h e d e f i n i t i o n s (here G is
t o t a l l y discnnnectec'.. )
9
.(c) Let G b e a Chevalley group o v e r k, G t h e correspond--
i n g u n i v e r s a l group, and n : G' 4 G t h e n a t u r a l homomorphism.
If k i s a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d and i f o n l y a p p r o p r i a t e c o v e r i n g s a r e
t
a l l o w e d , t h e n (n,G ) i s a u n i v e r s a l covering o f G i n t h e sense
of a l g e b r a i c groups.

We c l o s e t h i s s e c t i o n wit..ll a r e s u l t I n which t h e c o e . f f i c i e n t s
may come from any r i n g ( a s s o c i a t i v e w i t h 1). The development i s
based i n p a r t on a l e t t e r from J. Milnor. Let R b e t h e r i n g , and
let GL(R) b e t h e group o f i n f i n i t e m a t r i c e s which a r e e q u a l t o
t h e i d e n t i t y everywhere e x c e p t f o r a f i n i t e i n v e r t i b l e b l o c k i n
t h e u p p e r l e f t hand cc::;i:;.-. T:lus, GLn (R! C G L ( R ) , n = 1 , 2 , ,. . .
Le-5 E(R)
b e t h e subgroup of GL(R) g e n e r a t e d ?y t h e elementary m a t r i c e s
l+tE ( t E ~ , i : ! j ~ i , j = I - ~ 2 ,where
~ , * ) E, . - - i s t h e u s u a l m a t r i x
is 13
unit. For example, i f R i s a f i e l d , then E(R) = SL(R), a
simple group whose double c o s e t decomposition i n v o l v e s t h e i n f i n i t e
symmetric group. I n d e e d , if R i s a E u c l i d e a n domain, t h e n
Lemma 42 :

(a E(R) =eGL(R)
(b) E(R) = B'E(R)

Proof:
7
The r e l a t i o n , 1 + Ek J ) = 1+ t E 1- 3-
(1+ t Eik shows (b)
and hence a l s o E(R) DGL(R).If x , y 5 GL,(R)-, then
x<ly-l E E (R) because i n GL2,(R) we have

We c a l l K ~ ( R )= G L ( R ) / E ( R ) t h e Whitehead g r o u p o f R. This concept

i s used i n topology. The c a s e i n which R = H[G] i s of particular
interest.
R*
Example: If R i s a E u c l i d e a n domain, t h e n IC1(R) = , the
group of u n i t s . (See IvIilnor, Whitehead Torsion_. )

By Lemma 42 and ( i v ) , E(R) has a u.c.e. ( ~ , u ( R ) ) . Set

K2(R) = ker a . T h i s n o t a t i o n i s p a r t l y motived by t h e f o l l o w i n g

e x a c t sequence.

1-> K~ ( R ) -> U ( R ) ->GL(R) ->K~(R) -> 1.

 i s a f u n c t o r from r i n g s t o Abelian groups w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g
K2
t
p r o p e r t y : if R -> R i s o n t o , t h e n so i s t h e a s s o c i a t e d map

Remark: i s known t o t h e l e c t u r e r i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c a s e s :
K2
(a) If R i s a f i n i t e f i e l d (or an algebraic extension
4

~f a f i n i t e f i e l d ) , then K2 = 1.

(b) If R i s any f i e l d , s e e Theorem 1 2 .

(c) If R = Zy t h e n J K =~ 2. ~

Here ( a ) f o l l o w s from Theorem 9 and t h e n e x t theorem, and a p r o o f

of ( c ) w i l l b e s k e t c h e d a f t a r t h e remarks f o l l o w i n g t h e c o r o l l a r i e s
t o t h e next theorem.

Theorem I-,!+: Let U ( R ) b e t h e a b s t r a c t group g e n e r a t e d by t h e

symbols x. . ( t ) ( t
1J
R, i $ j , i ,j = 1,2,. . .) subject t o t h e
relations

(A) x. . (t,) i s a d d i t i v e i n t .
1J

If x : u ( R ) + E (R) i s t h e homomorphism g i v e n by x. ( t )->l+t E. . ,

1J 1J
then ( ~ , u ( R ) ) is a u. c. e . for E(R).

-
Proof: (a) x i s central. If x kern , choose n l a r g e enough
so t h a t x i s a product o f x. -1s with 1,j < n. Let Fn be
1J
t h e subgroup o f U(R) g e n e r a t e d by t h e xknTs (K # n , k = 1,2, .. )
Now by ( A ) and (B) , any element o f Pn can be e x p r e s s e d a s
T[r x k n ( t k ) . Since i n E(R) t h i s form i s unique, nlpn
*
i s an
isomorphism. Also by ( A ) and ( B ) , -- P n i f
x. . ( t ) Pn x. .(t)-' C
1J 13
i n . Thus, x P n x -1 E P ,
*
If . y E P n , then n ( x , ~ )= 1,
and s i n c e n IP, i s a n isomorphism we have (x,y) = 1. In
particular, x commutes w i t h a l l xkn(t). Similarly, x commutes
with a l l x n k ( t ) and h e n c e w i t h a l l x. . ( t ) = (xi,(t) x - ( l ) 1.
1J ' nJ
Thus, x i s i n t h e center of u(R).

(b) n i s universal. From ( B ) , it f o l l o w s t h a t U(R) = ~ u ( R ) .

Hence it s u f f i c e s t o show i t c o v e r s a l l c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n s . Lct

( Y, A ) be a c e n t r a l extension of E(R) and l e t C be t h e center
of A. We must show t h a t we c a n l i f t t h e r e l a t i o n s ( A ) a n d ( B )
t o A. Fix i ,j i j and choose p f i ,j. Choose

Yi. J ( t ) E Y-' x. - ( t ) s o t h a t
1~
(y. ( t )
IP Y~~
($1
(1))= y i j ( t ) . We
w i l l prove t h a t t h e y f s s a t i s f y t h e equations (A) and ( B ) .
(bl) If i & j, k f , then yik(t) and y q J- ( u ) commute.
Choose q k , and w r i t e y 4 j ( u ) = 3 ( y X q ( u ), y q J ( 1 ) ) , c E C-

Since yik(t) commutes up t o a n element o f C with y l (u)

9
and y q j (1), i t commutes w i t h y~
J
.( u ) .
Hence
(b2) iyij(t) 1, i ,j f i x e d , i s Abelian.
(b3) The r e l a t i o n s ( A ) h o l d . The p r o o f i s e x a c t l y t h e

same a s t h a t o f s t a t e m e n t ( 7 ) i n t h e p r o o f o f Theorem 1 0 .
(b4) yij(t) in ($1 i s i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e c h o i c e o f p.
If q f p,i,j, set w = y q p (1)y p q ( - l ) y q p ( 1 ) . T r a n s f o r m n g (*)

by w and u s i n g ( b l ) we g e t (*I w i t h q i n p l a c e of p.
(b5) The r e l a t i o n s ( B ) h o l d . We w i l l u s e :

( I f , a , b ,c a r e elements of a group such t h a t a

 commutes w i t h c and s u c h thAt (b,c) commutes w i t h (a$) and c,

then ( a , ( b , c ) )= ( ( a , b ), c ) . Since a commutes w i t h c, ( a , ( ~ , c j )

( ( a ,( b c c The o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s i n s u r e ( ( a , b ) , ( b , c ) c ) =( ( a , b ) , c ) -

Now assume i ,j ,k are distinct. Choose q f i ,j , k , so t h a t

This completes t h e proof of t h e theorem.

Let un(R) d e n o t e t h e subgroup o f U(R) generated by y. . ( t )

1J

C o r o l l a r y 1: If n - 5,
> then Un(R) i s c e n t r a l l y closed.

C o r o l l a r y 2: If R i s a f i n i t e f i e l d and n 2 5 then SL~(R)

i s c e n t r a l l y closed.

Proof: T h i s f o l l o w s from C o r o l l a r y 1 and t h e e q u a t i o n s

En ( R ) = S L ~ ( R )= u,(R).

Remarks: (a) It f o l l o w s t h a t i f R i s a f i n i t e f i e l d and i f

S L ~ ( R ) i s not c e n t r a l l y closed, t h e n e i t h e r ]R = 9, n = 2 or
IR 1 5 4 and n 5 4. The e x a c t s e t of e x c e p t i o n s i s : b ~ ~( 4 ) ;
S L 2 ( 9 ) , SL3 ( 2 1 , SL3 ( 4 1 , SL4 ( 2 )

* Exercise: Prove t h i s .

(b) The argument above can be phrased i n t e r m s o f r o o t s , e t c .

A s s u c h , i t c a r r i e s o v e r v e r y e a s i l y t o t h e c a s e i n which a l l r o o t s
have one l e n g t h . The o n l y o t h e r e x c e p t i o n i s ~ ~ ( 2 ) .

(c) By a more c o m p l i c a t e d e x t e n s i o n of t h e argument, it can

a l s o b e shown t h a t t h e u n i v e r s a l Chevalley group of t y p e B o r Cn
n
o v e r a f i n i t e f i e l d ( o r an a l g e b r a i c e x t e n s i o n o f a f i n i t e f i e l d )

i s c e n t r a l l y closed i f n i s l a r g e enough. Hence, o n l y a f i n i t e

number o f u n i v e r s a l Chevalley g r o u p s w i t h Z indecomposable and
k f i n i t e f a i l t o be c e n t r a l l y closed.

Now we s k e t c h a proof t h a t K2 ( a) i s a g r o u p o f o r d e r 2.
The n o t a t i o n U,Un, ... above w i l l b e used. The p r o o f depends on
t h e following r e s u l t :

(1) For n > 3, SL,(Z)i s g e n e r a t e d by symbols

*ij
,(I j = 1 .
, . n i j subject t o the relations

x i j-1 X i j , h 1. .J =w-.
1J ' then h. 2_ = 1
1J
.
Identifying x
- with t h e usual x - - ( 1 and u s i n g
1J 1J

Xij
( t ) = X . - ( l ) t, we s e e t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s ( B ) h e r e imply
1J
t h o s e of Theorem 14. S i n c e t h e l a s t r e l a t i o n may b e w r i t t e n
h
1J
( - 1 = h ( 1 and -
1J
+ 1 a r e t h e o n l y u n i t s of , we have
S L , ( ~ ) d e f i n e d by t h e u s u a l r e l a t i o n s A Bc of 86.
Perhaps t h e r e a r e o t h e r r i n g s , e.g., t h e p-adic i n t e g e r s , f o r
which t h i s r e s u l t h o l d s . For t h e proof of (1) s e e W. Magnus,
Acta Iqath. 64 ( 1 9 3 4 ) , which g i v e s t h e r e f e r e n c e t o N i e l s e n , who
proved t h e key c a s e n = 3 (it t a k e s some work t o c a s t N i e l s e n l s
r e s u l t i n t o t h e above f o r m ) . The c a s e n = 2, with (B) r e p l a c e d by
-1 -1
= X i s s i m p l e r and i s proved i n an appendix
2l ,
 t o Kurosh, Theory -
o f Grpups.

Now l e t xi , w , h -
1J
r e f e r t o elements of Un( Z) .
I
(2) If Cn is the kernelof nn : U n (a)->S L n ( z ) and
n 2 3, then Cn i s g e n e r a t e d by h122 , and 2 2 = 1.
(h12)

I. Setting
A s u s u a l , we o n l y r e q u i r e

h12
2
= 1 amounts t o d i v i d i n g by <h12>
' (c) when 1,j = 1,2,

which t h u s e q u a l s ,
and h12 E Cn

n
'
. The r e l a t i o n h h h-l = hT2
23 1 2 23
1 ,
which may b e deduced from

( B ) as i n t h e proof of Lemma 3 7 , t h e n y i e l d s h
12 = h; .
Assume n o t . There i s a n a t u r a l map un(Z) -> Un (W),
? c4
~ ~x 1 J( 1 . This maps
h12
o n t o h12(-1)2 which ( s e e ,
Remark ( a ) a f t e r t h e proof o f Theorem 13) g e n e r a t e s t h e k e r n e l o f
u >
- SLn( @ ) . Thus R) i s c e n t r a l l y c l o s e d , hence
S k (

s i m p l y connected. Since SLn( R ) can b e c o n t r a c t e d t o SOn

(by t h e p o l a r d e c o m p o s i t i o n , which w i l l b e proved i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n )

-+
I which i s n o t simply c o n n e c t e d s i n c e Spin, SOn is a nontrivial

I c o v e r i n g , we have a c o n t r a d i c t i o n .

I It now f o l l o w s from ( 2 ) , (3) and Theorem 14 t h a t

By C o r o l l a r y 1 above t h e same c o n c l u s i o n h o l d s w i t h
~ I
J K ( 2)

SL(.~)
= 2.

r e p l a c e d by any SLn( I) w i t h n - 5.
>
Exercise: Let SAn be 54, x t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e underlying space,
kn with k again a field. I.., SAn i s t h e group of a l l
(n+l) (n+l) m a t r i c e s o f t h e form [ ; :] where x E a h , YE^"

SAn i s generatedby x
iJ
( t ) ,t E k , i f j, i = 1 , 2 ,..., n ,
j = 1 ...1 . Prove:

(I) If t h e r e l a t i o n

( c ) hi (t) i s multiplicative.

i s added t o t h e r e l a t i o n s ( A ) and ( B ) o f Theorem 1&,a

complete s e t of r e l a t i o n s f o r SAn i s obtained.
(2) If k is finite, (c) may b e omitted.
( 3 ) If n i s l a r g e enough, t h e group d e f i n e d by ( A ) and (B)
is a u. c. e . for SAn .
( 4 ) Other analogues o f r e s u l t s f o r SLn.

We remark t h a t S A Z ( c ) i s t h e u n i v e r s a l c o v e r i n g group o f t h e
inhomogeneous b r e n t z group, hence i s o f i n t e r e s t i n quantum
mechanics.
5 8. V a r i a n t s of t h e Bruhat lemma. Let G be a Chevalley group,
k, B ... a s usual. We r e c a l l (Theorems 4 and 4'):

(a) G = U BwB , a d i s j o i n t union.

wew
(b) For each w E. W , BwB = BwUW , w i t h u n i q u e n e s s of e x p r e s s i o n
on t h e r i g h t . Our purpose i s t o p r e s e n t some a n a l o g u e s of ( b ) w i t h
applications.

For each simple r o o t a we s e t G =

a
<x a YX-a a
group of r a n k 1, Ba = B n G a , and assume t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of w, in N/H , a l s o denoted w a , is chosen i n GGL .
Theorem 1 5 : For each simple r o o t a let Ya be a system of
representatives f o r B~\G, - B,) , o r more g e n e r a l l y f o r
\
B BwaB .
For each w e W choose a minimal e x p r e s s i o n = waw~ wg as
a product of r e f l e c t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o simple r o o t s a, $ . . Then
B w B = BYaYD ... Y.. 0
w i t h u n i q u e n e s s of e x p r e s s i o n on t h e r i g h t .

Proof: Since G
C,
-
BG = Ba waB a ' t h e second c a s e above r e a l l y
i s more g e n e r a l t h a n t h e f i r s t . We have

BwB = BvlGBwGwE ( b y Lemma 2 5 )

= BwCL BY ... Y8 (by induction)

= BY Y
G P
... Y8 ( b y t h e c h o i c e of YCL ) .
NOW assume bycyB - b 9 Yayp
YyY8 -
P F 9
YyYz
9
with b, b
9
e B ,
etc. Then by a ... y y = b v yo ... y ymym
-19 0 0
We have
-1
ymy,
0 0 e B

or Bw~B . The second c a s e can n o t o c c u r s i n c e t h e n t h e l e f t s i d e

would b e i n Bww-B
0
and t h e r i g h t s i d e i n BwB ( b y Lemma 2 5 ) ,
9
From t h e d e f i n i t i o n of Y,
0
it f o l l o w s t h a t y j = yC, , and t h e n
v
by i n d u c t i o n t h a t
Y~
-
- yy , . whence t h e u n i q u e n e s s i n
Theorem 1 5 ,

Lemma 43: Let c : SL2 -> G

CI
b e t h e c a n o n i c a l homomorphism
0
( s e e Theorem 4 , Cor. 6 ) . Then Ya s a t i s f i e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s of
Theorem 1 5 i n each of t h e f o l l o w i n g c a s e s ,

(b k = Q(resp.R ) and Ya i s t h e image under qa

of t h e e l e m e n t s of SU2 ( r e s p . SO2) ( s t a n d a r d compact f o r m s ) of

a -6
t h e form - with b > 0 ,
I
-- a-

(c) If e i s a p r i n c i p a l i d e a l domain (commutative

J,
-0-

with l ) , e i s t h e g r o u p of u n i t s , k i s t h e quotient f i e l d ,
and YCIi s t h e image under ma of t h e e l e m e n t s of S L 2 ( a ) of
Ta b l
t h e form w i t h c r u n n i n g t h r o u g h a s e t of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
.I,

for - o ) / , and f o r each c , a r u n n i n g o v e r a s e t of

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f o r t h e r e s i d u e c l a s s e s of o mod c .
Proof: We have ( a ) by Theorem 4
0
applied t o Gc . To v e r i f y
( b ) and ( c ) we may assume t h a t Ga is SL2 and BCI t h e
 s u p e r d i a g o n a l subgroup B2 since k e r cpu C B2 . Any element of
SL*(Q) can be c o n v e r t e d t o one of SU2 by a d d i n g a m u l t i p l e of
t h e second row t o t h e f i r s t and n o r m a l i z i n g t h e l e n g t h s of t h e
rows. Thus SL2 (Q) = B2 ( C ) .SU2 . Then B2(Q) \ s L ~ ( Q )

N f) SU, )\su,
(B2(C) , whence ( b ) . Now assume [: SL2(k)

with k as in (c). We choose a, c in o r e l a t i v e l y prime and

such t h a t pa + qc = 0 ( u s i n g unique f a c t o r i z a t i o n ) , and t h e n
b, d in o so t h a t ad - bc = 1 . Multiplying t h e preceding
m a t r i x on t h e r i g h t by 11 we g e t a n element of B~ ( k ) .
Thus S L ~ ( =~ B) 2 ( k ) S L 2 ( a ) , and (c) follows.

P
Remarks: (a) The c a s e ( a ) above i s e s s e n t i a l l y Theorem 4 since

wUw = wa% a . w p x P ... w6X i n t h e n o t a t i o n of Theorem 1 5 , by

1 Appendix I1 25, o r e l s e by i n d u c t i o n on t h e l e n g t h of t h e e x p r e s s i o n .
(b) I n ( c ) above t h e c h o i c e can be made p r e c i s e i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
cases:

(1) a = a ;choose a , c so t h a t O<_a< c .

(2) o = F[X] (F a field); choose s o t h a t c i s monic
and dg a < dg c .
(3) o =.z
P
(p-adic i n t e g e r s ) ; choose c a power of p
and a a n i n t e g e r such t h a t 0<
- a < c .

7~~~K+i+;~p~+~p?:~.%:3
, : ..-
 I n what f o l l o w s we w i l l g i v e s e p a r a t e b u t p a r a l l e l
developments of t h e consequences of ( b ) and ( c ) above. In (b)
we w i l l t r e a t t h e c a s e k = @ f o r definiteness, t h e case k =

being s i m i l a r .

L e m a 44: Let and [Xa, H ~ ] be a s i n Theorem 1.

(a) There e x i s t s a n i n v o l u t o r y seniantomorphism 5 of z'

( r e l a t i v e t o complex c o n j u g a t i o n of @ ) such t h a t

%X, = -X-a and qj Ha -

- - Ha f o r every r o o t a .
(b) On 2 t h e form { X , Y] d e f i n e d by (X, 6 , Y ) in
t e r m s of t h e K i l l i n g form i s n e g a t i v e d e f i n i t e .

Proof: T h i s b a s i c . r e s u l t i s proved, e.g., i n Jacobson, L i e

a l g e b r a s , p. 147.

Theorem 16: Let G be a C h e v a l l e y group o v e r @ viewed a s a

L i e group over d.
(a) There e x i s t s a n a n a l y t i c automorphism r of G
such t h a t cx,(t) = x
-Ci
(-t) and oh ( t ) = h
G Q
( z -l) for a l l o: and

(h) The group K = G

ff
of f i x e d p o i n t s of c is a
maximal compact subgroup of G and t h e decomposition G = BK

holds (Iwasawa d e c o m p o s i t i o n ) .

Proof: Let be i n Lemma 44 composed w i t h complex

con j u g a t i o n , and p t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of used t o d e f i n e G .
 P
Applying Theorem 4 , COP. 5 t o t h e Chevalley groups (both equal t o
G) c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s JD and yo71 of ,

we g e t a n automorphism o f , G which a s i d e f r o m complex c o n j u g a t i o n

s a t i s f i e s t h e e q u a t i o n s o f ( a ) , hence composed w i t h c o n j u g a t i o n
s a t i s f i e s these equations, From Theorem 7 a d a p t e d t o t h e p r e s e n t
s i t u a t i o n ( s e e t h e remark a t t h e end o f 3 5 ) it f o l l o w s t h a t r

i s a n a l y t i c , whence ( a ) . We o b s e r v e t h a t i f G i s d e f i n e d by t h e
a j o i n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of x, then o- i s e f f e c t e d by c o n j u g a t i o n
by t h e serniautomorphism o;; of Lemma 44 .
LMuna 45: Let K = Gr , Ka = Kn G, f o r each simple r o o t c .
(a) Kc="E SU2 ( s e e Lemma 4 3 ( b ) ) , hence YG C Kc .
(b) B ~ H= ~ (=h e HI 1 )1 = 1 for a l l 6
A
L

(global weights ) 3

= hi(ti) ( s e e Lemma 2 8 ) 1 ( t i /= 11
= maximal t o r u s i n K .
Proof: The k e r n e l o f q,
c:.
: SL2 -> Gc. i s contained i n 15 1) ,
and cr p u l l s back t o t h e i n v e r s e t r a n s p o s e c o n j u g a t e , s a y 5 ,
on SL2 . S i ~ l c et h e e q u a t i o n r2x = - x h a s no s o l u t i o n s
we g e t ( a ) .
Since c h a ( t ) = hc(T -') , p ( hc ( t ) )= t P ( H c )

(here y and
A
. a r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w e i g h t s on qt! and H) ,
and the
h E

weights
H , so
h,(t)

A
P
that
- If
generate
o-h = h
h =
H , we
i f a n d o n l y if
hi(tij
have

, then
c(o-h) = p(h)

c(h) =
fi
-
( j ~ ( h )=( 1 f o r a l l
'G
AHi)
104
-'f o r a l l
Since .
i
there are 4 l i n e a r l y independent w e i g h t s :: , we s e e t h a t i f
fi fi
[ 1
IP(~)= for a l l p , then [tiln= 1 f o r some n > 0 , whence
Iti/ = 1 , for all i . If G is universal, then Bb is t h e

p r o d u c t of t h e 4 circles ihi(-) j , hence is a t o r u s ; if n o t ,

we have t o t a k e t h e q u o t i e n t by a f i n i t e group, t h u s s t i l l have a
torus. Now if h E Hg i s g e n e r a l enough, s o t h a t t h e numbers
fi
a ( h ) (a E X) a r e d i s t i n c t and d i f f e r e n t from 1 , then Gh , the
c e n t r a l i z e r of h i n G ,
is H , by t h e uniqueness i n Theorem
:
4 , s o t h a t Hc i s i n f a c t a maximal Abelian subgroup of Gr ,
which p r o v e s t h e lemma.

Exercise: Check o u t t h e e x i s t e n c e of h and t h e property Gh = H

above.
Now we c o n s i d e r p a r t ( b ) of Theorem 16. By Theorem 1 5 and
Lemmas 4 3 ( b ) and 45 ( a ) we have G = BK . By t h e same r e s u l t s

(BwB) C T -C BrK u...Kg ,a compact s e t s i n c e each f a c t o r i s ( t h e

compactness of t o r i and SU2 i s being used). Thus K = G, is
compact. ( T h i s a l s o f o l l o w s e a s i l y from Lemma 4 4 ( b ) 1 Let K1
be a compact subgroup of G , K1 2 K . Assume x E K1 . Write
x = by with b E B, y E K , and t h e n b = uh with u E U,
h E H . Since K1 i s compact, a l l e i g e n v a l u e s bc ( ,n n )
n = 0 1 2, a r e bounded, whence h E K by Lemma 4 5 ( b ) .
Then a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of a l l un a r e bounded s o t h a t u = 1 .
 -
Remark: It can b e shown a l s o t h a t K i s s e i - ~ i s i m p l ea n d t h a t a
complete s e t of s e m i s i m p l e compact L i e g r o u p s i s g o t f r o m t h e
above c o n s t r u c t i o n .

C o .r o .l l a. r y 1: L e t G' b e of t h e same t y p e a s G w i t h a weight

f t 1
l a t t i c e c o n t a i n i n g t h a t of G, K = Gr, and n: G -> G the
natural projection. Then 7tK
f
= K .
-
Proof: T h i s f o l l o w s f r o m t h e f a c t p r o v e d i n Lemina 45 t h a t K
i s g e n e r a t e d by t h e g r o u p s q,SU2 .
--
Examples: (a) If G = SLn(C) , then K = Sun .
(b) If G = SOn(fJ , then K f i x e s siinultaneously
t h e forms C x ixn + l - i a n d C x 1. 7i , h e n c e e q u a l s SOn ( K ) (com-
p a c t f o r m ) a f t e r a change o f c o o r d i n a t e s . Prove t h i s .
(c) If G = S P ~ ~ ( ~ ' t)h e n , K f i x e s t h e forms

'
n
--

1
(~iy2ncl-i - X2n+1-i y . ) 1 and L' x i q , and i s isoinorphic t o
SUn(IL)) (compact f o r m , = quaternions). For t h i s s e e C h e v a l l e y ,
L i e g r o u p s , p. 22.
I (d) Tile have isomorphisms and c e n t r a l e x t e n s i o n s ,
I

S U 2 ( l ~ )---> SO
5 (p) , S U ~ ( ~ ) ' >
a
- SO
4 (R ,
snL(E) -> so6(R) (compact f o r m s ) .

I This follows from ( a ) , ( b ) , ( c ) , Corollary 1 and t h e equivalences

-2: - . Tlie group . K i s connected.

Proof:
C__n
A s a l r e a d y remarked, K i s g e n e r a t e d by t h e groups
v,SU2 . Since SU2 is connected, s o is K .
C o r o l l a r y 3 : If
P
T denotes t h e maximal t o r u s H6 , then T\K
i s homeomorphic t o ~ \ f i under t h e n a t u r a l map.

Proof:
.-- The limp 6 -> B\, k -> Bk , i s c o n t i n u o u s and con-
s t a n t on t h e f i b r e s of T\ , hence l e a d s t o a c o n t i n u o u s map of
T\r into B\G which i s 1 - 1 and o n t o s i n c e T = B nK and
G = BK . Since T
\t ( is compact, t h e map i s a homeomorphism.

Corol_lary: (a) G is contractible t o I( .

(b) If G is universal, then K i s s i m p l y con-
nected.

Proof:
__r_
Let i1 = ih E Hl,u(h)
A
> 0 for a l l
A
p E L]
fi
. Then we have
H = AT , so that G = BK = UAK . On t h e r i g h t t h e r e is unique-

n e s s of e x p r e s s i o n . Since K is compact it e a s i l y f o l l o w s t h a t
t h e n a t u r a l map UA x K -> G i s a homeomorphism. Since UA

is contractible t o a point, G is contractible t o K . If a l s o

G is universal, then G i s s i m p l y connected by Theorem 1 3 ;
hence s o i s Ii .
C o r o l l a r y 5 : For w E Y set ( B W B ) =~ BwB A K = , and l e t
a,B,. ..,6 b e a s i n Theorem 1 5 . Then K = V lcw
W
and

$= TY,. ..Y6 , w i t h uniqueness of e x p r e s s i o n on t h e r i g h t .

Proof: This f o l l o w s from Theorem 1 5 a n d Lerrma 4.3 ( b ) .

Remark: Observe t h a t K i s e s s e n t i a l l y a c e l l s i n c e each
ya
i s homeomorphic t o & ( c o n s i d e r t h e v a l u e s of a i n Lemma 4 3 ( b ) ) .
A t r u e c e l l u l a r decomposition i s o b t a i n e d by w r i t i n g T as a
u n i o n of c e l l s . p e r h a p s t h i s decomposition can b e u s e d t o g i v e
a n e l e m e n t a r y t r e a t m e n t of t h e cohornology of K .
Corollary 6: B\F and T\K have a s t h e i r ~ o i n c a r gpolynomials
C .
t 2 N ( w ) They have no t o r s i o n .
w &I?
Proof: We have B\BWB homeomorphic t o wUw ,a c e l l of r e a l
dimension 2N(w) . S i n c e each dimension i s even, it f o l l o w s t h a t
t h e c e l l s r e p r e s e n t independent elements of t h e homology group
and t h a t t h e r e i s no t o r s i o n ( e s s e n t i a l l y because t h e boundary
o p e r a t o r l o w e r s dimensions by e x a c t l y 1), whence Cor . 6. dlter-
n a t e l y one may u s e t h e f a c t t h a t each Y, i s homeomorphic t o & .
Remark: The above s e r i e s w i l l be summed i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n ,
where it a r i s e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e o r d e r s of t h e f i n i t e
Chevalley g r o u p s .

C o r o l l a r y 7: For w E W let w = w,. ..w 6 b e a minimal expres-

s i o n a s b e f o r e and l e t S d e n o t e t h e s e t of elements of W each
of which is a produ.ct of some subsequence of t h e e;cpression f o r
w . Then
-
% ( t o ~ o l o g i c a lc l o s u r e ) = u
w t ES w f
II .
Proof: If TG = T 17 K, , we have K, = TaYa U TCL by Lemma 4.5 ( a )
and
-
TaYa = K, by t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s u l t i n SU2 . Now
BwB = B*T,Y,.. .T6Y6 by Lemma 4 3 ( b ) . Hence %= T-TaY a . 0 . T 6 Y 6 ,
so that
-Kw > TKu ...K , and we have e q u a l i t y s i n c e each f a c t o r
- 6
on t h e r i g h t i s compact, s o t h a t t h e r i g h t s i d e i s compact, hence
81
closed. Since K ,,K a. C
e
K K i, if w E \i and a is sim-
W W w w,?,
u
p l e , by Lemma 2 5 , Cor. 7 f o l l o w s .

Corollary 8: (a) T = K1 . i s i n t h e c l o s u r e of e v e r y Kw .
(b) $ i s c l o s e d i f and only i f w = 1 .
C o r o l l a r y 9: The s e t S of Cor. 7 depends o n l y on w , not on
t h e minimal e x p r e s s i o n c h o s e n , hence may be w r i t t e n S(w) ,

-
Proof: Because
-Kw d o e s n ' t depend on t h e e x p r e s s i o n .

Lemma 46: Let wo b e t h e element of W which makes a l l p o s i t i v e

r o o t s negative. Then S(wo) = W .
-
Proof: Assume w E W , and let w
rn b e a minimal expres-
= wl...w
s i o n as a p r o d u c t of s i m p l e r e f l e c t i o n s and s i m i l a r l y f o r
wmlw 0
= wmcl.. .wil . Then wo = .
w ~ ..wm.. .wn i s one f o r w0
s i n c e if N i s t h e number of p o s i t i v e r o o t s t h e n m = N(w) ,
n = N - N ( w ) , and m + n = N = N(wo) . Looking a t t h e i n i t i a l
segment of w0 we see that w &S(wO) .
Corollary 10: If wo i s a s above and wo = w wP .. .w 6 is a
minimal e x p r e s s i o n , t h e n

(a) K = Kw
0
.
(b) K = KLK $ . . . K6 '

Proof : (a) By Cor . 7 and Lemma 46.

(b) By ( a ) K = TK,Kr.Kg . We may w r i t e T = Ty
(y s i m p l e ) , then absorb t h e TXls i n appropriate K 1s to
'd
get ( b ) .
E x e f c i s e : If G i s any Chovalley group and wo ,a ,P , ... are as
above, show t h a t G = BGaG B . . .G 6 .
Remarks: (a) If and SU2 a r e r e p l a c e d by and SO2 in
accordance w i t h Lemma 4 3 ( b ) , t h e n e v e r y t h i n g above goes through
except f o r Cor. 4 , Cor. 6 and t h e f a c t t h a t T i s no l o n g e r a
torus. ' I n t h i s case each K, is a c i r c l e since SO2 is. The
corresponding a n g l e s i n Cor . 1 0 ( b ) , which we have t o r e s t r i c t
s u i t a b l y t o g e t u n i q u e n e s s , may be c a l l e d t h e E u l e r a n g l e s i n
analogy w i t h t h e c l a s s i c a l case:
G = S L ~ ( N ,K = sOj(R) ,
Ka ,Kg = { r o t a ti o n s around t h e z-axis , x-axis 1 ,

(b) If K, i s r e p l a c e d by BwB = B K , i n Cor. 7, t h e

formula f o r
-
BwB is obtained. (Prove t h i s . ] If (or R) is
r e p l a c e d by any a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d and t h e Z a r i s k i t o p o l -
ogy i s u s e d , t h e same formula h o l d s , So a s not t o i n t e r r u p t t h e
p r e s e n t development, we g i v e t h e proof l a t e r , a t t h e end of t h i s
section.

Theorem 1 7 : (Cartan). Again l e t G be a Chevalley group over

(C o r R,, K =
G6
a s above, and A = {h E
/r
H I I ~ ( h>
) 0 for a l l

(a) G = KAK ( C a r t a n decomposition).

(b) In ( a ) the A-component is determined u n i q u e l y up t o
conjugacy under t h e Weyl group.
 110

-
Proof: (a) assume x E G . By t h e decompositions H = AT and

G = BK (Theorem 1 6 ) , t h e r e e x i s t elements i n .KxK U4 .

Given such an element y = ua , we write a = exp H ( H E w6 ,
u n i q u e l y determined by a) , then set 1a( = 1 HI , t h e Killing
norm i n %*. This norm i s i n v a r i a n t under W . We now choose
y t o maximize 1a[ (recall that K is con2act). We must show
that u = 1 . This f o l l o w s from; ( ) if u + 1 , then [a1
can be i n c r e a s e d . We w i l l r e d u c e ( * ) t o t h e r a n k 1 c a s e . Write
u = up (up E EB) . We may assume uU $ 1 f o r some simple
B>O
a: choose a of minimum h e i g h t , s a y n , such that ua + 1,
then if n > 1 , choose fl simple s o t h a t ( u , @ )> 0 and
h t vi a
B <n , then replace y by ~ ~ ( l ) ~ w ~ ( l )and
- ' proceed by
i n d u c t i o n on n . We w r i t e u - u ua
7
with u
1
E # p-Ial (here
P is t h e s e t of p o s i t i v e r o o t s ) . Then we w r i t e a = exp H ,
choose c so that H
7
= H - cH, i s orthogonal t o Ha , set
= exp cHu E r i r ) ~ ~ a
7
, = exp H
1
E A, a = a,a
1
. Then a
7

commutes w i t h G, elementwise and i s orthogonal t o aU r e l a t i v e

t o t h e b i l i n e a r form corresponding t o t h e norm i n t r o d u c e d above.
By ( ) f o r groups of r a n k 1, t h e r e e x i s t y, z E K, such t h a t

Yu,auZ = aa
1
E -1 n GO. and 1a
7
> a . Then yuaz = yu uuaaa z
1 7

= yu y
7 - 1 7
a,a
7
. Since Ga normalizes XP- { a ] ( s i n c e and
1 1 1 2
y-a do), ) ; u , ~ - ' E u . S i n c e /a,a I = 1a:12 + l a ' [ '

r a n k 1 case. This case, e s s e n t i a l l y G = SL2 ,will be l e f t a s

an e x e r c i s e .
 (b) .issume x E G, x = klakZ as in ( a ) . Then

6 X = kla
-1k2 ,s o that x6x-l = kla 2 kl-1 Here r a = a -1
--------I ,./
- .

A fi
since
fi
,u(o-a) = $ ( a ) = a(a-l) for a l l ;A E L .
Lemma 47: If elements of H a r e conjugate i n G (any Chevalley
group) , they a r e c o n j u g a t e under t h e Weyl group.
This e a s i l y f o l l o w s from t h e uniqueness in Theorem 4
t
.
, By t h e lenma x above u n i q u e l y determines a2 up t o con-
jugacy under t h e Weyl group., hence a l s o a s i n c e square-roots
in A a r e unique.

Remark: We can g e t uniqueness i n ( b ) by r e p l a c i n g A by

A
A + = ja E Ala(a) >
-= 1 for a l l G >0) This f o l l o w s fromAppen-
d i x I11 33.

Corollary: Let P c o n s i s t of t h e elements o f G which s a t i s f y

crx = x-I and have a l l e i g e n v a l u e s p o s i t i v e .
(a) 11. CP .
(b) Zvery p E P i s c o n j u g a t e under K t o some a E A ,
u n i q u e l y determined up t o conjugacy under 11 ( s p e c t r a l theorem).
(c) G = KP , with uniqueness on t h e r i g h t ( p o l a r decom-
posit ion) ,

Proof: (a) T h i s h a s been n o t e d i n ( b ) above.

(b) \ie can assume p = ka E KA , by t h e theorem. Apply
u--1: p = ak-I . Thus k commutes w i t h a2 , hence a l s o with
a . (Since a i s d i a g o n a l ( r e l a t i v e t o a b a s i s of weight vec-
t o r s ) and p o s i t i v e , t h e m a t r i c e s commuting w i t h a have a c e r t a i n
b l o c k s t r u c t u r e which does n o t change when it i s r e p l a c e d by a
2
.)
-'-'
1
1.
1
A.
'2
Then k = i and lc = a pa E P , so that k i s u n i p o t e n t by
t h e d e f i n i t i o n of P . Since K i s compact, k = 1 . Thus
p = a . The uniqueness i n ( b ) fol.l.ows a s b e f o r e .

(c) If x E G , then x - k1 a k 2 a s i n t h e theorem, s o

that x = kl 1c2 l<ila k2 E KP . Thus G = KP . Xssuriie klpl = k2p2

with ki E K and pi E P . By ( b ) we can assume t h a t p2 E A .

Then p1 = k;1k2p2 . 4s i n ( b ) we conclude t h a t
-1
kl k2 = 1 ,
whence t h e uniqueness i n ( c ) .

Example : If G = SLn (a) , s o that K = Sun (@) ,

A = { p o s i t i v e diagonal matrices 3,
P = !positive-def i n i t e Hermitean m a t r i c e s 1,
t h e n ( b ) and ( c ) r e d u c e t o c l a s s i c a l r e s u l t s .
 We now c o n s i d e r t h e c a s e ( c ) of Lemma 43. The development

i s s t r i k i n g l y p a r a l l e l t o t h a t f o r c a s e ( b ) j u s t completed a l -
though t h e r e s u l t s a r e b a s i c a l l y a r i t h m e t i c i n one c a s e , g e o m e t r i c
4.
-4.

i n t h e other. Throughout we assume t h a t a ,e ,k,Y, are as i n

Lemma 4 3 ( c ) and t h a t t h e Chevalley group G under d i s c u s s i o n i s
based on k . We w r i t e Ge f o r t h e subgroug of elements of G
whose c o o r d i n a t e s , r e l a t i v e t o t h e o r i g i n a l l a t t i c e M ,a l l lie
in e .
48: If is a s i n Theorem 4 ' , Cor. 6, t h e n

Proof : If e i s a E u c l i d e a n domain t h e n 9L2 ( e ) is generated

by i t s u n i p o t e n t s u p e r d i a g o n a l and s u b d i a g o n a l e l e m e n t s , s o t h a t
t h e lemma f o l l o w s from t h e f a c t t h a t x,(t) a c t s on M a s an
i n t e g r a l polynomial i n t . I n t h e g e n e r a l c a s e it f o l l o w s t h a t
if p i s a prime i n s and e i s t h e l o c a l i z a t i o n of e at
P
p (all a/b E k such t h a t a ,b E 8 with b prime t o p) then

v,SL2(e) -
CG, Since n o = e , e . g . by u n i q u e f a c t o r i z a t i o n ,
2 P P
we have our r e s u l t .

Remark: A v e r s i o n of Lemma 48 i s t r u e i f e i s any commutative

ring since vc;[,a b i s g e n e r i c a l l y e x p r e s s i b l e a s a polynomial

in a , b ,c , d with i n t e g r a l c o e f f i c i e n t s (proof omitted) . The

proof j u s t g i v e n works i f e i s any i n t e g r a l domain f o r which
e = n eP (p = maximal i d e a l ) , which i n c l u d e s roost of t h e i n t e r -

esting cases.
 ..

Lemma 49:
.. .. .. .

Write K = G e , KU = Gan K .
(a) B 0K = ( u ~ K ) ( H ~ K ) .
(b) UnK= [ n x q ( t a ) [ t a & @ I
a>O
(c) H nK = (h E ~ l z ( h E) eii for a l l
A
p E
fi
L]

( d ) ~ P ~ S L =~ Ka( ~ ) Hence . Ya C K, .
Proof:
_1
(a) If b = uh e B f l K , then i t s diagonal h , relative
t o a b a s i s of M made up of weight v e c t o r s ( s e e Lemma 18, Cor.
3 ) , must be i n K , hence u must a l s o .

(b) If u = rr x,(t,) E U n K , then by i n d u c t i o n on

heights, t h e equation xa(t) = 1 + tXu + ... and t h e p r i m i t i v i t y
of Xa in End ( M ) (Theorem 2 , Cor. 2 ) we g e t a l l ta E e .
(c) If h E HA K ,. i n d i a g o n a l form as above, t h e n
A A
p(h) must be i n e f o r each weight p of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
defining G , in fact i n e
a..b
s i n c e t h e sum of t h e s e w e i g h t s is
0 ( t h e sum i s i n v a r i a n t under W) . If we w r i t e
.I-
h = rr hi(ti)
and u s e what has j u s t been proved, we g e t t: E e'p f o r some
, whence
.I.

n > 0 ti E e' by unique f a c t o r i z a t i o n .

(d) Set S, = y,SL2(e) . By Lemma 4 9 , S, C K, . Since

GL' = B,V Bay, by Lemma 4 3 ( c ) and Y,C S, , the r e v e r s e inclu-

s i o n f o l l o w s from: Ban K C S, . NOW if x = ~ ~ ( t ) h , ( t ' s~ B,T)
)
.

K r
I-

.I-

then t E @ and t"' E e*. by (a), (b) ) ( c ) applied t o Ga , SO

that x E 6 c u ( e ) ~ - ~ ( e )=> Sa , whence (d.) .

Theorem 18: Let e ,k,G and K = G8 be a s above. Then G = BK
(Iwasawa decomposition) .
 115
Proof: By Lemmas 4 3 ( c ) and 4 . 9 ( d ) , BwB = BY,. . ..Y6 C- BK for
every w s W , so that G = BK .
C o r o l l a r y 1: W r i t e Kw = BwB K .
(a) K = U K, .
w&ilJ
(b) Kw = (B n K)Y,. . .. Y 6 , w i t h B fi K g i v e n by Lemma 4 9 ,
and on t h e r i g h t t h e r e i s u n i q u e n e s s of e x p r e s s i o n .

Remark: T h i s normal form i n K = G h a s a l l components i n G

8 8

whereas t h e u s u a l one o b t a i n e d by imbedding Go in G doesn't.

Corollary 2: 1; i s g e n e r a t e d by t h e g r o u p s % .
Proof: By Lemiila 49 and Cor. 1.

C o r o l l a r y 3: If e i s a E u c l i d e a n domain, t h e n K i s generated

by (x,(t)lci E Z, t e 41 .
Proof: Since t h e corresponding r e s u l t holds f o r SL2(e) , this
f o l l o w s f r o m Lemma 4 9 ( d ) and Cor. 2.

Example: Assume e = Z, k = $ . We g e t t h a t Gz is generated

by [x,(l)] . The normal form i n Cor. 1 can b e u s e d t o e x t e n d

N i e l s e n ' s theorem ( s e e (1-) on p. 9 6 ) from SL~(Z) t o Gz whenever

C has rank >P-7 2 , is indecomposable, and h a s a l l r o o t s of e q u a l

l e n g t h ( W . Wardlaw, T h e s i s , U . C. L. A. 1966). It would b e n i c e

i f t h e form c o u l d be u s e d t o h a n d l e 3L
3
(z) i t s e l r " s i n c e N i e l s e n T s
proof is q u i t e i n v o l v e d . The c a s e of unequal r o o t l e n g t h s i s a t

p r e s e n t i n poor s h a p e . In analogy with t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e

e a r l i e r development K i s a s i m p l e compact g r o u p if C is i n -
decomposable, we have h e r e : Every normal subgroup of G is
z
 116
f i n i t e o r of f i n i t e i n d e x if X i s indecomposable and has

rank -
> 2 . The proof i s n ' t e a s y .

Exercise: Prove t h a t Gz/.@Gz i s f i n i t e , and i s t r i v i a l if

X i s indecomi,osable and n o t of t y p e .il ,B2 or G2 .
Returning t o t h e general s e t up, if p i s a prime i n Q ,
we w r i t e I [-
i'
for 'the p-adic norm d e f i n e d by 101- = 0
P
and
- 2-r r
IxlP - if ;r = p a / b with a and b prime t o p .
Theorem 1 9 : (Approximation theorem) : L e t . e and k be a s

above, a p r i n c i p a l i d e a l domain and i t s q u o t i e n t f i e l d , S a

f i n i t e s e t of i n e q u i v a l e n t primes i n e , and f o r each p e S,

t
P
E k . Then f o r any E > 0 there exists t E k such t h a t
It - t p l p< tz for a l l p E S and
ltlc <_ 1 f o r a l l primes
(31s
Proof: We may assume e v e r y
P
t E e . To s e e t h i s w r i t e
t
P
= pra/b a s above. By choosing s > -r and c and d s o t h a t
a = cpS + db and r e p l a c i n g a/b by d , we may assume b = 1 .
If we t h e n m u l t i p l y by a s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h power of t h e p r o d u c t
of t h e elements of S , we achieve r 2 0 , for all p E S . If
2--n
we now choose n so that < E , e = :,i? , ep = e/'i3n , then
P &S
f
P' g~
so that f . pn + g e
2 P P
= 1 , and f i n a l l y t = '2 g e t
P P P
,
we a c h i e v e t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e theorem.

Now g i v e n a m a t r i x x = ( ai j ) over k , we d e f i n e
Ixlp = maxla
ij P
1 . The f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s a r e e a s i l y v e r i f i e d .
(2) lxylp < l:qpl~lp
( 3 ) If lxilp = lyilp for i = 1,2 ,...,n , t h e n
fi
xi - yilp <m a ~ ~P o l" *~* ~~~ il [ IynIPIxi
p * * ~ o -- yiIp
Theorem 20: (Approximation theorem f o r s p l i t groups ) : Let
e ,k,S , E be a s i n Theorem 1 9 , G a Chevalley group over k , and
x
P
E G f o r each p E S . Then t h e r e e x i s t s x E G so that

I x - xplp < E for a l l p E S and IxIq 5 1 f o r a l l q S .

Proof: Assume f i r s t t h a t a l l x
P
a r e contained i n some Xu,
x
P
= x a ( t p ) with
P
E k t . If x = xa(t)) t c k ) then
lxlq i m a x ltls, 1 because xa(t) is an i n t e g r a l polynomial i n
t and s i m i l a r l y ixxil - Ilp <-- It - tPIP , s o t h a t
I x - xplp 5 [xp(plt - tplp by (1)and ( 2 1 above. Thus our r e s u l t
f o l l o w s from Theorem 1 9 i n t h i s case. I n t h e g e n e r a l c a s e we
choose a sequence of r o o t s al ,a2,. .. SO that xp --
xplxp2*"
with x
pi
E Xui for a l l p E S . By t h e f i r s t c a s e t h e r e e x i s t s

xi'%a: so that

if ~ E and
S lxiIq<1 if q f S . Weset x3x1x *... .
Then t h e conclusion of t h e theorem holds by ( 3 ) above.

With Theorem 2 0 a v a i l a b l e we can now prove:

Theorem 21: (Elementary d i v i s o r theorem) : Assume e ,k,G, K = G

8
a r e a s before. Let A+ be t h e s u b s e t of H d e f i n e d by:
4
a(h) E e f o r a l l positive roots
A
a .
 (a) G = K4 K
+ (Cartan decomposition).
+
I (b) The A component i n ( a ) i s u n i q u e l y determined
mod H K , i . e . mod u n i t s ( s e e Lemma 49) ; i n o t h e r words, t h e
A
) s e t of numbers ( h )1 p weight of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n d e f i n i n g
I G] is.

Example: The c l a s s i c a l c a s e o c c u r s when G = SLn(k) , K = SLn(e) ,

and A' c o n s i s t s of t h e d i a g o n a l elements d i a g (al , a 2 , . . ., a n )
such t h a t ai i s a m u l t i p l e of ai+l for i = 1,2,. .. .
Proof of theorem:
-= - F i r s t we r e d u c e t h e theorem t o t h e l o c a l c a s e ,
i n which e h a s a s i n g l e prime, modulo u n i t s . Assume t h e r e s u l t
t u r e i n t h i s case. Assume x E G . Let S be t h e f i n i t e s e t
of primes a t which x f a i l s t o be i n t e g r a l . For p E S , we
write e
P
for the local ring a t p i n e and d e f i n e
K~
,
and
A
+ i n t e r m s of e a s K and A+ a r e d e f i n e d f o r e By t h e .
P P ?
l o c a l c a s e of t h e theorem we may w r i t e x = c a c ' w i t h
P P P
c
P' P
P
c E K
P
and a E A+ , f o r a l l p E S
P
S i n c e we may choose .
a s o t h a t $(a ) i s always a power of p and t h e n r e p l a c e a l l
P P
a by t h e i r p r o d u c t , a d j u s t i n g t h e c f s a c c o r d i n g l y , we may
P
assume t h a t a i s independent of p , i s i n
+ , and i s i n t e -
P
g r a l o u t s i d e of S . P P
1
We have c a c x - l = 1 w i t h a = a
P
for
p E S . 1
By Theorem 20 t h e r e e x i s t c , c E G s o t h a t

I c - cPIP < [cplp for p E S and Iclq<l for q # S , the

same e q u a t i o n s h o l d f o r c
t
c , and
and
t ' -1
[ c a c x - 1lp5 1 for
P
I
I
all p E S . By p r o p e r t i e s ( l ) ,( 2 ) , ( 3 ) of I Ii3 , it i s now
1 r -1
1 easily verified that I c 1 5 1, 1 cpl <- 1 and / c a c ,x - 11, <_ 1 ,
I
 119
t
whether p is i n S or not. Thus c E K, c E K and
i -1 +
cat x E K , so that x c KA K a s required. The uniqueness i n
Theorem 21 c l e a r l y a l s o f o l l o w s from t h a t i n t h e l o c a l case.

We now consider t h e l o c a l c a s e , p being t h e unique prime

in e . The proof t o f o l l o w i s q u i t e c l o s e t o t h a t of Theorem

17. Let h be t h e subgroup of a l l h E H such t h a t a l l $(h)
a r e powers of p , and redefine
A+ , casting out u n i t s , s o t h a t
i n addition a l l %(h) ( 2> 0) a r e nonnegative powers of p .
5 For each a E A t h e r e e x i s t s a unique' H E ?kX ,
t h e 22-module g e n e r a t e d by t h e elements Ha of t h e L i e a l g e b r a
1 , such that
A
;;(a) = pp ( H ) f o r a l l weights p .
-
Proof: Write a =
,!:( Ha
7 ha(cap na ) with c, E
-8-

e S r , na E Z. Then
. Since
A
p(a) i s a power of p the c, ,
being u n i t s , nay be o m i t t e d , s o t h a t % ( a ) = Pp ( H ) with
H = I: n,H, . If H' i s a second p o s s i b i l i t y f o r H , then
t t
p(H ) = p(H) for a l l fi , so that H = H ,

If a and H a r e a s above, we w r i t e H = l o g a , a = pH ,
P
and i n t r o d u c e a norm: la1 = [ H I , the K i l l i n g norm. This norm
is i n v a r i a n t under t h e Weyl group. Now assume x E G . We want
t o show x E
+
Kii K . From t h e d e f i n i t i o n s i f T = 1-1 K then
H = AT , Thus by Theorem 18 t h e r e e x i s t s y = ua E KxK with
u E U, a E .i . There i s only a f i n i t e number of p o s s i b i l i t i e s
for a: if a = , then [p(H)I ,u a weight i n t h e given rep-
r e s e n t a t i o n ) i s bounded below (by -n if n i s chosen s o t h a t
t h e m a t r i x of *"x i s i n t e g r a l , because (pi'(ti)] are the
d i a g o n a l e n t r i e s of y) , and a l s o above s i n c e t h e sum of t h e
weights is 0 , so that H is c o n f i n e d t o a bounded r e g i o n of
the lattice . We choose y = ua above s o a s t o maximize
la[ . If u = n'u, (u, E )(-a ) , we set supp u = { a J u , + 11
and t h e n minimize supp u subject t o a lexicograpliic ordering
of t h e s u p p o r t s based on a n o r d e r i n g of t h e r o o t s c o n s i s t e n t
t
with a d d i t i o n (tlius supp u < supp u means t h a t t h e f i r s t a
i n one b u t n o t i n t h e o t h e r l i e s i n t h e s e c o n d ) . We c l a i m
u = 1 . Suppose n o t . We c l a i m ( * ) u, K and aulu,a k K for
a E supp u . If u, were n o t i n K , we could move it t o t h e
extreme l e f t i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r y and t h e n remove it. The

new terms i n t r o d u c e d by t h i s s h i f t would, by t h e r e l a t i o n s ( B ) ,

correspond t o r o o t s h i g h e r t h a n u , so that supp u would be
diminished, a contradiction. Similarly a s h i f t t o the r i g h t
y i e l d s t h e second p a r t of ( * ) . Now a s i n t h e proof of Theorem
17 we may con j u g a t e y by a product of wg (1)' s (all in K) to
get u, $ 1 f o r some s i m p l e u. , as well a s ( ) We w r i t e
a = pH , choose c so that H = H
T
- cHa is orthogonal t o ,H ,
set a,= p
cHu
,a t
= p
H '
, a = a,a T . We o n l y k n o w t h a t
2c = <H,Hu> r 2 , so t h a t t h i s may i n v o l v e a n a d j u n c t i o n of
P'I2 which must e v e n t u a l l y b e removed. If we b e a r t h i s i n mind,

t h e n a f t e r r e d u c i n g (,:) t o t h e rank 1 case, exactly a s i n t h e

proof of Theorem 1 7 , what remains t o b e proved i s t h i s :

Lemma 5 1 : Assume y = ua = '

[ t-I
t
I
rPC
:
,
1 with 2c E Z ,t E k ,
~ o ~ P-c]
J I
 121

t e and tp-" e . Then c can be i n c r e a s e d by a n i n t e g e r

by m u l t i p l i c a t i o n s by elements of K .
- -n
.
J.

Proof: Let t = ey with e E e"' Then n E z,

n > 0 and
n + 2c > 0 by t h e assumptions, s o t h a t c + n > c, c + n > -c
and ( c + n[ > (c( . If we m u l t i p l y y on t h e l e f t by

on t h e r i g h t by [1-e'1pn+2c , both in K , we get

- Lo p
which proves t h e lemma, hence t h a t u = 1 . Thus y = a E A, so

I that x E &iK . Thus G = KAK . F i n a l l y every element of A is

c o n j u g a t e t o an element of A+ under t h e Weyl g r o u p , which i s
f u l l y represented i n K (every w,(l) E K) . Thus G = KA'K .
It remains t o prove t h e uniqueness of t h e
+
X component. If
G' i s t h e u n i v e r s a l group of t h e same t y p e a s G and n is t h e
n a t u r a l homomorj~hism, it follows from Lemna 49(d) and Theorem 1 8 ,
t 1 +
( Cor. 2 t h a t nK = K
+
and from Lemma 49 t h a t n maps A i s o-
m o r p h i c a l l y onto 11 . Thus we may assume t h a t G is u n i v e r s a l .
Then G i s a d i r e c t product of i t s indecomposable f a c t o r s s o
t h a t we may a l s o assume t h a t G is indecomposable. Let hi be
the ith fundamenCa1 w e i g h t , Vi an L-module w i t h hi as
highest weight, Gi t h e corresponding Chevalley g r o u p ,
n i: G->G the
t h e corresponding homomorphism, and pi
i
I corresponding lowest weight. Assume. now t h a t x = cac
T

+ -n
E G ,
with c, c
t
E ii and a E '1 Set
A
,ui(a) = p . Each weight
on Vi is
i
i n c r e a s e d by a sum of- p o s i t i v e r o o t s , Thus ni
,ti
11
i
i s t h e s m a l l e s t i n t e g e r such t h a t p nia is i n t e g r a l , i .e. such
I that
n
p in.x
1
is since

u n i q u e l y determined by
n. c

x
1

.
and

Since
n-c
1
1

{pi]
a r e i n t e g r a l , t h u s is

i s a b a s i s of t h e l a t -
t i c e of weights (pi = w0h 1
.) , this y i e l d s t h e uniqueness i n t h e
l o c a l c a s e and completes t h e proof of Theorem 21.

Corollary 1 If e is n o t a f i e l d , t h e group K i s maximal i n

i t s commensurability c l a s s .
t
Proof; Assume K i s a subgroup of G containing K properly.
By t h e theorem t h e r e e x i s t s a E
f
A /I K
t
,a K . Some e n t r y of

I t h e diagonal matrix a i s n o n i n t e g r a l s o t h a t by unique f a c t o -

( rization IK~/KI isinfinite.

I Remark: The c a s e e = Z i s of some importance h e r e .

C o r o l l a r y 2: If e = Zp and k = $
(p-adic i n t e g e r s and
P
numbers) and t h e p-adic topology is u s e d , t h e n K i s a maximal
compact subgroup of G .
-
Proof: We w i l l u s e t h e f a c t t h a t
P
i s compact. (The proof
i s a good e x e r c i s e . ) We may assume t h a t G is u n i v e r s a l . Let
-k be t h e a l g e b r a i c c l o s u r e of k and t h e corresponding
Chevalley group. Then G = nSL(V,k) (Theorem 7 , Cor. 3 ) , s o
that K = r ) SL(V,e) . Since e i s compact, s o i s End(V,e) ,
hence a l s o i s K , t h e s e t of s o l u t i o n s of a system of polynomial
equations s i n c e
-G i s a n a l g e b r a i c g r o u p , by Theorem 6. If K'
is a subgroup of G containing K properly, there exists
a E fIfn K', a K , by t h e theorem. Then [ [ a n l p in E z]i s
1
n o t bounded s o t h a t K i s n o t compact.
Remark: We observe t h a t i n t h i s c a s e t h e decompositions G = BK
4-
and G = KA K a r e r e l a t i v e t o a maximal compact subgroup j u s t
a s i n Theorems 1 4 and 1 7 . Also i n t h i s c a s e t h e c l o s u r e formula
of Theorem 1 6 , Cor. 7 h o l d s .

Exercise ( o p t i o n a l ) : Assume t h a t G i s a Chevalley group over

&, or $
and t h a t K i s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g maximal compact
P
subgroup d i s c u s s e d above. Prove t h e commutativity under convolu-
t i o n of t h e a l g e b r a of f u n c t i o n s on G which a r e complex-valued,
c o n t i n u o u s , w i t h compact s u p p o r t , and i n v a r i a n t under l e f t and
r i g h t m u l t i p l i c a t i o n s by elements of K . (Such f u n c t i o n s a r e
sometimes c a l l e d z o n a l f u n c t i o n s and a r e of importance i n t h e
harmonic a n a l y s i s of G .) Hint: prove t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s an
antiautomorphism P of G such t h a t vxa(t) --a( t ) f o r a l l
= I

a and t , that 9 p r e s e r v e s e v e r y double c o s e t r e l a t i v e t o

K , and that v p r e s e r v e s Haar measure. .1. much h a r d e r e x e r c i s e

i s t o determine t h e e x a c t s t r u c t u r e of t h e a l g e b r a .

Next we c o n s i d e r a double c o s e t decomposition of K = G8

i t s e l f i n t h e l o c a l case. We w i l l u s e t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t , t h e
f i r s t s t e p i n t h e proof of Theorem 7.

Lernma 52: Let b e t h e L i e a l g e b r a of G ( t h e o r i g i n a l Lie

a l g e b r a of 81 w i t h its coefficients transferred t o k) ,N the
number of p o s i t i v e r o o t s , and Y Y , . .. Y ] a b a s i s of nN
made up of p r o d u c t s of XaTs and Hi's with Y1 = /\
a>O
Xa . For
x E G write xY1 = Z c . ( x ) Y
J j
. Then x E U-HU if and o n l y i f
Theorem 22: ilssurne t h a t e i s a l o c a l p r i n c i p a l i d e a l domain,

that p i s i-ts unique prime, and t h a t k and G a r e a s before.

(a) BI = U-H U
p e e
is a subgroup of Ge .
(b) Ge = U BIwBI ( d i s j o i n t ), if t h e representatives f o r
wew
W in G a r e chosen i n Ge .
(c) BIwBI = B WU
I w,e w i t h t h e l a s t component of t h e r i g h t
u n i q u e l y determined mod Uw
2P
.
Proof: Let denote t h e r e s i d u e c l a s s f i e l d e/pe, G;; the
Chevalley group of t h e same t y p e a s G over
-e , and B--,Hz ,...
t h e u s u a l subgroups. By Theorem 18, Cor. 3 r e d u c t i o n mod p
y i e l d s a hoinomorphisrn n of G
8
onto G--
8
.
(1) nal(u=H-u-)
8 8 8
C
- U-HU . We c o n s i d e r G a c t i n g on nNl as
i n Lemma 52. A s is easily seen Ge acts integrally relative t o
t h e b a s i s of Yls . Now assume nx E U=H-U-
0 0 8
. Then cl(rur) $; 0
by t h e lemma a p p l i e d t o G-
e
, whence cl(x) + 0 and x e U-HU
a g a i n by t h e lemrI?a.

(2) -1la,rx: ker n C

- U-HU .
(3) BI = n-1B-
S
. .\ssurne x E T C - ~ B ~ Then . c: E U-BU by (1).
From t h i s and x E Ge it f o l l o w s a s i n t h e proof of Theorem 7 ( b )
that x E UiHeUe , and then t h a t x E BI .
(4) _ ----_-
Completion of p r o o f : - By ( 3 ) we have ( a ) . To g e t ( b ) we
simply a p p l y n 1 t o t h e decomposition i n Ge relative t o Bg .
We need only rei-rlark t h a t a c h o i c e a s i n d i c a t e d i s always p o s s i b l e
s i n c e each w,(l) E Ge . From ( b ) t h e e q u a t i o n i n ( c ) e a s i l y
follows. (Check t h i s . ) Assume blwul = b wu with bi E BI,
2 2

Ui
E U
W,@
.
Then bl-1b2 = wulu2-1,-1 E BI 0 U-8 = U"
P
, whence
-1
U1"2 U ~ , Pand ( c ) f o l l o w s .
Remark: The subgroup BI above i s c a l l e d a n Iwahori s u b g r o u p .
It was i n t r o d u c e d i n a n i n t e r e s t i n g paper by I w a h o r i and Matsumoto
( P a b l . Math. I.H.E.S. No. 25 ( 1 9 6 5 ) ) . There a decomposition
which combines t h o s e of Theorems 2 1 ( a ) a n d 2 2 ( b ) can b e f o u n d .
The p r e s e n t development i s c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e i r s .
There i s a n i n t e r e s t i n g c o n n e c t i o n between t h e decomposition
G
8
= UB ~ W Babove
~ and t h e o n e , Go = ~ ( B w B ) ~t h a t , Ge inherits
as a subgroup of G , namely:
Corollary: Assume w E W , that S(w) i s a s i n Theorem 1 6 , Cor.
9, and t h a t n : Ge ->
i s , a s above, t h e n a t u r a l p r o j e c t i o n .
8
G-
Then n(BIwBI) = BgwBG , and ~ ( B w B =) ~
w' ES ( w )
r
BGw Be Hence u .
-
if e is a topological f i e l d , e.g. o r b9 , t h e n n(BwB)@ a,R
i s t h e t o p o l o g i c a l c l o s u r e of n(BIwBI) .
Proof: The f i r s t e q u a t i o n f o l l o w s from
-
n B
'; = BI , proved
above. Write w = waw P " ' a s i n Lemma 2 5 , Cor. Then

( + ) (BwB), = ( B W & B ) ~ ( B W
B)@.
P
.. by Theorem 1 8 , Cor. 1. Now

>-
( B W ~ B ) ~xCa(p) and 1 )is a u n i o n of
~ ~ ( and B
6
double c o s e t s .
Thus n(BwaB)B >- B~ !J BZ; wuBG = Be G a j S . The r e v e r s e i n e q c a l -

i t y a l s o holds s i n c e (BwUB), C
- B0Ga , e by Theorem 1 8 , Cor. 1.

From t h i s , (::), t h e d e f i n i t i o n of S(w) , and Lemma 2 5 , t h e r e -

quired expression f o r n(BwB)@ now f o l l o w s .
 Appendix. Our purpose i s t o prove Theorem 23 below which g i v e s

t h e c l o s u r e of BwB under v e r y g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s . We w i l l
T r
write w <_ w if w E S(wJ with S(w) a s i n Theorem 1 6 , Cor,
t
9 , i . e . if w i s a s u b e x p r e s s i o n ( i , e . t h e product of a subse-

quence) of some minimal e x p r e s s i o n of w a s a product of s i m p l e

reflections.

Lemma 53 : The f o l l o w i n g a r e t r u e .
1
(a) If w i s a s u b e x p r e s s i o n of some m i n i m a l . e x p r e s s i o n

for w ,i t i s a s u b e x p r e s s i o n of a l l of thein.
T
(b] I n ( a ) t h e subexpressions f o r w can a l l be t a k e n t o
be minimal.

(c) The r e l a t i o n -
< is transitive.
(d) If w E W and u i s a s i m p l e r o o t s u c h t h a t wa >0
(resp. w-la > 0) , then wwa >w ( r e s p a waw > w) .
(e) wo >w for a l l w E W .
. -
Proof : (a) T h i s was proved i n Theorem 1 6 , Cor .7 and 9 i n a
r a t h e r roundabout way. It i s a d i r e c t consequence of t h e f o l l o w i n g
f a c t , which w i l l be proved i n a l a t e r s e c t i o n : t h e e q u a l i t y of
two minimal e x p r e s s i o n s f o r w ( a s a product of s i m p l e r e f l e c -
t i o n s ) i s a consequence of t h e r e l a t i o n s w1w2.. . = w2w1.. .
(wl ,w2 d i s t i n c t simple r e f l e c t i o n s , n terms on each s i d e ,

I n = order w1w2) .
(b) If w
T
= w1w2. ..Wr i s a n e x p r e s s i o n a s i n ( b ) and
it i s n o t minimal, t h e n two of t h e terms on t h e r i g h t can b e
c a n c e l l e d by Appendix I1 21.

- - , . - e -
 (c) BY ( a ) and ( b ) .
(d) If wu > 0 and w1w2.. .ws i s a minimal e x p r e s s i o n
for w , then wl. . .w swa, i s one f o r wwU, by Appendix I1 1 9 , s o
that ww, >w , and' s i m i l a r l y f o r t h e other case.
(e) T h i s i s proved i n Lemma 4 6 .

*I Now we cone t o our main r e s u l t .

Theorem 23 : L e t G be a Chevalley group. Assume t h a t k is. a

n o n d i s c r e t e t o p o l o g i c a l f i e l d and t h a t t h e t o p o l o g y i n h e r i t e d by
G a s a m a t r i c group over k is used. Then t h e f o l l o w i n g condi-

I
r
(b) w <- w .

Proof: Let Y1 be a s i n Lemma 52 and more g e n e r a l l y

Yw = /'\ Xwa for w E W . For x E G let c w ( x ) denote t h e
a>O
c o e f f i c i e n t of Yw in xY1 . We w i l l show t h a t ( a ) and ( b j a r e
equivalent t o :

(c) cwf is not i d e n t i c a l l y 0 on BwB .

(a) => (c). We have xg(t)X, = X, + I t J xj with X
j
of weight
(0 or a r o o t ) u + jB , and nwXa = cXhram( c f 0) i f nw r e p r e -
sents w in W in N/H . Thus ( * ) BwBY1 -
C k'"~, + higher
terms i n t h e o r d e r i n g g i v e n by sums of p o s i t i v e r o o t s . Thus cwT
f
is not i d e n t i c a l l y 0 on Bw B , hence a l s o n o t on BwB , by (a).

(c) => (b). We u s e downward i n d u c t i o n on ~ ( w ' ). If t h i s is

1
maximal t h e n w = w0 , the element of W making a l l p o s i t i v e
 r o o t s n e g a t i v e , and t h e n w = w by ( c ) and (::) above. Assume
0

1, wT + wo . Choose r. simple s o t h a t wT-la > 0 , hence

N(wuw )
I
> N(w )
1
, Since c
W
1 (BwB) + 0 and BwabwB C
-
B W B ~ B W ~ W B, we s'ee t h a t c '(BwB) ) 0 or c r(Bw,wB) $ 0 ,
. wuW Wc;W
so that wan' . <
-. w or wawl <_ waw . In t h e first case w' <w
by Lemma 5 3 ( c ) and ( d ) . I n t h e second c a s e i f wc.'a <0 then
WW
, <w by Lefiuna 5 3 ( d ) which p u t s u s back i n t h e f i r s t c a s e ,
while i f n o t we nay choose a minimal e x p r e s s i o n f o r w starting
with w, and conclude t h a t w' -w
< .
(b) => (a). By t h e d e f i n i t i o n s and t h e u s u a l c a l c u l u s of double

cosets, t h i s is equivalent t o : if a is simple, then =

B u BwaB . The l e f t s i d e i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e r i g h t , a n a l g e b r a i c
g r o u p , hence a c l o s e d s u b s e t of G . Since Bw,B contains
-1 and t h e t o p o l o g y on k is not d i s c r e t e , i t s c l o s u r e
contains 1 , hence also B , proving t h e r e v e r s e i n e q u a l i t y and
completing t h e proof of t h e theorem.

Remark: I n case k above is &,a o r aP , t h e theorem r e d u c e s

t o r e s u l t s obtained e a r l i e r . In case k i s i n f i n i t e and t h e
Z a r i s k i t o p o l o g y on k and G a r e u s e d it becomes a r e s u l t of
Chevalley ( u - n p u b l i s h e d ) . Our proof i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from h i s . I

Exercise: (a) If w E W and a i s a p o s i t i v e r o o t such t h a t

wa > 0 , prove t h a t wwu >w (compare t h i s w i t h Lemma 5 3 ( d ) ) ,
r
and c o n v e r s e l y i f w <_ w then ( ) t h e r e e x i s t s a sequence of
positive roots , , ..a r such t h a t if wi = w, then
!
 1
w wl.. .wielui > 0 for a l l i and
1
w wl...w r = w . Thus w
f
<w
and ( ) a r e equivalent.
1
(b) It seems t o us l i k e l y t h a t w <
-.. w i s a l s o equiv-

alent to: t h e r e e x i s t s a permutation n of t h e p o s i t i v e r o o t s

1
such t h a t w nii -= wu i s a sum of p o s i t i v e r o o t s f o r every
a > 0 ; o r even t o : C (w a
t
- wu) i s a s u n of p o s i t i v e r o o t s .
u>o
I 1 ,
Theorem 2 4 : Let W b e a f i n i t e r e f l e c t i o n group on a r e a l space
V of f i n i t e dimension G , S t h e a l g e b r a of polynomials on V ,
I(S) t h e s u b a l g e b r a of i n v a r i a n t s under W . Then:

( aJ I(S) i s g e n e r a t e d by 6 homogeneous a l g e b r a i c a l l y in-

dependent elements Il ,... ,I& .

(b) The degrees of t h e I . f s , say
J
dl ,...,d4 , a r e uniquely
determined and s a t i s f y z(dj - 1) = N , the number of
j
positive roots.

I (c) For t h e i r r e d u c i b l e Weyl groups t h e dits a r e a s follows:

Our main g o a l is :

Theorem 25 : (a) Let G b e a u n i v e r s a l Chevalley group over a

field k of q elements and t h e diTs a s i n Theorem 24. Then
[ G I = qN
1
(q
di
- 1) with N = Z(di - 1) = t h e number of p o s i t i v e
roots.

(b) If G i s simple i n s t e a d , t h e n we have t o d i v i d e by

c = I H O ~ ( L ~ / L * ,k") 1 , given a s follows :

Remark: We s e e t h a t t h e groups of t y p e B& and C have t h e

same o r d e r . If 4 = 2 t h e r o o t systems a r e isomorphic s o t h e

groups a r e isomorphic. We w i l l show l a t e r t h a t i f 4 -3

> the
groups a r e isomorphic if and only i f q i s even.

The proof of Theorem 25 depends on t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e n t i t y .

Theorem 26: Let W and t h e di's be a s i n Theorem 24 and t

an indeterminate. Z tN'W'
WEW
Then =
i
(1 t di)/(l t ) - - .
We show f i r s t t h a t Theorem 25 is a consequence of Theorems
24 and 26.

Lemma 54: If G i s a s i n Theorem 2 5 ( a ) t h e n

1
Proof: R e c a l l t h a t , by Theorems 4 and 4 BwB , G = (disjoint)
WEJ
and BwB = UHwU, with uniqueness of expression. Hence

I G I = [UIIHIo Z I U w [
w&W
. Now by C o r o l l a r y 1 t o t h e p r o p o s i t i o n of

3 3 , I U [ = qN and [U,I = qN ( w ) . BY Lemma 28, I H I= ( q - 1)& .

 132
Corollary: U i s a p-Sylow subgroup of G , if p denotes t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of k .
Proof: p [ q N ( W ) unless N(w) = 0 . Since N(w) = 0 if and o d y

if w = l , p ) j ~N (qw )

Proof of Theorem 25: ( a ) f o l l o w s from Lemma 54 and Theorem 26.

( b ) f o l l o w s from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e u n i v e r s a l group
i s isomorphic t o H O ~ ( L ~ /k*)
L ~ , and t h e v a l u e s of L ~ / Lfound
~
in S3.
Before g i v i n g g e n e r a l proofs of Theorems 24 and 26 we g i v e
independent ( c a s e by c a s e ) v e r i f i c a t i o n s of Theorems 24 and 26
f o r t h e c l a s s i c a l groups.

Theorem 24: Type A&: Here W SL+l permuting 4, + 1 l i n e a r

functions [ ,i,.... .,LJ4 +1 such t h a t q = E Wi = 0 . I n t h i s case

t h e elementary symmetric polynomials C2,. .. ,46+ 1 a r e invariant
and g e n e r a t e a l l o t h e r polynomials i n v a r i a n t under W .
Types B4, C&: Here W acts relative t o a suitable basis

1 , .. . , by a l l permutations and s i g n changes. Here t h e e l e -

2
mentary symmetric polynomials i n W 1, . ..,W42 a r e i n v a r i a n t and
g e n e r a t e a l l o t h e r polynomials i n v a r i a n t under W .
Type Dk: Here only a n even number of s i g n changes can occur.
2
Thus we can r e p l a c e t h e l a s t of t h e i n v a r i a n t s f o r B4, W1.. .4

&
Theorem 26: Type A& : Here W = SL+l and N(w) i s t h e number
1 - of i n v e r s i o n s i n t h e sequence

PJt) =
W€W="S~*~
tN(~
(w(l,..w( + 1))
t h e)n PLcl(t) = P C ( t ) ( l + t + t 2 +.. .+ t &+l)
.
133
If we w r i t e

1 a s we s e e by c o n s i d e r i n g s e p a r a t e l y t h e 4 i-2 v a l u e s t h a t
L+1
w(d+2) cantakeon. Hencetheformula PL(t) = n ( 1 - t 5 ) / ( 1 - t )
5=2
f o l l o w s by i n d u c t i o n .
I

Exercise: Prove t h e corresponding formulas f o r t y p e s Bd, Cd and

D4 . Here t h e proof i s s i m i l a r , t h e i n d u c t i o n s t e p b e i n g a b i t
) more complicated.

P a r t ( a ) of Theorem 24 f o l l o w s from:

Theorem 27: Let G be a f i n i t e group of automorphisms of a r e a l

I

vector space V of f i n i t e dimension 4 and I t h e algebra of

.
I polynomials on V i n v a r i a n t under G Then:

* I (a) If G i s g e n e r a t e d by r e f l e c t i o n s , t h e n I is g e n e r a t e d

II by 4

(b)
a l g e b r a i c a l l y independent homogeneous elements (and

Conversely, i f I is g e n e r a t e d by algebraically
1) .

I independent homogeneous elements (and 1) t h e n G i s generated

I by r e f l e c t i o n s .

Example: Let 4 = 2 and V have c o o r d i n a t e s x,y . If

, -
G = {+ i d . ] , then G is not a r e f l e c t i o n group. I is generated

by x2 , xy, and y2 and no s m a l l e r number of elements s u f f i c e s .

I- Notation: Throughout t h e proof we l e t S be t h e a l g e b r a of a l l

I, polynomials on V , So the ideal i n S g e n e r a t e d by t h e homoge-

I
neous elements of I of p o s i t i v e d e g r e e , and Av stand f o r
average over G (i.e. AvP = [GI-' C gp)
g EG
Proof of ( a ) : (Chevalley, Am. J,
P -
of Math. 1955. ) --
(1) Assume 11, 12,. .. a r e elements of I such t h a t I1 '
i s not i n t h e i d e a l i n I g e n e r a t e d by t h e o t h e r s and t h a t
P1, P2,. .. a r e homogeneous elements of S such t h a t C PiIi = 0 .
Then P1 E So .
Proof: Suppose I1 E ideal i n S g e n e r a t e d by 12,. .. . Then

1
'
= Z RiIi
i*
f o r some R2, ... E S so that I1 = AvIl

= Z T A ~ R ~ belongs
)I~ t o the ideal i n I g e n e r a t e d by 12, ...,
i22
a contradiction. Hence I1 does not belong t o t h e i d e a l i n S
g e n e r a t e d by I*, ... .
We now prove (1)by i n d u c t i o n on d = deg P1 . If d = 0,
P1 = 0 E So . Assume d > 0 and l e t g E G be a r e f l e c t i o n i n
a hyperplane L = 0 . Then f o r each i , L ( (Pi - gPi) . Hence
C((Pi - gPi)/~)Ii= 0 , so by t h e i n d u c t i o n assumption
P1 - gP1 E So , i.e. P1 5 gP1 (mod S o ) . Since G is generated
by r e f l e c t i o n s t h i s holds f o r a l l g E G and hence
P1 AvPl (mod S o ) . But AvPl E So so P1 E So .
We choose a minimal f i n i t e b a s i s Il ,...,In for So formed
of homogeneous elements of I . Such a b a s i s e x i s t s by H i l b e r t t s
Theorem.
(2) The IiTs a r e a l g e b r a i c a l l y independent.

Proof : I f t h e Ii a r e not a l g e b r a i c a l l y independent, l e t

H(I1,. .. , I n ) = 0 be a n o n t r i v i a l r e l a t i o n with a l l monomials i n
the Iirs of t h e same minimal d e g r e e i n t h e u n d e r l y i n g c o o r d i n a t e s
xl,. - .>x& . Let Hi = H ( I 1 , . . ,In)Ii . By t h e c h o i c e of H
not a l l Hi are 0 . Choose t h e n o t a t i o n s o t h a t

[ H ~ , ...,Hm] (m < n)
b u t no s u b s e t of it g e n e r a t e s t h e i d e a l i n
m
I g e n e r a t e d by a l l t h e Hi Let H. =
J
.V
i=l j , i Hi
for
j = m + I, ...,
n where V e I and a l l terms i n t h e e q u a t i o n
j ,i
a r e homogeneous of t h e same degree. Then f o r k = 1, 2 , . ,4 ..
n
we have 0 = bH/bxk = X Hi ?di/bxk
i=i
rn n
= c H ~ ( ~ I + ~ /z ~ vxj ,i
i=l j =m+l
~ ?dj/bxk) . BY ( 1 ) q / b x k .
n
+ z V
j=m+l j , l
31 -/bxk E so
J
N u l t i p l y i n g by xk. summing over , k ,
u s i n g E u l e r t s f o r m u l a , and w r i t i n g = deg I we g e t
,

dj j
n . n
dl=l j = m"~1
d . 1 = C AiIi where Ai belongs t o t h e i d e a l
+
+l J j i=l
i n S g e n e r a t e d by t h e xk .
By homogeneity iil = 0 .. Thus Il
i s i n t h e i d e a l g e n e r a t e d by 12, ..., In , a contradiction.

( 3 ) The IiTs generate I a s an a l g e b r a .

Proof: Assume P e I i s homogeneous of p o s i t i v e degree. Then

P = C PiIi, Pi E S . By a v e r a g i n g we can assume t h a t each
Pi E I . Each Pi i s of degree l e s s t h a n t h e degree of P , SO
by i n d u c t i o n on i t s degree P i s a polynomial i n t h e I i ' s .

-
Proof: By ( 2 ) n 5 4 . By G a l o i s t h e o r y m(1) is of f i n i t e
index i n R (xl, x2,. . . ,xn) , hence h a s transcendence degree 4,

over R ,whence n - 4,
> .
 By ( 2 1 , ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) ( a ) h o l d s .

i Proof of ( b ) :
-- -
(Todd, Shephard Can. J. Math. 1954. )

Let 11, ... ,IZ be a l g e b r a i c a l l y independent g e n e r a t o r s of '

I of d e g r e e s d l d , respectively.
G
(5) n(l - t
i=l
di)-l = Av d s t ( 1
F, EG
- gt)-l , as a f o r m a l i d e n t i t y

Proof: Let cl,. .. ,E& be t h e e i g e n v a l u e s of g and xl, ...,x4

t h e corresponding eigenfunctions . Then det ( 1 - gt)-l
=
-,
I
(1 + E.t
1
+ *
Eit + ...) . The c o e f f i c i e n t of tn i s

C p1 p2
E, el> .. . j i.e. t h e t r a c e of g a c t i n g on t h e

s p a c e of homogeneous polynomials i n xl,. ..,x4 of d e g r e e n

- - ,
YlXP2
s i n c e t h e monomials xl ...
f0rm.a b a s i s f o r t h i s space. By
a v e r a g i n g we g e t t h e dimension of t h e s p a c e of i n v a r i a n t homogeneous
polynomials of d e g r e e n .
T h i s dimension i s t h e number of mono-
mials Ilp1 I2
p2
.. .
of degree n , i e , t h e number of s o l u t i o n s of ..
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of

(6) di = [ G I and Z(di - 1) = N = number of r e f l e c t i o n s

4
Proof: Wehave det(1-gt) = fi1-t) if g = 1 ,

) reflection,
a polynomial n o t d i v i s i b l e by

(1 t )
44 -1
- otherwise .
 S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s i n ( 5 ) and m u l t i p l y i n g by (1 - ' t )' we have ,
di-1
(1 + t + ... + t ) = 1~[-~ + ~ (1(1-t)/(l+ + t()1 - t 1 2 p ( t ) )
where P(t) is regular a t t = 1 . Setting t = 1 we g e t
d = G - . D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g and s e t t i n g t = 1 we g e t

( 7 ) Let G~ be t h e subgroup of G g e n e r a t e d by i t s r e f l e c -
t
tions. Then G = G and hence G i s a r e f l e c t i o n group.

Proof: Let
1
Ii, di
1
, and N
T
refer t o G
T
. The Ii
t
can be

II expressed a s polynomials i n t h e
corresponding J a c o b i a n n o t 0 .
Ii w i t h t h e determinant of t h e
Hence a f t e r a rearrangement of
the Ii, b1~/b1; # 0 for a l l i . Hence di >_ di
1
. But
C(di - 1) = N = N
1
= C(di
1
- 1) by ( 6 ) . Hence di - di
t
for a l l
i , so, a g a i n by ( 6 ) , J G I = n d i = T d i = IG
t 1
I , so G = G
1
.
...
I
I
!
C o r o l l a r y : -The degrees

and s a t i s f y t h e e q u a t i o n s ( 6 ) .
dl, d2, above a r e u n i q u e l y determined

Thus Theorem 2 4 ( b ) h o l d s .

I E x e r c i s e : For each r e f l e c t i o n i n G choose a r o o t a Then .

b(I1, 1 2 > * * * )
= T r a up t o m u l t i p l i c a t i o n by a nonzero number.
det
q, X2,*.*)

I1 ,,
Remark: The theorem remains t r u e i f
of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 0
i s r e p l a c e d by any f i e l d
and i k e f l e c t i o n h ' i s r e p l a c e d by ~automorphism

. . (I -_I
of V with f i x e d p o i n t s e t a h y p e r p l a n e i f ,
For t h e proof of Theorem 2 4 ( c ) ( d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e di)
we u s e :

- -- - - .^-__C-. . , .-. - ., *
-
 138
Proposition: Let G and t h e di be a s i n Theorem 27 and
w = w1. . .wL , t h e product of t h e s i m p l e r e f l e c t i o n s ( r e l a t i v e t o
a n o r d e r i n g of V ( s e e Appendix 1.8) ) i n any f i x e d o r d e r . Let
h be t h e o r d e r of w . Then:

(a) N = Ch/2 .
(b) w contains u = exp 2ni/h a s an eigenvalue, but not 1 .
m.
(c) If t h e e i g e n v a l u e s of w a r e iIJ 1' 1 <_mi < h 11 - -
then {mi + 11 = idi] .
Proof: T h i s was f i r s t proved by Coxeter (Duke
- . m.-J . 1951),
c a s e by c a s e , u s i n g t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t h e o r y . For a proof n o t
u s i n g t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t h e o r y s e e S t e i n b e r g , T.A.M.S. 1959, f o r
( a ) and ( b ) and Coleman, Can. J_.Math. 1958, f o r ( c ) u s i n g ( a )
and ( b ) .
T h i s c a n b e used t o determine t h e di f o r a l l t h e Chevalley

groups. As a n example we determine t h e di for P8 . Here

4 = 8, N = 120 , s o by ( a ) h = 30 . S i n c e w acts rationally
bn(( n , 30) = 1 1 a r e a l l eigenvalues. Since ' ~ ( 3 0 )= 8 =
t h e s e a r e a l l t h e eigenvalues. Hence t h e di are
1, 7 , 11, 1 3 , 17, 1 9 , 23, 29 a l l i n c r e a s e d by 1 , as listed
previously. The p r o o f s f o r G2 and Fq a r e e x a c t l y t h e same.
E6 and E7 r e q u i r e f u r t h e r argument.

Exercise : Argue f u r t h e r .

Remark: The dils a l s o e n t e r i n t o t h e following r e s u l t s , r e l a t e d

t o Theorem 2b:
(a) Let ,f. be t h e o r i g i n a l Lie algebra, k a f i e l d of charac-

teristic 0 ,G t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a d j o i n t Chevalley g r o u p . The

a l g e b r a of polynomials on i n v a r i a n t under G is generated
by 4, a l g e b r a i c a l l y independent elements of d e g r e e dl, a . . ,d4 ,
the dits a s above.
T h i s i s proved by showing t h a t under r e s t r i c t i o n from R to
% the G - i n v a r i a n t polynomials on a r e mapped i s o m o r p h i c a l l y
onto t h e W-invariant polynomials on p. The corresponding
r e s u l t f o r t h e u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p i n g a l g e b r a of then follows
easily .
(b) If G a c t s on t h e e x t e r i o r a l g e b r a on f , the a l g e b r a of
i n v a r i a n t s i s a n e x t e r i o r a l g e b r a g e n e r a t e d by 4, independent
homogeneous e l e m e n t s of d e g r e e s (2di - 11 .
/
T h i s i s more d i f f i c u l t . It i m p l i e s t h a t t h e P o i n c a r e polyno-
m i a l (whose c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e t h e B e t t i numbers) of t h e correspond-
i n g compact semisimple L i e g r o u p ( t h e group K c o n s t r u c t e d from
2di-1
(C i n 5t3) is (1 + t 1

Proof of Theorem 26: -

(Solomon, J o u r n a l of A l g e b r a , 1966.)

Let b e t h e s e t of s i m p l e r o o t s . If n C
- let W71
b e t h e subgroup g e n e r a t e d by a l l wa, a E n .
(1) If w E Wn t h e n w permutes t h e p o s i t i v e r o o t s w i t h

support not i n n .
Proof : If p is a p o s i t i v e r o o t and supp p n then
f3 = Z e,a w i t h some e, > 0, a p n . Now wp is $ plus a
aeTT
 140
vector with support i n n , hence i t s c o e f f i c i e n t of a is p o s i t i v e ,
so wp > 0 .
(2) C o r o l l .
-7
If w e Wn then N(w) i s unambiguous ( i . a .

it i s t h e same whether we c o n s i d e r w E W or w e Wn) .

(3) For n -c n define W
1
= Iw E Wlwrr> 0) . Then:
t I1
(a) Every w E W can be w r i t t e n u n i q u e l y w = w w
with w
t
E Wn
t
and w
it
E W
'It
.
(b) In (a) N(w) = N(w )
t
f N(w )
it
.
t t
Proof: (a) For any w E W let w E W'IGw be such t h a t N(w )
t t
i s minimal. Then w a >0 for a l l a e n by Appendix I I . l 9 ( a ) .
1 1 t t t tt
Hence w E Wn so that w E W& . Suppose now w = w w
i?
= u u

with w
t
, ut E :W and w
It
,u I1
E Wn . Then
t
w w u
;I 8-1
= u
1
.
Hence w w "u i'-ln > 0 . Now w
t
(IT) < 0 so
a?

w u
i7 -'n has s u p p o r t
in 'It . Hence
if
w ui7-ln C
- '~t S O by Appendix 11.23 ( a p p l i e d t o Wn)
it
wu
it-1
= l . Hence w
1
= u , w
t It
= u
i?
.
(b) f o l l o w s from ( a ) and (1).

(4) Let W(t) =

wEW
I: t N ( " )W,, ( t ) =
w EW,
X t N ( w ) Then .
C ( - l ) n ~ ( t ) /7C~( ti ) = tN , where N i s t h e number of p o s i t i v e
a
r z o t s and = (-1)l n l
(-11% .
Proof: We have, by ( 3 ) , W ( t ) / ; " J n ( t ) = C t N ( w ) T h e r e f o r e , .
weWn
t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e t e r m f o r t o t h e sum i n ( 4 ) i s c w t N ( W ) 4
where cw = C - 1 ) . If w keeps p o s i t i v e e x a c t l y k elements
C7-r
wn>o
of rr then cw= r(l
I - ilk = 0 if k f 0

T h e r e f o r e t h e o n l y c o n t r i b u t i o n i s made by wo , the element of

w which makes a l l p o s i t i v e r o o t s n e g a t i v e , s o t h e sum i n (4) is
equal t o tN a s r e q u i r e d .

Corollary: ( - W = 1

Exercise: Deduce from ( 4 ) t h a t i f a and p a r e complementary

s u b s e t s of then Z (-l)n-OL/~n(t) = E (-l)"-p/~n(t-l) .
n2 70P -
Set D = (v E VI(v, a) > 0 - for a l l a E , and f o r each
n c- TT s e t D~ = iv E VI (v, a) = o for a l l a E n, (v, 8) > o
forall $ ~ n - n ] . D
Tt
is a n o p e n f a c e o f D .

( 5 ) The f o l l o w i n g subgroups of W a r e equal:

( $ 1 Wn
(b) The s t a b i l i z e r of Dn .
(c) The p o i n t s t a b i l i z e r of Dn .
(d) The s t a b i l i z e r of any p o i n t of D, .
Proof: (a) C
- ( b ) because n is orthogonal t o Dn . (b) -
C (c)
because D . i s a fundamental domain f o r W by Appendix 111.33.
Clearly ( c ) C (d)
=- . ( d )-
C (a) by Appendix 111.32.

( 6 ) I n t h e complex c u t on r e a l k-space by a f i n i t e number

of h y p e r p l a n e s l e t ni b e t h e number of i-cells. Then
~ ( - 1 ) ~
= n(-1)
~
k .
Proof: T h i s f o l l o w s from E u l e r ' s f o r m u l a , b u t may be proved
d i r e c t l y by i n d u c t i o n . I n f a c t , i f a n e x t r a hyperplane H is
added t o t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n , each o r i g i n a l i - c e l l cut i n two by
H has corresponding t o it i n H an (i - 1)-cell separating t h e
two p a r t s from each o t h e r , s o t h a t ~ ( - 1 ) ~ remains
n ~ unchanged.

( 7 ) I n .the complex K c u t from V by t h e r e f l e c t i n g hyper-

planes l e t n,(w) (n C
- n,w E W) denote t h e number of c e l l s W-
congruent t o D, and w-fixed. Then Z (-l)"nn(w) = det w .
a--r
Proof: Each c e l l of K is W-congruent t o e x a c t l y one Dn . By
( 5 ) every c e l l f i x e d by w l i e s i n Vw(Vw = {v E Vlwv = v ] ) .
Applying ( 6 ) t o Vw and u s i n g dim D, = 4 - In1 we g e t
Z (-l)nnn(w) = (-1)
L-k , where k = dim V, . But w is orthog-
a
oiyal, s o t h a t i t s p o s s i b l e eigenvalues i n V are + 1, -1 and
p a i r s of conjugate complex numbers. Hence (-l)C-k = d e t w .
If X-is a c h a r a c t e r on W1 ,a subgroup of W , t h e n X'
denotes t h e induced c h a r a c t e r defined by ( 3 ) XW( w )
= IW1l-l X
xew
X(xwxol) . (See, e . g . , W. F e i t , Characters of -

f i n i t e -.)
-3-

( 8 ) Let X be a c h a r a c t e r on W and Xn = ( X ( W , ) ~ ( ~ , T.T )

Then Z (-l)*Kn(w) = X ( w ) det w for a l l w E M .
m
- . .
--
Proof: Assume f i r s t t h a t X 5 1 . Now xwxnl E Ifn if and only
if --l P.?
(by ( 5 ) ) which happens i f and only i f w
., . . ~es
4
flxe.9 X-'D
'7l
. Therefore 1,(w) = n,(w) by ( ) . By ( 7 ) t h i s
gives t h e r e s u l t f o r X z 1 . If X i s any c h a r a c t e r t h e n
 143
= 1 SO (8) holds.
x
7
T

( 9 ) Let M b e a f i n i t e dimensional r e a l W-module, I,(M)

A
be t h e subspace of Wn-invariants, and I(M) b e t h e s p a c e of ,

Then I: ( - l ) n d i m I n ( M ) = dim I ( M )
A
.
CT
- . .

Proof: In (8) take X t o be t h e c h a r a c t e r of M , average over

w E W , and use

(10) If p = Ta , t h e p r o d u c t of t h e p o s i t i v e r o o t s , t h e n
p i s skew and p d i v i d e s e v e r y skew polynomial on V .
Proof: We have wp
, = -p = ( d e t wa)p if a is a s i m p l e r o o t by
Appendix 1.11. S i n c e W is g e n e r a t e d by s i m p l e r e f l e c t i o n s p
is skew. If f i s skew and a a root then w,f = ( d e t w,)f = -f

so a(f . By unique f a c t o r i z a t i o n plf .

( 1 ) Let P(t) = T(l - t d i ) / ( l- t ) and f o r -
n C T let
idni] and Pn be d e f i n e d f o r Yn as [di] and P are for W .
Then I: ( - l ) % p ( t ) / ~ , ( t ) = tN .
C-TT d -1
Proof: We must show (*) I: -t
(-~)*T(I
= tNn(l- tdi)^l . Let
C n aI: Sk
S =
i
b e t h e a l g e b r a of polynomials
i k= 0
on V , graded as usual. A s i n ( 5 ) of t h e proof of Theorem 27
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t k on t h e l e f t hand s i d e of ( * ) i s
Z (-1)"dim I,(Sk) . Similarly, using (lo), the c o e f f i c i e n t of
a
tTI on t h e r i g h t hand s i d e of ( a ) i s
A
dim I ( S k ) . These a r e e q u a l
 (12) Proof of Theorem 26. We w r i t e (11)a s

(t and ( 4 ) a s

(tN - (-l)n-)/~(t)
al- =
'
P
C ( - l ) / ~ ( .t ) Then, by i n d u c t i o n on

Remark: S t e p ( 7 ) , t h e geometric s t e p , r e p r e s e n t s t h e only simpli-

f i c a t i o n of Solomon~so r i g i n a l proof.
0
slC-
Isomorphisms and automorphisms . I n t h i s s e c t i o n we d i s c u s s
t h e isomorphisms and automorphisms ,of Chevalley groups o v e r per-
fect fields. T h i s assumption of p e r f e c t n e s s i s n o t s t r i c t l y
n e c e s s a r y b u t it s i m p l i f i e s t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n one o r two p l a c e s .
We b e g i n by p r o v i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e of c e r t a i n autoinorphisms r e l a t e d
t o t h e e x i s t e n c e of symmetries of t h e u n d e r l y i n g r o o t systems.

Lemma 55: Let C b e a n a b s t r a c t indecomposable r o o t s y s t e m w i t h

n o t a l l r o o t s of one l e n g t h . Let C" - .I.

[a' = 2a/ (a ,a) a 1 E C] be

t h e a b s t r a c t s y s t e m o b t a i n e d by i n v e r s i o n . Then :
.
b

(a) c - ~ is a r o o t system.
(b) Under t h e map * l o n g r o o t s a r e mapped o n t o s h o r t r o o t s
and v i c e v e r s a . F u r t h e r , a n g l e s and s i m p l e systems of
r o o t s a r e preserved.

( 4 If P = ( a o + o ) / ( $ o , ~ o ) with a. long, Do short t h ~ n

t h e map a -> if a is long,

if a. is s h o r t ,
e x t e n d s t o a homothety.

.
.a. J,

Proof: ( a ) holds since <a",$'> =. <@,a> ( b ) and ( c ) a r e c l e a r .

The r o o t s y s t e m C* o b t a i n e d i n t h i s way from C is c a l l e d
t h e r o o t system dual t o C .
Exercise: Let a = C n1
.ai b e a r o o t e x p r e s s e d i n terms of t h e
s i m p l e ones. Prove t h a t a i s l o n g i f and o n l y i f p[ni when-
ever ai is short.

Examples : ( a ) For n >3, Bn nld Cn a r e d u a l t o each o t h e r ;

 146

B~ and F4 a r e i n d u a l i t y w i t h themselves ( w i t h p = 2) a s is

G2
(with p = 3) .
(b) Let a, B, a + j3, a + 28 be t h e p o s i t i v e r o o t s

for X of t y p e B2 . Then t h o s e f o r
.I- 4-

X q a r e a+., B", (a + p ) *
<c
=2a + $
4:
, and ( a + 28)* = 'a
.
*a

+ p* . If we i d e n t i f y d
.J-

with
f3 and $" with G we g e t a map of B2 onto i t s e l f . a -> $,

p->a,u+P->a+ZP;a+ig->a+g . T h i s i s t h e map
given by r e f l e c t i n g i n t h e l i n e L i n t h e diagram below (L is
t h e b i s e c t o r of <(a,$) ) and a d j u s t i n g l e n g t h s .

Theorem 26: Let E , E" and p b e as above, k a f i e l d of char-

acteristic p (p is e i t h e r 2 or 3 ) , G , G* u n i v e r s a l Chevalley
groups c o n s t m c t e d from (C ,k) and (x", k ) r e s p e c t i v e l y . Then

pl(cati
JI

there exists a hoinomorphism 9 of G into G' and s i g n s

c
for a l l a E Z such t h a t Y!xa(t)) = if a is long,
xa*( cat ) if a is short.

If k is p e r f e c t then Y i s a n isomorphism of a b s t r a c t groups.

Examples : (a) If k is p e r f e c t of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 2 then

'pin2n+lt ''2n+l ( s p l i t f o r m s ) , and Sp2n a r e isomorphic.

 147
(b) Consider C2, p = 2, E
CI,
= 1 . The theorem a s s e r t s

1 t h a t on U we have a n endomorphism ( a s b e f o r e we i d e n t i f y . C
and C*) such t h a t 2
(1) V ( x a ( t ) ) = x p ( t ) , V ( x p ( t ) ) = xa(t ) ,
2
9 ( x a + p ( t ) ) ' xa+z8( t ) q ( ~ ~ The
~( t ~) )= +~ ~~ + .
( t o n) l y non-
t r i v i a l r e l a t i o n of t y p e (B) on U is (2) (xa(t), xg(u))

= (tu2) by Lemma 33. Applying CP t o (2) gives

This i s v a l i d , s i n c e it can b e o b t a i n e d from ( 2 ) by t a k i n g i n v e r s e s

2
and r e p l a c i n g t by u , u by t .
I (c) The map CP i n (b) is o u t e r , f o r i f we r e p r e s e n t
1 G as Sp
4 andif t+O,*,(t)-lhas rank1 while
-1 .
tI xg(t) has

(d)
rank 2

If i n ( b ) ( k l = 2 , CP l e a d s t o an o u t e r automor-

I:-;li!]
1 phism of S6 since, i n f a c t , S p 4 ( 2 ) 'X S6 . To s e e t h i s r e p r e s e n t
I . T h i s f i x e s a b i l i n e a r form
a s t h e Weyl group of t y p e
S6 A5
- 1 0 0 0
with matrix

-1 -
T h i s is s o b e c a u s e , up t o mul-
r e l a t i v e t o a b a s i s of s i m p l e r o o t s .

lI t i p l i c a t i o n by a s c a l a r , t h e form is j u s t C x . x . ( a . , a . ) = I X xiail
Reduce mod 2 .
The l i n e t h r o u g h al + a + a
1 3 1 J
becomes i n v a r i a n t
3
2

5
.

i and t h e form becomes skew and nondegenerate on t h e q u o t i e n t s p a c e .

Hence we have a homomorphism y : S6 -> sp4(2) . 1t i s e a s i l y
 148

seen t h a t ksr f/ so ker Y/ = 1 . Since IS61 = 6! = 720

= 24(22 - l ) ( z 4 - 1) = [ s p 4 ( 2 )1 , i s a n isomorphism.

-' may be d e s c r i b e d a s f o l l o w s . sp;(2) a c t s on t h e

underlying projective space p3 which c o n t a i n s 1 5 p o i n t s . Given

1 a point p t h e r e a r e 8 points not orthogonal t o p . These s p l i t

i n t o two f o u r p o i n t s e t s S1, S2 such t h a t each of { p ] y S1
and {p] U S2 c o n s i s t s of mutually nonorthogonal p o i n t s and t h e s e
a r e t h e only f i v e element s e t s c o n t a i n i n g p with t h i s property.
I
There a r e 15=2/5 = 6 such 5 element s e t s . Spq(2) acts faith-
f u l l y by p e r m u t a t i o n on t h e s e 6 s e t s , s o Sp4(2) -> S6 i s de-
1
I

fined. Under t h e o u t e r automorphism t h e s t a b i l i z e r s of p o i n t s

and l i n e s a r e i n t e r c h a n g e d . Each of t h e above f i v e p o i n t s e t s
corresponds t o a s e t of f i v e m u t u a l l y skew i s o t r o p i c l i n e s .

Proof of Theorem 26: If p = 2 each E, = 1 . We must show

that a s d e f i n e d on t h e x,(t) by t h e g i v e n e q u a t i o n s p r e s e r v e s
(A), (B), and (C) . Here (A) and (C) f o l l o w a t once. The
nontrivial relations i n (B) are:

i f u , B a r e s h o r t , o r t h o g o n a l , and a+p rZ ,
if [cLI>IBI a n d <(a,B) = 135' .
I (The l a s t e q u a t i o n f o l l o w s from Lemma 3 3 .
hand s i d e i s of t h e form ~ , + ~ ( N , , ~ t u. )) If
In the others the r i g h t
p = 2 t h e second
e q u a t i o n can b e o m i t t e d and t h e r e a r e no a m b i g u i t i e s i n s i g n .
Becuase of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n Example ( b ) above CP preserves
I these relations. Thus cp extends t o a homomorphismm
There remains only t h e case G2, p = 3 . The proof i n t h a t
case depends on a sequence of lemmas.

Lemma 5 6 : Let G be a Chevalley group. Let a , f3 be d i s t i n c t

simple r o o t s , n t h e order of w w
B
in W , so that
\

W W W 0 . . = W W W
p a p * " ( n f a c t o r s on each s i d e ) i n W .
Then: ( a ) wa(l)wB(l)wa(l) ... = w B ( l ) w a ( l ) w p ( l ) ... (n factors
on each s i d e ) in G ,

(b) Both s i d e s map X, to - (where w = w w

a B
...) .
Proof:
1
We may assume G is universal. For s i m p l i c i t y of n o t a t i o n
we assume n = 3 . Consider x = wa(l)wg(l)wa(l)wg(-l)wa(-l)wg(-1) .
Let Ga = <yayX-a> . Then t h e product of t h e f i r s t f i v e f a c t o r s
of x is i n w,(l)w ( 1 ) G w (-l)w,(-1) = G w w a = GB and hence
8 a B a 0
x e G
8
Similarly x E G , .
By t h e uniquenkss i n Theorem 4' ,
x E H . By t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y of G, x = 1 . Let
y = w,(l)wg(l)wa(l) . Then yX, = C X - ~ where - .
c = +1 Since
[X, ,X,] = Ha i s p r e s e r v e d by y , yX-, = cXP (same c a s above).
Exponentiating and u s i n g w,(l) = x a ( l ) x-a ( - l ) x a ( l ) we o b t a i n

c = -1 , proving (b) .
Lemma 57: If a, b a r e elements of a n a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a over
a f i e l d of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 0 , if both commute with [a,b] and
if exp makes s e n s e t h e n exp(a + b ) = exp a exp b exp(-[a,b]/2) .
Proof: Consider f ( t ) = e x p ( - ( a + b ) t ) e x p a t exp b t e ~ ( - [ a , b l 2t /2) 1
 a formal power s e r i e s i n t . D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g we g e t
F
f (t)

= (-(a+b) + a - [b,a]t + b - [a,b]t)f(t) = 0 . Hence f(t)

= f(0) = 1 .
Now assume G i s a Chevalley group of t y p e G2 over a f i e l d
of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 0 , and t h a t t h e corresponding r o o t system is
a s shown.

(1) Let y = wa(l)w (1) be an element of G corresponding

$
to w = w w
a F3
( r o t a t i o n through 60' (clockwise) ) . Then t h e
Chevalley b a s i s of % can be a d j u s t e d by s i g n changes s o t h a t
yxx = -x WY for a l l .
Proof: Let yX
Y
= cbXwb, c X = -
+1 . Then ( * ) c Y = c- 8 ' and
(*u) c c c 2 = -1 . (by Lemma 5 6 ( h ) ' . Adjust t h e s i g n s of Xm
bwkw
and Xw2, so that - C~~~
cL -. - -1 , and a d j u s t t h e s i g n s of X -> 1;
:a

and XeW2, i n t h e same way. It is c l e a r from ( " ) and ( a * ) t h a t

= -1 f o r a l l i n the w-orbit through a . S i m i l a r l y we
may make
C4
= -1 f o r a l l b/ i n t h e w-orbit through $ .
I
(2) (a) I n (1)we have Nwzywg = -Nk,6 for a l l I f , 6 .
 (b) We may a r r a n g e s o t h a t N = 1 and N = 2 .
a ,B a+B, B
It t h e n f o l l o w s t h a t N
Q ,a+2@-- ,a+2@
= 3 and
= l .
N","+3~
Proof: ( a ) f o l l o w s from a p p l y i n g y . to [Xg,X61 and u s i n g (1).
I n t h e proof of ( b ) we u s e (:K) i f y, 6 a r e r o o t s and
{ + is( - r < i < q] is t h e ' 6-string through Y, t h e n

N ~ 6,
= -+ ( r+ 1) , and N
6
XJ
N '& ,-6 have t h e same s i g n
and 6+
( f o r t h e i r product is .
q ( r + 1 ) ) By changing t h e s i g n s of a l l
w-orbit we can p r e s e r v e t h e c o n c l u s i o n of (1)
Xr f o r in a
and a r r a n g e t h a t
N ~ , =8 '3 Na+B,B
= 2 . By ( a ) and ( * ) we have

N~,a+-
-
p jN-a-8, 2a+3p = - 3 ~ 8 , ~
2 ~N a + p , ~ + 2 =
= 3 . Now

C x ~ C X ~ +X2@ 11
B y= ,CxaJx811 , s o that N a+2P , ~ ~ a , a + 3 ~
- Hence
N = N = l .
- 'alBN u+2p,a+g a,a+3P a9P
(3) 1f (1)and ( 2 ) h o l d t h e n :

( a ] (x,(t) , x $ ( u ) ) = xa+B(tu)xa+3p ( - t u 3 ) x ~ + ~ $ ( - ' 2u )x2a+3s( t 2 U 3 ) .

2
( b ) ( ~ ~ + ,~x B ( (tu ))) = xa+2B(2tu)xa+3B(-3tu lX2a+38( 3 t 2 u )

Proof: (a) By ( 2 ) x (u)X,

8
= ( e x p ad uX )Xu = Xa
8
- uXa+P
2 3
+ 'a+2p + . P I u l t i p l y i n g by -t
and e x p o n e n t i a t i n g we
2
x ( u ) x , ( - t ) x (-u) = exp(-tXa-tu 3 Xa+3B
I

get B B -tu 1
) e x ~ ( t u X ~ + ~ XM2$
1 = 3
) x ~ + ~ ~ )x2a+3p(-t2u3/2)xa+B(tu)xa+2B(-tu
( " ~ u 2 )x2a+38( 3 t 2 u 3 / 2 ) 2

1 by Lemma 57, which y i e l d s ( a ) . The proof of ( b ) i s s i m i l a r . In

 (c) - (e)t h e tern on Che wight hand a* ecz;E?.~pon&to #e wh
r o o t of t h e form i y + j6 . The c o e f f i c i e n t i s N
Y,
. We have
t a k e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of working o u t a l l of t h e n o n t r i v i a l r e l a -
t i o n s of U exp1,icitly. However, we w i l l only u s e them i n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 3 when t h e y s i m p l i f y c o n s i d e r a b l y .
(4) ( a ) There e x i s t s an automorphism 8 of G such t h a t
if w i s r o t a t i o n through 60' then 6xy(t) = sT
(-t) for a l l
Y & C , t E k .
(b) If c h a r a c t e r i s t i c k = 3 , then t h e r e exists an
endomorphism CP of G such t h a t i f r i s t h e p e r m u t a t i o n of
t h e r o o t s g i v e n by r o t a t i o n through 30' then
-
yxa(t) = I s y ( - t ) if is long,
lxr,(t3) if is s h o r t .

Proof : fa'] Take 8 ta be the imer aut;omorphism by the element

Y of (1).
(b)
The r e l a t i o n s ( A ) and (C) a r e c l e a r l y preserved.
Now on t h e g e n e r a t o r s CP 2 = f3 0 y/ , where 3
\t/i xa(t) -> x,(t ) ,
hence CP2 extends t o an endomorphism of G . This i m p l i e s t h a t
i n verifying t h a t the relations (B) a r e p r e s e r v e d by cp it
s u f f i c e s t o show t h i s f o r one p a i r of r o o t s (F,6) with <(X,6) =

each of t h e a n g l e s 30°, 60°, 90°, 120°, 150'. For i f R(Y,6)

i j
is t h e r e l a t i o n ( x $ t ) , x 6 ( u )) = ~ ~ ~ +u )~ , if
~ ( c ~ ~ t
<(x 1 1
,6 ) = <()f,6) , and if CP preserves R(X,6) then CP pre-
serves R($ , 6 )
1
. To show t h i s it is enough t o show t h a t CP

I preserves R(ry,r6) . If CP does n o t p r e s e r v e R(rx,r6) then

 153

p2 does n o t p r e s e r v e R(y,6) ,a c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n c e CP2 = 0 o

I extends t o a n endomorphism.
p a i r s of r o o t s (y,6) w i t h
It remains t o v e r i f y ROf,6)
< ( y , 6 ) = 30°, 60°, 90°, 120°, 1 5 0 ~ .
for

For < ( ~ , 6 )= 30°, 60°, 90' we t a k e x= a, 6 = a + 8 , 2 a + 3f3,

a + 2p respectively. Here we have commutativity b o t h b e f o r e and
a f t e r applying 9 ( s i n c e ( e ) becomes t r i v i a l s i n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
k = 3) . For < ( x , 6 ) = 120' take (~,6=
) (a, a + 3B) . Then
9 converts ( c ) t o - t u )i s ( b ) ,
( x a + @ ( - t ) , x g ( - u ) ) = ~ ~ + ~ ~ ( which
a valid relation. For <()(,6) = 150' we t a k e (x,6) = (a,$)

I1 We compare t h e c o n s t a n t s
relativeto
Nx,6 f o r t h e p o s i t i v e r o o t system
(a,p) a n d t h e p o s i t ~ i v e r o o t s y s t e m r e l a t i v e t o
(-a,a + $ ) . Corresponding t o
Na,$
= 1 we have N
-a ,u+f3 = 1
a n d corresponding t o
Na+s, B
= 2 we have
N~ ,a+@
= -2 By .
changing t h e s i g n of f o r a l l short roots we r e t u r n t o
X~
I
the original situation. Since wa maps t h e f i r s t system o n t o

I
t h e second, if is s h o r t ,

e x t e n d s t o a n automorphism of G , and s o t o prove t h a t CP pre-

serves R(r,6) it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o prove t h a t o 9 does, i . e .
7
k11:(t3)
r

t h a t ( a ) i s p r e s e r v e d by xx(t) -> (t) if is long,

if is short.

(Note t h a t war is t h e r e f l e c t i o n i n t h e l i n e bisecting <(a,p)) ,

I I.e., t h a t t h e following equations a r e consistent:

 154
t
( a ) f o l l o w s from ( a ) by r e p l a c i n g t by u3, u by t , and
taking inverses. T h i s proves (4) .
We now complete t h e proof of Theorem 28. The o n l y remaining
c a s e of t h e f i r s t s t a t e m e n t i s G of t y p e G2, p = 3 . If
\b

G = G q t h i s f o l l o w s from ( 4 ) above. I n f a c t , whether G = G*

o r not is immaterial because ( ) a u n i v e r s a l Chevalley group

i s d e t e r m i n e d by C and k i n d e p e n d e n t l y of % o r t h e Chevalley
b a s i s of . ( ) f o l l o w s from Theorem 2 9 below.
Assume now t h a t k is perfect. Then CP maps one s e t of
g e n e r a t o r s one t o one o n t o t h e o t h e r s o t h a t CPel e x i s t s on t h e
generators. Since CP preserves ( A ) , (B) , and (C) s o does
rp-I . Hence e x i s t s on G'
.I<

, i.e. V i s a n isomorphism.

Remark: If k i s n o t p e r f e c t , and rp : G -> G , then TG is

t h e subgroup of G i n which a i s p a r a m a t e r i z e d by k if a
i s l o n g , by kP if e is s h o r t . Here kP can b e r e p l a c e d by
any f i e l d between kp and k t o y i e l d a r a t h e r weird simple
group.
t
Theorem 29: Let G and G be Chevalley g r o u p s c o n s t r u c t e d
from (L, = {Xa,Ha[a E X ] , L, k) and
( L ~ ,t = [X,' 'Ha' la
1
E
7
X ], L
t
, k) , respectively. Assume
t
t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s an isomorphism of X onto X taking
t 1
a -> a such t h a t L maps o n t o L Then t h e r e e x i s t s an
t
isomorphism CP : G -> G and s i g n s &,(a E X) such t h a t
rpxa(t) = x a t ( c a t ) for a l l a E Z, t E k . Furthermore we may

take ea = +1 i f a or -a is s i m p l e .
 155
Proof: By t h e u n i q u e n e s s theorem f o r L i e a l g e b r a s w i t h a g i v e n
r o o t s y s t e m t h e r e e x i s t s an isomorphism : f ----> J' S U C ~

that Y/xa = YH, = Ha' with ~ ~ s base f i e l d f o r %

(of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 0) and ea = 1 i f a or -a i s simple.
( F o r t h i s s e e , e .g. J a c o b s o n , L i e Algebras . ) - By Theorem 1,

Na,~
=
-+ ( r + 1) = Nut , p r By i n d u c t i o n on h e i g h t s e v e r y

.r
€a - be a f a i t h f u l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of R' used t o
= Let
construct G' Then g o \1/ i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of L which
can be used t o c o n s t r u c t G . Then xa(t) = x C . l ( & & ( t ),) S O t h a t
'? = i d . meets our r e q u i r e m e n t s .

Remarks: (a) Suppose k i s i n f i n i t e and we t r y t o prove T'heorem

28 w i t h t? r e p l a c e d by t . Then we must f a i l . For t h e n t h e

.!.
t r a n s p o s e of
.
v / ii , m a p p i n g c h a r a c t e r s on H". t o t h o s e on H ,
.*I

'maps ' onto t: i n t h e i n v e r s i o n a l manner of Lemma 55, hence

can n o t be a homomorphism. This explains t h e r e l a t i v e treatment
of l o n g and s h o r t r o o t s .
(b) If k i s a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d and we view G and
-81

G-'. a s a l g e b r a i c groups t h e n 'P i s a homomorphism of a l g e b r a i c

groups and a n isomorphism of a b s t r a c t g r o u p s , b u t n o t a n isomor-
phism of a l g e b r a i c groups ( f o r t a k i n g pth r o o t s (which i s nec-

e s s a r y f o r t h e i n v e r s e map) i s n o t a r a t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n ) .

(c) For t y p e G2 , characteristic k = 3 (a similar

r e s u l t holds f o r C2 and Fq , characteristic k = 2) , in zk

t h e r e i s a n endomorphism such t h a t
.P : Xa -> {-xra if a is long

7-dimensional i d e a l spanned by a l l X and H Cor short.

3-
This l e a d s t o a n a l t e r n a t e proof of t h e e x i s t e n c e of V .
Corollary: (a) Let C be a n indecomposable r o o t s y s t e m , CT

a n a n g l e p r e s e r v i n g permutation of t h e s i m p l e r o o t s , crf 1 .
If a l l r o o t s a r e e q u a l i n l e n g t h t h e n r extends t o a n automor-
phism o f C . If n o t , and i f p i s d e f i n e d a s above, t h e n cr
must i n t e r c h a n g e l o n g and s h o r t r o o t s and s e x t e n d s t o a per-
mutation cr of a l l r o o t s which a l s o i n t e r c h a n g e s l o n g and s h o r t
r o o t s and is s u c h t h a t t h e map a -> ra if a is long,

a -> p r a if a i s s h o r t i s a n isomorphism of r o o t systems.

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r cr a r e :

( i ) . 1root length:

An(n>2):
L
0-0 ... 0-0
L

0-0- b o o
-'
(ii) 2 r o o t l e n g t h s , 6"= 1 i n a l l cases.
 (b) Let k be a f i e l d and G a Chevalley group con-
s t r u c t e d from (C ,k) . Let a be a s i n ( a ) . If two r o o t l e n g t h s
occur assume k is p e r f e c t of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p . If G -is of

type DZn , and cha,racteristic k f 2 , assume 6L= L . Then

t h e r e e x i s t s an e;?.5cmorphism 9 of G and s i g n s E, = 1
if a or 4 i s s i m p l e ) such t h a t

yxa(t) = bc(I(~at) if a i s l o n g o r a l l r o o t s a r e of one l e n g t h ,

( t p ) if a is short.

Proof: ( a ) is c l e a r . ( b ) If G i s u n i v e r s a l t h e e x i s t e n c e of
PP f o l l o w s from Theorems 28 and 29. If G is not universal l e t
t
n: G -> G be t h e u n i v e r s a l covering. To show t h a t . rp can
be dropped from GI to G it i s n e c e s s a r y t o show t h a t
PP ker n C
- ker n . Now ker n C - center G' and u n l e s s G is of
?
type D2n with c h a r a c t e r i s t i c k 9 2 t h e c e n t e r of G is
cyclic, s o t h e r e s u l t follows. Now suppose G i s of t y p e D2,
and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c k +2. If C
1
= c e n t e r of , then C
G
t ?

i s c a n o n i c a l l y isomorphic t o H ~ ~ ( L / L =~ (, L ~ / L ~ ) ', g i v i n g
~k*)
?
a correspondence between subgroups C of C and l a t t i c e s L
between Lo and L1 sucn t h a t YC C C i f and only i f -L
r LC .
Since ker n corresponds t o r L = L L and
t h e r e s u l t follows. ,
that
Remark: The preceeding a - ~ ~ r n e nsth o w d f o r DZn i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
k f 2 a n autcmo~phi.smof G fixing H and permuting t h e
,'s according t o cr can e x i s t only if r L = L .
*
Remark: Automorphisms of G of t h i s t y p e a s well a s t h e i d e n t i t y
a r e c a l l e d graph --
automorphisms. -
Exercise: (a) Prove cp above i s o u t e r .
(b) By imbedding A2 in G2 a s t h e subgroup g e n e r a t e d
by a l l X , such that a i s l o n g , show t h a t i t s graph automor-
phisms can be r e a l i z e d by i n n e r automrphisrns of
G2 . Similarly
for D4 i n F4, Dn in Bn , and E6 in E7 .
Lemma 58: Let G b e a Chevalley group over k , fa E k" for a l l
simple a . Let f be extended t o a homomorphism of Lo into
k* . Then t h e r e e x i s t s a unique automorphism V of G such
that r~x,(t) = x,(fat) for all a E Z .
Proof: Consider t h e r e l a t i o n s ( B ) , ( x a ( t } , xg(u))
i j
= IT xia+ja( c i j t u ) .
Applying P we g e t t h e same t h i n g w i t h
t r e p l a c e d by f a t , u r e p l a c e d by f u ( f o r fia+jp = fi fj ) .
$ a $
The r e l a t i o n s (A) and (C) a r e c l e a r l y preserved. The unique-
ness is clear.

Remark: Automorphisms of t h i s t y p e a r e c a l l e d dia,gonal automor-

phisms .
Exercise: Prove t h a t every diagonal automorphism of G can be
r e a l i z e d by c o n j u g a t i o n of G in G(F) by an element i n H(E) .
Example : Conjugate SLn by a diagonal element of GLn .
If G is r e a l i z e d a s a group of m a t r i c e s and i s an
automorphism of k t h e n t h e map g : x,(t) ---> x,(t 2' ) on gen-
e r a t o r s extends t o a n automorphism of G . Such an automorphism
i s c a l l e d a f i e l d automorphism.

Theorem 30: Let G b e a Chevalley group such t h a t C is

 .
..<
,...
I..

indecomposable and k is perfect. Then any automorphism of G

can be expressed a s t h e product of an i n n e r , a d i a g o n a l , a graph
and a f i e l d automorphism.

Proof: Let 6 be any automorphism of G .

(1) The automorphism T can be normalized by m u l t i p l i c a t i o n
by an i n n e r automorphism s o t h a t crU = U , CT U- . If this
= U-
is done t h e n cr H = H and t h e r e e x i s t s a permutation g of t h e
simple r o o t s such t h a t r a= xya and cr z-, = )( for
a l l simple u .
Proof: If k is f i n i t e , U is a p-Sylow subgroup ( p = char-
acteristic k) by t h e c o r o l l a r y of Theorem 25, s o by Sylowfs
Theorem we can normalize c r ' b y an i n n e r automorphism s o t h a t
crU = U . If k i s i n f i n i t e t h e proof of t h e corresponding
statement i s more d i f f i c u l t and w i l l be given a t t h e end of t h e
proof (steps (5) - (12)). For now we assume o U = U .
U- i s conjugate t o U , s o cr Urn = UWUWU-l f o r s ome
w E W, u E U . Since U- 0 u = 1, U W U W U - ' ~ ~ U = 1 and hence
wuw-ln U = 1 . Thus w = w0 SO 6 ~=-UU u
-- --1. Normalizing
-1
r by t h e i n n e r automorphism corresponding t o u we g e t
<U = U , o-U- = U- . Now B = UH = normalizer of U , B- = U-H =

normalizer of U- . Hence < f i x e s B f\ B- = H . Also r

permutes t h e (B ,B) double c o s e t s . Now B U BwB ( 0f 1) i s a
group i f and only i f w = wa, a simple. Therefore 6 permutes

t h e s e groups. Now ( B u BwaB) T\ U- = . Since f o r B LJ BwaB

= BW'; u Bw,Bwa -1 = BW' : B# -a y and "
 160

BAU-= 1, B X - , ~ U - = X-a , wa must show Bwa-1 n ,-- i s empty.

Thus it s u f f i c e s t o show BWZ'W~ TI u-wo = Bw,-1wo 0 woU i s empty.
T h i s h o l d s by Theorem 4. Therefore t h e ,Ts ,a simple, a r e
permuted by o- a n d s i m i l a r l y f o r t h e ,Ts . The p e r m u t a t i o n
i n b o t h c a s e s i s t h e same s i n c e % a and X-B commute (a, B
s i m p l e ) i f and o n l y i f a +B.
I (2) The automorphism cr can b e f u r t h e r n o r m a l i z e d by a
d i a g o n a l automorphism s o t h a t o-xa(l) = x (1) f o r a l l s i m p l e
u . It i s t h e n t r u e t h a t o - x - ~ ( ~=) x
Pa
(1) and o-wa(l)
- (1) . Further
7'"
- ?a J preserves angles.
I n t h e proof of ( 2 ) we u s e :

Lemma 59: Let a be a r o o t , t E kZc, u E k . Then

-1
xa(t)x-,(u)xa(t) = Xma ( u ) x , ( t ) ~ _ ~ ( u i) f a n d o n l y i f u = -t ,
i n which c a s e b o t h s i d e s e q u a l w,(t) .
, where
I Proof:

Proof of ( 2 ) :
It s u f f i c e s t o v e r i f y t h i s i n

We can a c h i e v e cxa(l)
SL2

= x
it i s immediate.

(1) f o r a l l s i m p l e
roots a by a d i a g o n a l automorphism.
f"
By Lemma 59 w i t h t = 1
0-x -a (-1) = x (-1) and hence o-wa(l) = w (1) . Suppose a
and $ are
7"
simple roots. Then <(a,p) = n
,Pa,
- / whe~e n =
I orderof w w
a B
in W = orderof wa(l)w(l)modH= orderof
B
o-(w,(l)wg(l)) mod H = o r d e r of in W . Hence <(a,P)

= <(
Pa('3v)B ) o-. can b e f u r t h e r normalized by a g r a p h automorphism
so that
' f = l *
 Proof: By t h e C o r o l l a r y t o Theorem 2g a graph au-tomorphism e x i s t s

corresponding t o Z is of t y p e
t' provided t h a t p = 2 if C2

or F4 , or p = 3 if I: i s of t y p e G2 , or g L = L if z
i s of t y p e D2n and char k f 2 , in t h e notation there. Suppose
C i s of t y p e C2 or F4 and f 1 . Then t h e r e e x i s t simple
roots a and p, a l o n g , j3 s h o r t , such t h a t (Y. + B and
a + 28 are roots, ga = 8, gB = a , and w a ( l ) Xpwa(-l) =
a+B .
Applying O- we get c X a + 2 ~= 7 = Xa+ZB ' Since

xa a n d v a + 2 8 commute s o do and xB Xacg . Hence

o=N,+B,B = +2 - .
Hence c h a r a c t e r i s t i c k = 2 s o t h e required
graph automorphism e x i s t s . S i m i l a r l y it e x i s t s if C is of
type G2 . F i n a l l y , if I: is of t y p e D2n , characteristic
k f 2 ,and i s extended i n t h e obvious way, t h e n g L L by
P
t h e remark a f t e r C o r o l l a r y ( b ) t o Theorem 28, s o t h a t t h e graph
=

automorphism e x i s t s by t h e c o r o l l a r y i t s e l f .

(4) 6 can now b e normalized by a f i e l d automorphism s o

that cr = 1 (i.e. if o- s a t i s f i e s o-U = U, CU-= U-,
bxa(l) = x a ( l ) f o r a l l simple r o o t s a then 6 is a f i e l d

automorphism.) .
Proof : F i x a s i m p l e r o o t a and d e f i n e f : k -> k by
' o-xa(t) = xa(f(t)) We w i l l show t h a t f i s an autornorphism
1 of k . We have f a d d i t i v e , onto, f (1)= 1 and by Lemma 59
I rw,(t) = wa(f(t)) . Therefore 6h,(t) = ha(f(t)) . Since t h e
k e r n e l o f t h e map t -> h,(t) is c o n t a i n e d i n [;tl) and
h,(t) is m u l t i p l i c a t i v e , f i s m u l t i p l i c a t i v e up t o s i g n .
Assume f(tu) = af(t)f(u) (where a = a ( t , u ) = +l and t, u + 0).
We must show a = 1 . Then af ( t ) f ( u ) + f ( u ) = f (tu) + f (u)

= f ( ( t + 1)u) = bf(t + l)f(u) (where b = b ( t + 1,u) = -+1)

= b ( f ( t ) + 1 ) f( u ) = b f ( t ) f ( u ) + b f ( u ) . Hence (b - a)f ( t )
= 1 -b . Thus if a = b, t h e n a = b = 1 . If a f- b , then
b $ 1 so that a = 1 again. Hence f is an automorphism.
Let $ be a n o t h e r simple r o o t connected t o a i n t h e Dynkin
diagram (8 if one e x i s t s ) . Let g be t h e automorphism of k
corresponding t o $ . Then r fixes xa+p. Consider
( x a ( t ) , xe(u) ) = X ~ + ~ ( L ~ U ) . .. (+ or - i s independent of t ,u) .
Applying T, f i r s t with u = 1 t h e n with t = 1, u r e p l a c e d by
t we g e t

6 ( x a ( t ) , ~ ~ ( =1 ()x u)( f ( t ) ) ,x p ( l ) ) = x a + $ ( + f ( t ) ) " -

6 ( x a ( 1 ) , x B ( t ) ) = ( ~ ~ (x 1 B ()g ()t ) ) = x
a+B
( + ~ ( t ) ) * I-n*e i t h e r .
case t h e Ya+$ term on t h e r i g h t i s ~ x , + ~) . Hence
(tt
f ( t )= g ( t )
Since C i s indecomposable t h e r e is a s i n g l e automorphism
f of k so that 6xa(t) = xa(f(t)) f o r a l l simple a .
Applying t h e f i e l d automorphism f-l to G w e g e t t h e normal-
ization f = 1, i.e. f i x e s every xa(t), wG(t) for a
simple. These elements g e n e r a t e G so 6= 1 .
We now assume k i s i n f i n i t e and consider t h e normalization
r U = U of (1) .
( 5 ) Assume t h a t k is i n f i n i t e , t h a t A and M a r e its
a d d i t i v e and m u l t i p l i c a t i v e groups, t h a t A. and Mo are infinite
,
I ,
subgroups such t h a t
group. If C H0
MoAo m
A/Ao
then
i s f i n i t e and
A. = A .
M/Mo is a torsion

Proof: Let F be t h e a d d i t i v e group g e n e r a t e d by Mo . Then , F

i s a f i e l d f o r it i s c l o s e d under m u l t i p l i c a t i o n and a d d i t i o n and
if f E F, f $ 0 then f-' E F f o r some r >0 so f-l
- fr-lf-r E F . Now f o r a E A, a + 0, Fa r ) A. is nontrivial
since Fa is i n f i n i t e and A/Ao is f i n i t e . Thus fa E A. for
some f $ 0 . Hence a E FAo C
- Uo .
( 6 ) If B, U are as usual, k is i n f i n i t e and Bo is a
subgroup of f i n i t e i n d e x i n B , t h e n DBo = U .
Proof: Fix u and i d e n t i f y x, with A ( t h e a d d i t i v e subgroup
of k) and x,fl Bo with A. i n (5). Set Mo
= {t21h,(t) E ha " Bo] . Now (4) h,(t)x,(u)h,(t)-l = x,(t
2
U)

so M 0A0 C A, . Mo is i n f i n i t e and M / M ~ i s t o r s i o n s o by ( 5 )
x a ~ ~itcr,o ,
= i.e. ya c Bo . BY (*) D B ~ >- x a . ~hus
B B 2~U . Since B,/U is abelian B B C~U .
( 7 ) If A is a connected s o l v a b l e a l g e b r a i c group t h e n
A is a connected u n i p o t e n t group.
T h i s f o l l o w s from:

Theorem ( L i e - - K o l c h i n L Every connected s o l v a b l e a l g e b r a i c group

A i s r e d u c i b l e t o s u p e r d i a g o n a l form.

P r o o f : 'We u s e i n d u c t i o n on t h e dimension of t h e u n d e r l y i n g space

V and t h u s need only t o f i n d a common e i g e n v e c t o r and may assume
V is i r r e d u c i b l e . Let A1 = PA . By i n d u c t i o n on t h e l e n g t h
of t h e d e r i v e d s e r i e s of A there exists v E V, v $ 0 such

that xlv = X ( % ) v for a l l rl E A1, X a r a t i o n a l character

on A1 . Let VX be t h e space of a l l such v . A normalizes
A1 and hence permutes t h e
V~
, which a r e f i n i t e i n number.
Since A i s connected t h i s i s t h e i d e n t i ~ ypermutation. Since
V is i r r e d u c i b l e t h e r e i s only one
vx and it i s a l l of V ,
i.e., A1 a c t s by s c a l a r s . Since A1 = DA each element of A1
has determinant 1 s o t h e r e a r e only f i n i t e l y many s c a l a r s .
Since A1 i s connected a l l s c a l a r s a r e 1 , that is A1 acts
trivially. Thus A / / A ~ i s a b e l i a n and a c t s on V1 and hence has
a common e i g e n v e c t o r .
An a l g e b r a i c v a r i e t y i s complete i f whenever it is imbedded
densely i n a n o t h e r v a r i e t y it i s t h e e n t i r e v a r i e t y . ( F o r a more
exact d e f i n i t i o n s e e Mumford, Algebraic Geometry) .
Examples: The a f f i n e l i n e i s not complete. It can be imbedded
i n the projective l i n e . The f o l l o w i n g a r e complete :
(a) A l l projective spaces.
(b) A l l f l a g spaces.
(c) \ where
-G i s a connected l i n e a r a l g e b r a i c group
and B i s a maximal connected s o l v a b l e subgroup.
/
(See Seminaire Chevalley, Exp 5 - 10.)
We now s t a t e , without p r o o f , two r e s u l t s about connected
a l g e b r a i c groups a c t i n g on complete v a r i e t i e s .

( 8 ) B o r e l l s Theorem: A connected s o l v a b l e a l g e b r a i c group

a c t i n g on a complete v a r i e t y f i x e s some p o i n t . This i s a n e x t e n s i o n
 165
of t h e Lie-Kolchin theorem, which may be r e s t a t e d : every connected
s o l v a b l e a l g e b r a i c group f i x e s some f l a g on t h e u n d e r l y i n g space.
We need a refinement of a s p e c i a l c a s e of it.

Theorem:
P
( R o s s n l i c h t , A n n a l i , 1957. ) If 4 i s a connected

u n i p o t e n t group acking on a complete v a r i e t y V , if e v e r y t h i n g

is d e f i n e d over a p e r f e c t f i e l d k , and if V contains a point

over k , then it c o n t a i n s one f i x e d by A .
Notation: Let G b e a Chevalley group over an i n f i n i t e f i e l d
k, t h e a l g e b r a i c c l o s u r e of k, g, B c o n s t r u c t e d over IT ,
and Ck t h e s e t of elements i n whose c o o r d i n a t e s l i e i n k .
( 9 ) The map G k ->
- (8\€) i s onto.

Proof; Assume
-Bx i s d e f i n e d over k , x = wu a s i n Theorem 4
t
.
We can t a k e w a pr8duct of wa(l) 7s d e f i n e d over k . There-
fore u i s d e f i n e d over k where u- = wuw-' E u-' . Now U-
is d e f i n e d over k . Since u- = Bu-
-
I\u , u- i s d e f i n e d over
k a n d hence x i s d e f i n e d over k also.

(10) Bk = HkG
-
Proof: See t h e proof of Theorem 7, C o r o l l a r y 3.

(11) If 4 i s a connected u n i p o t e n t subgroup of

-G defined
over k , it is G-conjugate t o a subgroup of .
Proof: We make B a c t on
-B\E by r i g h t m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . By ( 8 )
there exists
-Bx d e f i n e d over k f i x e d by A . By ( 9 ) we can
choose x E Ek , and t h e n by (10) x E G . We have
-Bxa =
-
Bx
for a l l a E A, i.e., xax-' E B for a l l a E d , SO that
 166
xtlxX1 C
- . Since A is u n i p o t e n t xiil C
- ti .
(12) If k i s i n f i n i t e and p e r f e c t , t h e n o r m a l i z a t i o n
crU = U of (1) can be a t t a i n e d .

Proof: wB is s o l v a b l e s o
-
o-B ( t h e s m a l l e s t a l g e b r a i c sub-
group of
-G containing TB) is s o l v a b l e . Hence (s)o
, the
connected component of t h e i d e n t i t y , i s s o l v a b l e and of f i n i t e
- . (x)o
index i n B = f o r some Bo of f i n i t e i n d e x
. Let A = D-
0

in B o - B ~ . By (7) A i s connected, u n i p o t e n t
and d e f i n e d over k . By ( 6 ) o-U C
-A . By (11)t h e r e e x i s t s
x E G such t h a t xlx-l C . Hence xcr~x-l U , i.e. , the
normalization 6 U C
-U h a s been a t t a i n e d . Then U -
C rX1lJ .
But U is maximal w i t h r e s p e c t t o b e i n g n i l p o t e n t and c o n t a i n i n g
no elements of t h e c e n t e r of G . (Check t h i s . ) Therefore
rw1u = U so 6 U = U .
Corollary: If k is f i n i t e Aut G/Int G is solvable.

Exercise: Let D be t h e group of d i a g o n a l automorphisms modulo

t h o s e which a r e i n n e r . Prove :

(a) D 2 horn(^^, k*)/ [Homomorphisms e x t e n d a b l e t o Ll j .

..e
=- k:::/ kip where t h e ei a r e t h e elementary d i v i s o r s

of L1/LO .
(b) If k is f i n i t e , D C , the c e n t e r of t h e correspond-
i n g u n i v e r s a l group.
(c) D = 1 if k is a l g e b r a i c a l l y closed or if a l l ei = 1 .
s e m i l i n e a r mapping of t h e u n d e r l y i n g s p a c e composed w i t h e i t h e r
t h e identify o r t h e inverse transpose. I.e., every automorphism
is induced by a c o l l i n e a t i o n o r a c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e u n d e r l y i n g
p r o j e c t i v e space. .

(b) Over or 0 e v e r y automorphism of 2 F4 9

or G2 is inner.

(c) The t r i a l i t y automorphism exists

( ( s o ) . ,

for Spin* and PSO8 , but not f o r So8 if characteristic

(d) Aside from t r i a l i t y e v e r y automorphism o f SOn

or PSOn ( s p l i t form) is induced by a c o l l i n e a t i o n of t h e under-
lying projective space P which f i x e s t h e b a s i c q u a d r i c

Q: Z ~ ~ x = ~0 .+ If ~ n - is~ even, t h e r e e x i s t two f a m i l i e s o f

(n - 2)/2 dimensional subspaces of P entirely within Q (e.g.,
if n = 4 t h e two f a m i l i e s of l i n e s i n t h e q u a d r i c s u r f a c e

x1X4 + x2x 3 = 0) . The g r a p h automorphism o c c u r s because t h e s e

two f a m i l i e s can b e i n t e r c h a n g e d .

Theorem 31: Let G , G' b e Chevalley groups r e l a t i v e t o ( X ,k) ,

1 1 1
(Z ,k ) with E , Z, indecomposable, k , kT p e r f e c t . Assume
G and G' a r e isomorphic. If k is f i n i t e , assume a l s o char-
acteristic k = characteristic k
t
. Then k i s isomorphic t o
t t
kt , and either X i s isomorphic t o X or else X, X a r e of

type Bn, C n ( n >

.- 3 ) and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c k = characteristic
k t = 2 .

Proof: A s i n ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) of t h e proof of Theorem 30 we can

normalize cr s o t h a t o-U = U
1
, o-x,(l) = x ,
(1) where now
is an a n g l e p r e s e r v i n g map of C onto C
7
.Pa~ e n c e C C
t
or
P
else C, C
t
are Bn, Cn(n > 3) . As in (3) characteristic k =
characteristic kt = 2 i n t h e second case. A s i n (4.) k *k . t

Corollary: Over a f i e l d of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f 2 t h e Chevalley

groups of t y p e B n > Cn ( n -
> 3) a r e not isomorphic.

* Exercise: If r a n k Z , rank 1' -2

> t h e n t h e assumption char-
acteristic k =' characteristic kt can be dropped i n Theorem
31. (Hint: if p = characteristic , k and r a n k C >_ 2 then
p makes t h e l a r g e s t prime power c o n t r i b u t i o n t o [GI . If you

- --
get s t u c k s e e A r t i n , Comm. Pure and A P P ~ . Math., 1955)
t
(There

a r e exceptions i n case rank C , r a n k C -2

> f a i l s , e.g.,
SL2(b) PSL2(5) SLg(2) N ~ S L 2 ( 7 ) * )
 5 11. Some t w i s t e d Groups. I n t h i s s e c t i o n we s t u d y t h e group
Go_
of f i x e d p o i n t s of a C h e v a l l e y group G under an automorphism r .

We c o n s i d e r o n l y t h e s i m p l e s t c a s e , i n which rfixes U , H , U-, N,

I"
hence a c t s on W = N/H and permutes t h e Xcvs . Before launching
i n t o t h e g e n e r a l t h e o r y , we c o n s i d e r some examples:

( a ) G = SLn . If cr i s a n o n t r i v i a l g r a p h automorphism,
it h a s t h e form o-x=ax '-'a -'(where x
0
is t h e transpose

x and We s e e t h a t r fixes x

if and o n l y if xax
0
= a . If a i s skew, we g e t Gb= Spn .
If a i s symmetric, we g e t G,
= SOn (split form) . The g r o u p

'02 n i n characteristic 2 d o e s n o t a r i s e h e r e , b u t it c a n b e
r e c o v e r e d as a subgroup of S02n+1, namely t h e one i F s u p p o r t e d nby

t h e long roots.

Let t - be a n i n v o l u t o r y automorphism of k -
having ko
9-la-l
as fixed f i e l d . If r i s now modified s o t h a t c r x = ax 9

then Gg= Sun ( s p l i t f o r m ) . T h i s l a s t r e s u l t h o l d s even i f k is

a d i v i s i o n r i n g provided t -> t i s a n anti-automorphism.

If V i s t h e v e c t o r space over g e n e r a t e d by t h e r o o t s and

W i s t h e Weyl g r o u p , t h e n c a c t s on V and W and h a s f i x e d
point subspaces Vc and .
,W wri s a r e f l e c t i o n group on Vr
w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i v r o o t s t f b e i n g t h e p r o j e c t i o n on Vb of
t h e original roots. To s e e t h e s e f a c t s , we w r i t e n = 2m -t- 1 or
n = 2rn and u s e t h e i n d i c e s m , - (rn -1 ) .l - 1, m with t h e
index 0 omitted i n case n = 2m . If wi i s t h e weight on H

d e f i n e d by ui: diag(a-m, . .. a, -> ai , then the roots are

Wi - ~ (# j i) and C T ~= -ki . Vr i s t h u s spanned by

bi -- WWi - U i l i > 0 ] .
T
Now w E Wr i f and o n l y if w commutes
with r , i.e., i f and o n l y i f w(Di - Wj ) = Wk == 5 implies
w(lJi - LJj) = Ck - W-& . We s e e t h a t Wr is t h e o c t a h e d r a l
group a c t i n g on
vo- by a l l permut:.fions and s i g n changes of t h e
basis [wi]
1
. The p r o j e c t i o n of wi - ~ . ( ji #, 0 ) on V6 is
J

( k > 0) . If e i t h e r i = 0 o r j = 0 : t h e p r o j e c t i o n of

&Ii -9 i s 31Y ct ( k > 0 ) .

The p r o j e c t e d s y s t e m i s of t y p e Cm
if n = 2m or BCm ( a combination of Bm and Cm) if

(b) G = SO2, ( s p l i t form, char k 2) . We t a k e t h e

n
group d e f i n e d b y t h e form f = C x-
21 .x i . lie w i l l t a k e t h e

1).
l'i
g r a p h autonorphism t o b e r x = a a x T - l a-1 -1

(a=[l..*l\,al:l
il*. -1

J lol
l
1 . al

Thecorresponding

'3 n
? 2 2
2 L: xix
form f i x e d by elements of Gc is f =
i= 2 -i + xl + xml
1
Thus, Gr fixes f - f = (xl - x -1) and hence t h e hyperplane
x1 - x-l = 0 GO-
on t h i s h y p e r p l a n e i s t h e group .
If we now combine c with t -> a s i n ( a ) , t h e form
i1 n -- ..-" -
f T i s r e p l a c e d by f = .Z + x-1.z.)
1
+ x1x1 + X-lX-l
'
i=2
If we make t h e change of c o o r d i n a t e s xl r e p l a c e d by xl + tx-l
r e p l a c e d by xl + F X - ~( t E k , t # F) , we s e e t h a t f i s
X-l
n 2 2 I!
r e p l a c e d by 2 C ~ ~ + x
2(x1 - + ~ + bxWl) and f i s re-
n i=2

+ 2bx-1 1) , where a = t + and b = tF . S i n c e t h e s e two

forms have t h e same m a t r i x , over k r e t h e new

G~ i s sozn 0

v e r s i o n of f . That i s , G, i s SOZn(ko) f o r a form of index

n -1 which h a s index n over k .
Example: If n = 4, k = a , and ko = R, GT i s t h e Lorentz

group ( r e f = xl
2
- x2 - x32 - x4)
2 2
. If we observe t h a t D2
corresponds t o A1 x lil , we see that SL2(a) and t h e O-com-
ponent of t h e L o r e n t z group a r e isomorphic over t h e i r c e n t e r s .
Thus, SL2(c) i s t h e u n i v e r s a l covering group of t h e connected
Lorent z group.

E x e r c i s e : Work out
D3 A3 -
i n t h e same way.

For o t h e r examples s e e E. C a r t a n , Oeuvres compl\etes, No. 38,

e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e end.

Aside from t h e s p e c i f i c f a c t s worked out i n t h e above exam-

p l e s we s h o u l d n o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g . I n the single root length
c a s e , t h e f i x e d p o i n t s e t of a graph automorphism y i e l d s no new
group, o n l y a n imbedding of one Chevalley group i n a n o t h e r ( e . g .
Spn or SOn in SLn) . To g e t a new group ( e . g . Sun) we must
u s e a f i e l d automorphism a s w e l l .

Now t o s t a r t o u r g e n e r a l development we w i l l c o n s i d e r f i r s t
 172

t h e e f f e c t of t w i s t i n g a b s t r a c t r e f l e c t i o n groups and r o o t systems.

I
Let V be a f i n i t e dimensional r e a l Euclidean v e c t o r space and
let C be a f i n i t e s e t of nonzero elements of V satisfying

1 (1) a E Z implies ca 1 C if c > 0, c # 1 .

(2) w,Z = C for a l l a E C where wu is the reflection i n

t h e hyperplane orthogonal t o a .
(See Appendix I ) . We p i c k a n o r d e r i n g on V and l e t P (re-
- spectively TT) be t h e p o s i t i v e ( r e s p e c t i v e l y s i m p l e ) elements
of C r e l a t i v e t o t h a t ordering. Suppose u- i s an automorphism
of V which perriutes t h e p o s i t i v e m u l t i p l e s of t h e elements of
each of Z, P , and . It is not r e q u i r e d t h a t c fix C ,
although it w i l l i f a l l elements of C have t h e same l e n g t h .
be t h e corresponding permutation of t h e r o o t s . Note t h a t
Let J'
b- i s of f i n i t e o r d e r and normalizes W . Let V6 and W6
denote t h e f i x e d p o i n t s i n V and W respectively. If is
t h e average of . t h e elements i n - t h e . cr - o r b i t of a , then
(f3,z)= (p,a) for a l l p E Vc . Hence t h e p r o j e c t i o n of a on
-a .
vr i s

i Theorem 32: Let C, P, n, 6 e t c . be a s above.

I (a) The r e s t r i c t i o n of Wg to Vc is f a i t h f u l .

I (b) WgIVc i s a r e f l e c t i o n group.

(c) If Cc denotes t h e p r o j e c t i o n of Z on Vg , then

,X i s t h e corresponding liroot systemii; i.e . ,
-
I wvcr
~l 9 a E Cr ] generates WrI Vg and wECr - Cg .
However, (1)may f a i l f o r Zc .
F 173

(d) If i s t h e p r o j e c t i o n of
_L -,_
j 1 on Vc, then nb
i s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g 99simpie systernX9;i.e , if m u l t i p l e s a r e c a s t o u t

( i n c a s e (1)f a i l s f o r -ITc), then ng i s l i n e a r l y independent a n d

t h e p o s i t i v e e l e m e n t s of % are p o s i t i v e l i n e a r c o m b i n a t i o n s of
e l e m e n t s of TT, .
Proof : Denote t h e p r o j e c t i o n of V on Vc by v -> 7 . This
commutes w i t h 6 and w i t h a l l e l e m e n t s of Wb.

(1) If a e C , then G $ O ; indeed a > O implies

-
a > 0 .
If a i s p o s i t i v e , so a r e a l l v e c t o r s i n t h e G - o r b i t of a . Thus,
- -
t h e i r average o is also positive. If a < 0 , then = - (-a) < 0 .
(2) Proof of ( a ) . If w e Wr, w # l , then w a < 0 for
some r o o t a > 0 . Thus, G = z <0 and a> 0 . So wlvCf 1 .
3 Let vi- be a ~ o - o r b i t 02 s i i r ~ p l er o o t s , l e t 11r be the

group g e n e r a t e d by a l l wa(a e r ) , l e t Pr be t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
s e t of p o s i t i v e r o o t s , and l e t wr be t h e unique element of Plr
so t h a t wrPT -
- - P, ,. Then wr e W6 and wr (vb -
- wE(vg f o r any

root a e Pr . To s e e t h i s , f i r s t c o n s i d e r owrdl c W, . Since

m r d l ~ r= Pr ; then u- wro- -1
.'
=
wr by u n i q u e n e s s , and wr e Wc .
Si n c e J perm-tes the elelants 0;' 7i i n a single orbit, the
p r o j e c t i o n s on Vr of t h e el.emeiits of' P, are all positive
m u l t i p l e s cf each othc:;, I t f o l l o : ~t h~a t , i f i s any element
--
of pr , then I ~r-a=- a . if v c Vg with (v,aj = 0 , then
0 = (v,p) = (v,p) for p e .rr . Bence wv = v
r
.
Thus wr V~ =I WE/ V~ .
 (4) If v is a g- o r b i t of r o o t s and w e Wg then a l l
e l e m e n t s of wv have t h e same s i g n . T h i s f o l l o w s from wra =r w a
for a e X ,w B Wr.

(5) {wala a
9- o r b i t of simple r o o t s ] generates Wg .
Let w E ,W with w # 1 and l e t a be a s i m p l e r o o t such t h a t
wa < 0 . Let a be t h e 9 - o r b i t c o n t a i n i n g a . By ( 4 ) , wPn < 0
(i.e., wp<O for all $ E PT) . Now wwnPa>O and wn permutes
t h e elements of P - Pa . Hence, N(wwl,) = N(w) - N(wa) (see
Appendix 11.17). Using i n d u c t i o n on N(w) , we may t h u s show t h a t
w i s a p r o d u c t of w,qs .
(6) If wo i s t h e element of W such t h a t woP = - P ,
then wo E Wr . T h i s f o l l o w s from o-wodlp = - P a n d t h e uniqueness
of Wo .
(7) {wpalw E Wg ,n a p - o r b i t of s i m p l e r o o t s ] i s a p a r t i t i o n
of Z . If t h e wPTqs are called parts, then a, p belong t o t h e
-
same p a r t if and o n l y if a = c p f o r some c > 0 . To prove ( 7 ) ,
we c o n s i d e r a o 13 , a > 0 . Now woa < 0 and wo = w1w2 ... wr
where each wi wn = for some P-orbit of s i m p l e r o o t s a (by ( 5 )
and (6) ) . Choose i so t h a t w ~ + ~wra ... > o and
wiwi+l ... wra < 0 . If wi = w, , then ...
w ~ + ~w.r a e PT ;

i.e., a i s i n some p a r t . Similarly, if a < 0 , a i s i n some

part. Now assume a, belong t o t h e same p a r t , s a y t o wPa .
We may assume a , $ e Pa . Then a and
-f3 are positive multiples
of each o t h e r , a s h a s been noted i n ( 3 ) . Conversely, assume
( 8 ) Eo c o n s i s t s of a l l 16 such t h a t w c !lo
and a , i s a r o o t whose support l i e s i n a simple Q-orbit.'
J 11

Now h a s i t s support i n n and hence so does since a maps

simple r o o t s not i n n t o p o s i t i v e m u l t i p l e s of simple r o o t s n o t i n
.a . We see then t h a t @ e P, , and t h a t any p a r t c o n t a i n i n g a
a l s o contains f3 , The p a r t s a r e j u s t t h e s e t s of P such t h a t
8 = ca- , c > 0 and hence f o r m a p a r t i t i o n .

(8) ( 6 l w s Wb, a h a s support i n a p - o r b i t of simple

roots) = z ~ .
(9) P a r t s (b) and ( c ) f o l l o w from ( 3 ) , ( 5 ) , and ( 8 ) .

(10) Proof of ( d ) . We s e l e c t one r o o t a from each 9 - o r b i t

and form f a ] . T h i s s e t , c o n s i s t i n g of elements whose s u p p o r t s i n
a r e d i s j o i n t , i s independent s i n c e is. If a > 0 then
it i s a p o s i t i v e l i n e a r combination of t h e elements of . Hence
-a i s a p o s i t i v e l i n e a r combination of t h e elements of if,.
Remark: To achieve c o n d i t i o n (1) f o r a r o o t system, we can
s t i c k t o t h e s e t of s h o r t e s t p r o j e c t i o n s i n t h e v a r i o u s d i r e c t i o n s .

( a ) Ear b of o r d e r 2 , W of t y p e AZn-l , we get Wg of t y p e

Cn . For W of t y p e A2,, we g e t Wg of t y p e BCn .
(b) For o- of order 2 , W of type Dn , we g e t Wb of
type BnWl
( c ) For r of o r d e r 3 , W of t y p e D4 , we g e t Wr of
type G2 . To s e e t h i s l e t a, P, y, F be t h e simple
r o o t s with 6 connected w i t h a, p , and y . Then

< E , F > = - 1 , < 8, a > n

= - 3 , giving W6 of t y p e G2

(d) For r of o r d e r 2, W of t y p e E6, we g e t Wc of

type F,+ .

(e) For CI- of o r d e r 2 , W of t y p e C 2 , we g e t Wr oftype A1.

(f) For b of o r d e r 2 , W of t y p e G2 , we g e t Wr of

type A1

(g) For r of o r d e r 2 , W of t y p e F4 , we g e t Wc o f
type Dl6 ( t h e d i h e d r a l g r o u p of o r d e r 1 6 ) . To s e e

this let 0--@&9---0 b e t h e Dynkin diagram of

C B Y 6
F4 '
and r a =v2 6 , 6 8 = Gy . Since a = l / 2 ( a + d T 6) ,
-P = l / 2 ( ~+ f l y ) , we have < p,z> = - 1,<a 3>
= - (2 + \/2) . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o an a n g l e of 7n/8
-
between a and . Hence Wr i s of t y p e B16 .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , we n o t e t h a t makes s i x positive
"0
r o o t s n e g a t i v e and t h a t t h e r e a r e 24 p o s i t i v e r o o t s i n
 a l l , So t h a t wo = (w-v,r-)&
a P
. Hence,
2
= WF
2

= - I
- 1 and
8 - W, i s of t y p e 8 Note
0: P
t h a t t h i s i s t h e o n l y c a s e of t h o s e we have c o n s i d e r e d
i n which Wc f a i l s t o be c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c (See Appendix V ) .

In ( e ) , ( f ) , (g) we a r e assuming t h a t m u l t i p l e s have been

c a s t out.

The p a r t i t i o n of C i n ( 7 ) above can be used t o d e f i n e an

equivalence r e l a t i o n R on C by a r p i f and o n l y i f
-a is a
-
p o s i t i v e m u l t i p l e of where a i s t h e p r o j e c t i o n of a on Vc .
Letting C/R d e n o t e t h e c o l l e c t i o n of e q u i v a l e n c e c l a s s e s we have
t h e following :

Corollary: If C i s c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c and indecornposable, t h e n

a n element of C/R i s t h e p o s i t i v e system of r o o t s of a system of
one of t h e f o l l o w i n g t y p e s :

(b) A2 ( t h i s o c c u r s o n l y i f Z i s of t y p e AZn) .
(c) C2 ( t h i s occurs if C i s of t y p e C2

or Fq )

(dl G2

Now l e t G be a Chevalley group over a f i e l d k of c h a r a c t e r -

istic p . Let r be an automorphism of G which i s t h e product

of a graph automorphism and a f i e l d automorphism 8 of k and
such t h a t i f i s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p e r m u t a t i o n of t h e r o o t s
9
then

(1) if f preserves lengths, then order 8 = order

$ -
(2) if p doesn't preserve l e n g t h s , then p82 = 1 (where
p i s t h e map x -> xP) .
(Condition (1) f o c u s e s o u r a t t e n t i o n on t h e o n l y i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e ,
Observe t h a t = id., 8 = i d . i s allowed.
9
Condition ( 2 ) could be r e p l a c e d by €I=
2p thereby extending t h e
development t o f o l l o w , s u i t a b l y modified, t o i m p e r f e c t f i e l d s k. )

We know t h a t p = 2 if G i s of t y p e C2 or F4 and p =3 if
G i s of t y p e G2 . Recall a l s o t h a t rxa(t)
if lal 2 IgaI
- where
( e tpe) if Jal < I
€a = +
- 1 and ea = 1 if 5 a i s simple. ( S e e t h e proof of
Theorem 29. )

Now r p r e s e r v e s 'U, H , B , U-, and N , and hence N/H W .

The a c t i o n t h u s induced on W i s concordant w i t h t h e permutation
J=
of t h e r o o t s . Since J p r e s e r v e s a n g l e s , it a g r e e s up t o p o s i t i v e
m u l t i p l e s w i t h an i s o m e t r y on t h e r e a l space g e n e r a t e d by t h e r o o t s .
Thus t h e r e s u l t s of Theorem 32 may b e a p p l i e d . Also we observe
t h a t if n i s t h e o r d e r of g, then n = 1, 2 , o r 3 , so t h a t
t h e l e n g t h of each
9- o r b i t is 1 or n .
Lemma 60: U e , = 1 over each
9- o r b i t of l e n g t h n .
Proof: Since cs" a c t s on each Xa ( 2 u s i m p l e ) as a field
automorphism, it d o e s s o on a l l of G , whence t h e lemma.

Lemma 61: If a e k / ~, then ya ,r # 1

Proof: Choose a e a s o t h a t no j3 e a can be added t o it t o
y i e l d another root. If t h e o r b i t of a h a s l e n g t h 1, s e t
x = xa(l) if ea = 1 , x = x,(t) with t e k , t # 0 and
t + te = 0 if ea # 1 . Then x e Xajr. If t h e l e n g t h i s n ,
we s e t y = x c ( l ) , then x = y 0 b y . r 2y . - . o v e r t h e o r b i t , and u s e
Lemma 60.

Theorem 33 : Let G , 6-, e t c . be a s above,

( a ) For each w e %, t h e group Uw = U n w-lu-w is fixed

by cr .
(b) For each w e W
, , there exists nw e Nr , indeed
nW e < Ur,U>> , so t h a t n$ =w .
(c) If nw(weWr) isasin(b),then

G0- = w d i r u BO- nwUw, O- w i t h u n i q u e n e s s of e x p r e s s i o n

on t h e r i g h t .

Proof:

(a) This i s c l e a r since U and W-'U-W a r e f i x e d by c,

(b) We may assume t h a t w = w f o r some p - o r b i t o f simple

7T
roots 7~ . By Lemma 61, choose x E $-a,cr c; # 1 , where a E C/R
corresponds t o n . Using Theorem 4? we may w r i t e x = un v
W
for
some w F W where u F U , v P UW , and nwH = w . . Now x =6 x
= cru*crnwo-v and by Theorem 4 and t h e u n i q u e n e s s i n Theorem 41,
we have r w = w , c n w = nW '
c u =u , and crv = v . Thus,
n,e < UCT,U&> . Since wf 1 , w F Wr, and w e W
a ' we have
wa<O forsomeaev, w < O , and w=
w7r

(c) Let x e Gc, say x F BwB . Since c(BwB) =B6wB

we have w P Wr . Choose nw a s i n ( b ) : and w r i t e x = bnwv w i t h
b e B and v e U
W
Applying 0- we g e t b F Bc and v F Uw , r
Uniqueness f o l l o w s f r o m Theorem 49 .
Corollary: The c o n c l u s i o n s of Theorem 33 a r e s t i l l v a l i d i f G,
? 0 F
and 8, a r e r e p l a c e d by GT= 403 U- 0-
> and Br= G 0- T\ Bc. Also
we can r e p l a c e Hr by H r - G-r T \ H r . ,
0 0
since Br=U$,,

Lemma 6 2 : L e t a g e n e r i c a l l y d e n o t e a c l a s s i n C/R . Let S be

a union of c l a s s e s i n C/R which i s c l o s e d under a d d i t i o n and

such t h a t i f a C S then -a %
a LS
S . Then
a,c
ys,r=
w i t h t h e p r o d u c t t a k e n i n a n y f i x e d o r d e r and t h e r e i s u n i q u e n e s s
of e x p r e s s i o n on t h e r i g h t . In particular, U, = Ha cr and
a> 0 3

U = , for a w F WE.
WpO- a>o

Proof: We a r r a n g e t h e p o s i t i v e r o o t s i n a manner c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
t h e o r d e r of t h e ,aVs; i.e., those r o o t s i n t h e first a are first,
etc. Now ES = fa i n t h e o r d e r j u s t d e s c r i b e d and w i t h
a>o
 u n i q u e n e s s o f e x p r e s s i o n on t h e r i g h t by Lemmal7. Hence
a> 0
i n t h e g i v e n o r d e r and a g a i n w i t h uniqueness of e x p r e s s i o n on
the right. The lemma f o l l o w s by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f i x e d p o i n t s of

1 5 on both s i d e s of t h e l a s t e q u a t i o n .

corollary:' If a, b a r e c l a s s e s i n ,Y/R with a # +b , then

(Xa, xb)C TT Kc , where t h e r o o t s on t h e r i g h t a r e i n t h e c l o s e d

subsystem g e n e r a t e d by a and b , t h o s e of a and b excluded,
The c o n d i t i o n on c can be s t a t e d a l t e r n a t e l y , i n t e r m s of Xr,

that 7 i s i n t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e ( p l a n e ) convex cone g e n e r a t e d

by and 6 ,

Remark: The e x a c t r e l a t i o n s i n t h e above c o r o l l a r y can be q u i t e

complicated b u t g e n e r a l l y resemble t h o s e i n t h e Chevalley group
whose Weyl group i s Wc . For example, if G i s of t y p e Aj and
6 i s of o r d e r 2 , s a y a
0-01)
P Y '
a = , b = (a,y! , c =

( a + f3, j3 + y] , d = { a + P + y] , and i f we s e t xa(t) = xB(t)

8
( t E ke) , xb(u) = xa(u)x
Y
(U ) (U 6 k) , and s i m i l a r l y f o r c and d,
we g e t ( x a ( t ) , x b ( u ) ) = x c ( + t u ) x d ( + t uu )
8
. In C2, t h e corres-
ponding r e l a t i o n i s
n

I If G i s of t y p e
.
X and T is of o r d e r n , we s a y Gc

( i s of t y p e "X E.g., t h e group c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e above remark i s

of t y p e 2 ~ 3 .
The group of t y p e 2 ~ 2i s c a l l e d t h e Suzuki group
and t h e g r o u p s of t y p e 2G2 and 2 ~ 4a r e c a l l e d Ree groups. We
wrue G@X and G c n~
Y .
Lemma 63: Let a be a c l a s s i n Z/R , then
a70-
has t h e
following s t r u c t u r e :

(a) If a-A1, then 3a 7 r = [ x a ( t ) It E kg]

(b) If a m ~ y , then = {x. o x . . . Ix = x , ( t ) , a e a, t E k]

a,6
2
(c) If a&A2, a = {a,p,u + p], then €3 = 1 and

8
% a , r = { x a ( t ) x g ( t )xa++u) ltte + u + ue = 01
If (t,u) d e n o t e s t h e g i v e n element, t h e n
0
( t , u ) ( t ,u ) = (t
t
+ t
P
, u + u
P
- 8
t t )
0
.
(d) If a-C2, a = [a,p,c + P, c + 2?] , then 2 82 = l
and Xa 7 (7
8
= [xa(t)xg(t ) x ~ + ~ ~ ( u ) x ~+ +u8~) I t , u
(tl* E k) .
9 0
If (t,u) d e n o t e s t h e g i v e n element, ( t , u ) (t ,u )
= ( t + t , u + u
0 0
+ t2@t9) .
(e) If a-427 a = [ a , p , a + P , a + 2p, c + 30, 2a + 3p], then
2 8 8 l+e)
39 = 1 and %?a,('- = ( x a ( t ) x g ( t ) x ~ + ~ ~ ( u ) x ~- +t ~ ( u

( t ,u,v) d e n o t e s t h e g i v e n element t h e n
P t V v
(t,u,v)!t ,U ,v ) = ( t + t , u -u
9
+ P
t t3@,v+ v
1 P
- t u + t Zt3Q J *

Note t h a t i n ( a ) and ( b ) , i s a one parameter group f o r t h e

a7c

fields kg and k respectively.

Proof: ( a ) and ( b ) a r e e a s y and we omit t h e i r proofs. For ( c ) ,
normalize t h e p a r a m e t r i z a t i o n of Fa+*SO t h a t N a,P = 1 , Then
a+b ( - u ) .
€3 0 Q
r X a ( t ) = xg(t 1, r x ( t ) = x a ( t ) , and o - x ~ + ~ ( u=) x
B
Write x E: 2a , r as x = xa(t)x (v)x
B a+$
(u) and compare t h e

c o e f f i c i e n t s on b o t h s i d e s of x = o-x t o get (c). The proof o f

( d ) i s similar t o t h a t of ( c ) . For ( e ) , f i r s t normalize t h e s i g n s
a s i n Theorem 28, and t h e n complete t h e proof a s i n ( c ) and ( d ) .

Exercise: Complete t h e d e t a i l s of t h e above proof.

Remark: The r o l e of t h e group SL2 i n t h e untwisted case i s taken

by t h e g r o u p s SL2(kg) , SL2(k) , SU3 ( k , @ )( s p l i t form) , the
Suzuki group, and Ree group of t y p e G2 .
Exercise: Determine t h e s t r u c t u r e of Hr i n t h e case G is
universal.

Lemma 64: If G is universal, then G, i s g e n e r a t e d by ,U and

U-r except p e r h a p s f o r t h e c a s e Gcw 2G2 with k infinite.

Proof: Let
P
Gr = < U 0- ,UL> and l e t HE
Y
= H,_A G6
0
. By t h e
3
c o r o l l a r y t o Theorem 33, i t s u f f i c e s t o show Hc C Gr ; i.e.,
(") Hr
9
-
- Hr
. Since G is universal, H i s a d i r e c t product
of [ kala s i m p l e ] ( s e e t h e c o r o l l a r y t o Lemma 28). These groups
a r e permuted by o- e x a c t l y as t h e r o o t s a r e . Hence i t i s enough
. .

t o prove ( a ) when t h e r e i s a s i n g l e o r b i t ; i . e , , when Gc

i s one
of t h e t y p e s SL2, 2 ~ 2 . ,2c2 3 or 2 ~ 2 . For SL2, t h i s i s clear.
 (1) For x e Ug- [ l ] , write x = u n u w i t h u . a U- i = 1 , 2
1 2 1 Cr
Y 0
and n = n ( x ) e N ~ G ~ Then
. Hr i s g e n e r a t e d by [ n ( x ) n ( ~ ~ ) - ~ l x ~

a f i x e d c h o i c e of x] . To s e e t h i s l e t
it
Hr be t h e g r o u p s o g e n e r -
ated. Consider
V?'
Gr= UkHp I1
Uzc FP
n ( x o ) U& .T h i s s e t i s c l o s e d under

m u l t i p l i c a t i o n by U&. It i s a l s o c l o s e d under r i g h t m u l t i p l i c a -
t i o n by n ( x o ) - l .
T h i s f o l l o w s from n ( x o ) - ' = n(x-l)
0
-1 -1 -1 =
= n ( x o ) n ( x o ) n ( x o ) and n ( x o ) u @ x o ) U, c G,
77
since

x ~a )U ~ -~ [ I )
x = u , ( n ( ~ ) n ( ~ ~ ) - ~ )f onr ( ~
0-
. We s e e t h a t
- Gb - Hc .
Her -
0
11
Gr - , whence
F?P

(2) If a and fl a r e t h e s i m p l e r o o t s of A2, C2, or G2

l a b e l e d a s i n Lemma 63 ( c ) , ( d ) , o r ( e ) r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e n Hr
.
.b

i s isomorphic t o kSr v i a t h e map cp: t -> h , ( t ) h g ( t 8)

I (3) Let h be t h e weight such t h a t < h,a > = 1 , < h,fl > = O ,
I let R b e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of xk ( o b t a i n e d from one of 2f by
shifting the coefficients t o k ) having h a s h i g h e s t weight and
let vC be a c o r r e s p o n d i n g weight v e c t o r . Let p be t h e lowest
weight of R and l e t v- be a c o r r e s p o n d i n g weight v e c t o r . For
x e Ur- 11) , write xv- = f ( x ) v
+ -+ t e r m s f o r lower weights.
9
Then f(x) # 0 and Hp i s isomorphic under c p i n (2) to the
@.I
subgroup m of k q g e n e r a t e d by a l l f(x)f(xo)-l . To prove ( 3 ) ,
let x a ur- [l] and w r i t e x = u n ( x ) u 2 a s i n (1). We s e e
1
xv- = n(x)v
++ t e r m s f o r lower w e i g h t s , s o n ( x ) v - = f ( x ) v
+
and n ( x ) n ( x o ) - l v t = f ( x ) f (xo)-'v+ . If n ( x ) n ( x o ) - I = ha ( t ) h p ( t )
8
,
t h e n by t h e c h o i c e of h,f(x)f(xo)-'=t ( s e e Lemma 1 9 ( c ) ) . (3)
t h e n f o l l o w s from (1).

( 4 ) The c a s e Gcd 2 ~ ..2 Here f ( x ) = -ue and m = kq.

.I.

. To
s e e t h i s , we n o t e t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n R of ( 3 ) i n t h i s c a s e

is R : X ~ - > S La n~d i(f ~x ~= x a ( t ) xP ( te ) xa+$ ( u )

then x -> [ t
1

0
u + t t 8-
to
1 -
. Thus, f(x) = u + tte = - u
8

by Lemma 63 ( c ) . . Thus, m i s t h e group g e n e r a t e d by r a t i o s of

(-u8) .
-41

elements of k- whose t r a c e s a r e norms (ttB) Let

u o kq.
.I,

. ~f u
8
# u , set ul = ( u - ue)-l , and i f u
Q
= u ,
.
.I,

choose ul o k.'. so t h a t ul8 -

- - ul Then uul and u1 are
v a l u e s of f (their traces are 0 o r l ) ,so t h a t u e m and
m = k-'.
.Ir
.
( 5 ) The c a s e G
; 2 ~ 2 . Here f ( x ) = t 2+2e + u2@ + t u
and m = k"'
4,

. To s e e t h i s , f i r s t n o t e t h a t s i n c e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
k .
of k is 2, t h e r e i s an i d e a l i n lvsupportedi' by s h o r t r o o t s .
The r e p r e s e n t a t i o n R can b e t a k e n a s xk a c t i n g on t h i s i d e a l ,
and v
+ = X while v
- = X -a . Letting x =
a+B -B
x a ( t ) xP ( t 8 ) x ~ + ~ ~ he
( ~ +) txI+@)
~ + ~we can d e t e r m i n e f (x) . By t a k i n g
t = 0 i n t h e expression f o r f(x) and w r i t i n g v = ( v8) 2 8 we
see that m = k"'
.f*

.
(6) The c a s e G p 2 ~ 2 . Here f ( x ) = t 4+6@ - 1+3@- 2

+ t 3+3e u + t 1+3e~38+ tv3' - tuv . The group rn i s generated

by a l l v a l u e s of f f o r which (t,u,v) # ( 0 7 0 , 0 ) , and it c o n t a i n s
 k32 and -1 ; hence m =k * , if k is f i n i t e . Here t h e
representation R can be t a k e n t o be t h e a d j o i n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
on gk, V+ = '2a+3@ and v- = X-2a-38 . Letting x be a s
i n Lemma 63 ( e l , and working modulo t h e i d e a l i n Xk "supportedw
by t h e s h o r t r o o t s , we can compute f ( x ) Setting t = u = 0 9 .
we see t h a t - v 2 E m ,
hence - 1 e m and k*2 C m If k i s .
finite m =k
I
f o l l o w s from ( * ) -16 k*2 . To show ( * ) , suppose
t2 = - 1 with t e k . Then t2'=- 1 , so t o = +- t and te 2 = t .
Since 3e2 = 1 , we s e e t = ( te 2) 3 = t 3 . But t3 = t 2t = -t ,
so t =0 , a contradiction. T h i s proves t h e lemma.
0 0
Corollary: If G is universal, then Gr= Go_ and Hr= H,
except p o s s i b l y f o r 2 ~ 2w i t h k i n f i n i t e i n which c a s e
0 d
G ~ = HG ~~ = k*/m
H ~w i t h m as i n ( 6 ) above.

Remarks: (a) It i s not known whether

J-

m = kq. always i f Gg .
2 ~ 2
One can make t h e changes i n v a r i a b l e s v -> v + tu
and t h e n
4+6 e - u1+38
u -> u - t1+3e t o convert t h e form f in (6) t o t
- v2 + t 2u 2 + tvje . Both b e f o r e and a f t e r t h i s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n
t h e form s a t i s f i e s t h e c o n d i t i o n of homogenity:

f ( t , u , v ) = t4+6ef ( l , u / t 1+3e, v / t 2+3e) if t + . 0

(b) A c o r o l l a r y of ( 3 ) above, i s t h a t t h e forms i n ( 5 ) and

(6) are definite, i.e., f = 0 implies t = u (= v ) = 0 . A
d i r e c t proof i n c a s e f i s a s i n ( 5 ) can be made as f o l l o w s :
Suppose O = f ( t , u ) = t 2+28 + u2@ + t u w i t h one of t, u nonzero.
I
If t =0 , then u =0 , . We s e e
s o we have t # 0
f ( t , u ) = t 2+2e f ( l , u / t 2w1) u s i n g 2e2 = 1 . Hence we may assume
t = 1 . Thus, 1 + u 2e + u = 0 o r (by applying 8 ) ue = 1 + u .
Hence u e 2 = l + u e = u and u = u 2e2 2 . Thus, u = 0 o r 1, a
= U

contradiction. A d i r e c t proof i n c a s e f i s as ( 6 ) a p p e a r s t o be
q u i t e complicated.

(c) The fo'rm i n ( 5 ) l e a d s t o a geometric i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

2 ~ 2 . Form t h e graph v = t 2+2e + u2' + t u i n k3 of t h e form
f ( x ) . Imbed k3 i n p3(k) , projective 3-space over k , by
adding t h e p l a n e a t co , and a d j o i n t h e p o i n t a t o i n the

direction (0,0,1) t o t h e graph t o o b t a i n a s u b s e t Q of p3(k) .

Q i s t h e n an ovoid i n p3(k) ; i.e.

(1) No l i n e meets Q i n more t h a n two p o i n t s ,

( 2 ) The l i n e s through any p o i n t of Q not meeting Q again

always l i e i n a plane.

The group 2 ~ 2i s t h e n r e a l i z e d a s t h e group of p r o j e c t i v e

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s of P3 ( k ) fixing Q . For f u r t h e r d e t a i l s a s
w e l l a s a corresponding geometric i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f 2 ~ 2s e e
J. T i t s , Sdminaire Bourbaki, 210 (1960). For an e x h a u s t i v e t r e a t m e n t
2 ~ 2,
53
of e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f i n i t e c a s e , s e e Luneberg, S p r i n g e r
Lecture Notes 1 0 (1965).

Theorem 34: Let G and c be a s above with G universal.

Excluding t h e c a s e s : ( a ) ' ~ ~ ( 4, ) ( b ) 2 ~ 2 ( 2 ), (c) ' ~ ~ ( 3,)
P
(d) 2 ~ 4 ( 2 ), we have t h a t Gd i s simple over i t s c e n t e r .
Sketch of p r o o f : Using a c a l c u l u s of double c o s e t s r e B6 , which
can be developed e x a c t l y a s f o r t h e Chevalley groups w i t h in
Wr
p l a c e of W and R ( o r ,Z ( s e e Theorem 3 2 ) ) i n p l a c e of E ,
and Theorem 33, t h e ' p r o o f can be reduced e x a c t l y a s f o r t h e Chevalley
groups t o t h e proof o f : Gr
P
- DG; . If k has Igenough"
P
elements, so does Hr by t h e C o r o l l a r y t o Lemma 64 and t h e a c t i o n
of Hr
9
on Xa , = can be used t o show
a,'='-
f l ~ ;. This

t a k e s care o f n e a r l y everything. If k h a s !?fewn e l e m e n t s t h e n

t h e commutator r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e xaqs and among them can be
used. T h i s l e a d s t o a number o f s p e c i a l c a l c u l a t i o n s . The d e t a i l s
a r e omitted.

Remark: The g r o u p s i n ( a ) and ( b ) above a r e s o l v a b l e . The g r o u p

i n ( c ) c o n t a i n s a normal subgroup of i n d e x 3 isomorphic t o A1(8).
The group i n ( d ) c o n t a i n s a Stnewtss i m p l e normal subgroup of i c d e x 2,
( S e e J. T i t s , ;?Algebraic and a b s t r a c t s i m p l e g r o u p s , f v Annals of
Math. 1964.)
9
Exercise: C e n t e r of Gr = ( C e n t e r of GIr.

We now a r e going t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o r d e r s of t h e f i n i t e
Chevalley g r o u p s of t w i s t e d t y p e . Let be a f i n i t e f i e l d of
k
characteristic p . Let a b e minimal such t h a t 8 = pa (1.e . ,
a
such t h a t f o r a l l t P k ) . Then 1 kl = p2a f o r
t e = tP
2 2~ ja f o r 3 ~ 4 ; and ( k t = p 2a+l
A n 3 n 7 2E6 ; = p ikl
f o r 2 ~ 2, 2F q , 2 G 2 . We c a n w r i t e r % ( t
=) x ( eat s ( a ))
Ya
where q(a) i s Some power of p l e s s than (kl If q is the
geometric a v e r a g e of q(a) over each 9 - o r b i t t h e n q = pa except
when GT i s of t y p e 2 ~ 2, ' F ~, or 2 ~ 2i n which c a s e

Let V be t h e r e a l Euclidean s p a c e g e n e r a t e d by t h e r o o t s and

let be t h e automorphism of V permuting t h e r a y s t h r o u g h
0
the roots a s g permutes t h e r o o t s . Since
'5 normalizes W ,
we s e e t h a t o" a c t s on t h e space I of polynomials i n v a r i a n t
0
under W . Since r0 a l s o a c t s o n t h e subspace of I of
homogeneous e l e m e n t s of a g i v e n p o s i t i v e d e g r e e , we may choose
the basic invariants
Ij
, j = 1, ..., 4 , of Theorem 27 s u c h
that roI = a .I f o r some e e ( h e r e we have extended t h e
j J j j
base f i e l d %? t o Q ) . A s b e f o r e , we l e t dj be t h e d e g r e e
of Ij , and t h e s e a r e u n i q u e l y determined. Since a;, acts
on V , we a l s o have t h e s e t ifoj 1j = 1, ..., 41 of e i g e n v a l u e s
of r0 on V . We r e c a l l a l s o t h a t N d e n o t e s t h e number of
positive roots i n C .
Theorem 35: Let w , q , N, e and dj be a s above, and
j '
assume G is universal. We have

(b) The o r d e r of t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g simple group i s

o b t a i n e d by d i v i d i n g 1 Gr I by I Cr I where
C i s t h e c e n t e r of G ,
 ~emma.65: Let r ,H , - U , etc, be a s above.

where N(w) i s t h e number of p o s i t i v e r o o t s i n C made n e g a t i v e

by w .
proof: ( a ) It s u f f i c e s t o show t h a t (xa,rl = qIal for
a e C/R by Lemma 62. T h i s i s s o by Lemma 63. (b) Let a be a
4 - o r b i t o f simple r o o t s . Since r h a ( t ) = hpa(tq(a)) , the
J
contribution t o I,H I made by e l e m e n t s of Hr "supportedsv by a
is ( nq(a))-
a ea
= qm - 1 1 if m = la1 , S i n c e t h e e
0j
vs

corresponding t o a a r e t h e r o o t s of t h e polynomial X" - 1 ,

( b ) follows. (c) T h i s f o l l o w s from ( a ) , ( b ) , and Theorem 33.

Corollary : U, i s a p-Sylow subgroup.

Lemma 66: We have t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m a l i d e n t i t y i n t:

Proof: We modify t h e proof of Theorem 26 a s f o l l o w s :

(a) T t h e r e i s r e p l a c e d by r o here.

(b) X t h e r e i s r e p l a c e d by Xo h e r e , where Zo
i s t h e s e t of u n i t v e c t o r s i n V which l i e i n t h e
same d i r e c t i o n s of t h e r o o t s .
 (c) Only t h o s e s u b s e t s a of rr f i x e d by % a r e con-
sidered.

(d) (-lln i s now d e f i n e d t o be (-ilk where k is the

number of' ro o r b i t s i n a .
(e) W(t) i s n o w d e f i n e d t o be C tN(w)
we w,

With t h e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s t h e proof proceeds e x a c t l y a s b e f o r e

through s t e p ( 5 ) . S t e p s ( 6 ) - ( 8 ) become:

(6') For a C rr , w 6 W , let NT be t h e number of c e l l s

in K congruent t o Da under W and f i x e d by w . Then
? ?
~ ( - 1 ) ~ N ~ = wd .e t ( H i n t : If V = V and K i s t h e complex
Wo-
? ?O
on V c u t by K , t h e n t h e c e l l s of K a r e t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s with
V? of t h e c e l l s o f K f i x e d by w% .)
0
(7 ) Let be a c h a r a c t e r on < W,% > and d. the
r e s t r i c t i o n of X t o < Wa,ro > induced up t o < W,ro > . Then

A
(8' ) Let M be a < W, % > module, l e t I(M) be t h e space
of skew i n v a r i a n t s under W , and l e t I a ( M ) be t h e s p a c e of
i n v a r i a n t s under Wn . Then

The remainder of t h e proof proceeds a s b e f o r e .

Lemma 6 7 : The e qs form a permutation of t h e e 's.

j 0j
I Proof:
among t h e
S e t t = 1 i n Lemma 66.
e Os as among t h e e
Then (::)
vs .
1 h a s t h e same m u l t i p l i c i t y

T h i s i s so s i n c e o t h e r w i s e
j 0j
I t h e r i g h t s i d e of t h e e x p r e s s i o n would have e i t h e r a r o o t o r a
pole at t = 1 .
Assume 1 , t h e n e i t h e r c02 = 1 and a l l

e q s not 1 are -1 or else %3 = 1 and a l l e v s not 1 are

cube r o o t s of 1, coming i n c o n j u g a t e complex p a i r s since c0 is
real. Thus i n a l l c a s e s ( + ) i m p l i e s t h e lemma.

Proof of Theorem 35: ( a ) f o l l o w s from Lemmas 6 5 , 66, 67. Now l e t

0 0
C be t h e c e n t e r Gr. Clearly C -
3 C
0-
Using t h e c o r o l l a r y
t o Theorem 33 and an argument similar t o t h a t i n t h e proof of
C o r o l l a r y l(b) t o Theorem 4
a c t s v T d i a g o n a l l y , we have
v

C
,
0
we s e e
C C ,
C

hence
0
c HrC H
C
0
= C
. Since H _
0-3 proving ( b ) .
Corollary: The v a l u e s of I Gr I and ( cr I = I om *
, ~(
( L ~ / L ~)r
a r e a s follows:
1
G
r e . q #~ 1 IG, I lcr I
d
Chevalley None ( q N ~ ( jW1)
q ~ ,1
I H O ~ ( L ~ / Lk*)
group ( s = 1)
d
2 ~ n ( n 2) > -1 i f d . i s odd
3
Replace q j-1 by
d. d.
Same change; i , e.
q J-(-l)J in (a) ( n + l ,q + l )

2
E6 same a s 2~ n Same change a s 2~ n (3, q+l)
2~
n -1 f o r one d 3.=n Replace one qn-1 by ( 4 , qn+l)
qn+l i n (>::)

a , u2 f o r d 12 2 6
9 ( q - 1 N q -1) 1
j
= 494 ( 9 +q 4+1)
 Go- e.?s# 1 IGT I ICr I
2c2 -1 f o r d = 4 4 ( q2 - 1 ~ ~ 4 + 1 ) 1
j
2
-1 f o r d = 6 6 2 6
G2 q ( 9 - U ( q +1) 1
j

-1 f o r d = 6,12 24 ( q2-1)( q6+ l ) ( q8-1) 1

* ~ 4 j q
( q12+1

Here d d e n o t e s a p r i m i t i v e cube r o o t of 1 .
R o o f (except f o r I Cg I ) : We c o n s i d e r t h e c a s e s :

*A n
- We f i r s t n o t e (::) -1 e W% . To prove ($1 we

use t h e standard coordinates <

{wi( 1 - i -
< n + 1) f o r An . Then

% i s g i v e n by wi -> - Wn+2-i . Since W a c t s v i a a l l permuta-

t i o n s of [ai], we s e e -1 o W o; . Alternatively, since W is
t r a n s i t i v e on t h e simple systems (Appendix I I . 2 4 ) , t h e r e e x i s t s w, e W

such t h a t w - = . Hence, - w o ( - 1 ) = 1 or o- ; i . e . , -1 e W
0

or -1 e Vir0 . S i n c e t h e r e a r e i n v a r i a n t s of odd d e g r e e ( d i = 2 , 3 , . . . ) ,
- 14 W . By (n) % f i x e s t h e i n v a r i a n t s of even d e g r e e and
changes t h e s i g n s of t h o s e o r odd d e g r e e .

2
E6
- -
2-
~2n+1
. The second argument t o e s t a b l i s h (:::) in

t h e case 2 ~ nmay be used h e r e , and t h e same c o n c l u s i o n h o l d s .

*Dn ( n even o r o d d ) . Relative t o t h e standard coordinates

-
[vil 15 i < n) , t h e basic i n v a r i a n t s a r e t h e first n-1 e l e m e n t a r y
 2
symmetric polynomials i n fvi] together with vi , and W acts
v i a a l l p e r m u t a t i o n s and even number of s i g n changes. Here ro
can b e t a k e n t o be t h e map vi -> v i (1 <i n - 1) , v ->-v
n
Hence, o n l y t h e l a s t i n v a r i a n t changes s i g n under ro.

' D ~. The d e g r e e s of t h e i n v a r i a n t s a r e 2 , 4, 6 , and 4. By

-
Lemma 6 7 , t h e f i t s a r e 1, 1, ,
V
w2 . Since 5 i s r e a l , w and
W
2
must occur i n t h e same dimension.
4 2
Thus, we r e p l a c e ( q -1)
i n t h e u s u a l formula b y ( q4- w ) ( q4 - w2 ) = q8 + q 4 + 1 .

2
2 ~ 2, G2 , I n both c a s e s t h e e i q s a r e 1, -1 by Lemma 67.

Since < W,ro > is a f i n i t e g r o u p , i t f i x e s some nonzero q u a d r a t i c

form, s o t h a t E:
j
= 1 for d
j
= 2 .
2 ~ .4 The d e g r e e s of t h e i n v a r i a n t s a r e 2 , 6 , 8, 1 2 and
-
the eiqs are
J
1, 1, -1, -1 . A s before t h e r e i s a quadratic
i n v a r i a n t f i x e d by r-
u
. Consider I = C a' +
a long root 0 short root
We c l a i m t h a t I i s a n i n v a r i a n t of d e g r e e d f i x e d by % and
t h e r e i s a q u a d r a t i c i n v a r i a n t f i x e d by which d o e s n o t d i v i d e
I . The f i r s t p a r t i s c l e a r s i n c e W and 4 preserve lengths
and permute t h e r a y s t h r o u g h t h e r o o t s . To s e e t h e second p a r t ,
choose c o o r d i n a t e s lvi 1 i = 1, 2 , 3 , 41 so t h a t t h e long r o o t s
( r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e s h o r t r o o t s ) a r e t h e v e c t o r s o b t a i n e d from
2vl, v1 + v2 + v3 + V4 (respectively, vl + v 2 ) by a l l permuta-

t i o n s and s i g n changes. The q u a d r a t i c i n v a r i a n t i s 2

v2 + v2 + v32 + v 42
1
To show t h a t t h i s d o e s n o t d i v i d e I , c o n s i d e r t h e sum of t h o s e
terms i n I which i n v o l v e o n l y v and v2 and n o t e t h a t t h i s
1
i s n o t d i v i s i b l e by vl2 + v2 2
.
Hence, I can be t a k e n a s one of t h e
b a s i c i n v a r i a n t s , and e = 1 if d == 8 , .
j j

Remark: (2 ~ 2 )i s n o t d i v i s i b l e by 3 . Aside from c y c l i c g r o u p s

of prime o r d e r , t h e s e a r e t h e o n l y known f i n i t e s i m p l e g r o u p s
with t h i s property.

Now we c o n s i d e r t h e automorphisms of t h e t w i s t e d groups. As

f o r t h e u n t w i s t e d groups d i a g o n a l automorphisrns and f i e l d a u t o -
morphisms can b e d e f i n e d .
P
Theorem 36: Let G and 0- be a s i n t h i s s e c t i o n and G, the
subgroup of G ( o r Gr ) g e n e r a t e d by Ur and UL . A ssume
9
that 6 is not t h e identity. Then e v e r y automorphism of G,

i s a p r o d u c t of a n i n n e r , a d i a g o n a l , and a f i e l d automorphism.

Remark: Observe t h a t graph automorphisms a r e missing. Thus t h e

t w i s t e d g r o u p s cannot t h e m s e l v e s be t w i s t e d , a t l e a s t n o t i n t h e
s i m p l e way we have been c o n s i d e r i n g .

S k e t c h of p r o o f : A s i n s t e p (1) of t h e proof of Theorem 30, t h e

automorphism, c a l l i t , may be normalized by a n i n n e r a u t o -
morphism s o t h a t i t f i x e s UC and U& ( i n t h e f i n i t e c a s e by
S y l o w l s theorem, i n t h e i n f i n i t e c a s e by arguments from t h e t h e o r y
v
of algebraic groups). Then it a l s o f i x e s Hr, and i t permutes
the Xaqs ( a simple, a E Z/R; h e n c e f o r t h we w r i t e
a
for

3a , T ) and a l s o t h e X -a r s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e same p e r m u t a t i o n ,
 i n a n a n g l e p r e s e r v i n g manner ( s e e s t e p ( 2 ) ) i n t e r m s of t h e
corresponding simple system nr of V
0-
. By checking c a s e s

- 1. one s e e s t h a t t h e permutation i s n e c e s s a r i l y t h e i d e n t i t y : if k

i i s f i n i t e , one need o n l y compare t h e v a r i o u s

o t h e r , w h i l e if k
(XalV S
i s a r b i t r a r y f u r t h e r argument i s n e c e s s a r y
w i t h each

(one can, f o r example, check which Cqs are Abelian and

which a r e n o t , t h u s r u l i n g o u t a l l p o s s i b i l i t i e s except f o r
2
2 ~ 3, E6 , and 3 ~ 4, and t h e n r u l e o u t t h e s e c a s e s ( t h e f i r s t
two t o g e t h e r ) by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e commutator r e l a t i o n s among t h e
$,?s) . AS i n s t e p ( 4 ) of t h e proof of Theorem 30, we need
?
o n l y complete t h e proof of o u r theorem when Go_
i s one of t h e
groups Ga = < Xa , X-a > , i n o t h e r words, when Gb
0
i s of one
of t h e t y p e s A1, 2 ~ 2 , "C2 or 2 ~ 2(with 2 ~ 2 ( 2 ) and 2~2(3)

excluded, b u t n o t - A1(2), A1(3), or 2 ~ 2 ( 4 ) ) ,which we h e n c e f o r t h

assume. The c a s e A1 having been t r e a t e d in 5 1 0 , we w i l l t r e a t
o n l y t h e o t h e r c a s e s , i n a sequence of s t e p s . We w r i t e x ( t,u)
1
or x(t,u,v) f o r t h e g e n e r a l element of U, a s given i n
Lemma 63 and d(s) for ha.( s ) h g ( s e ) .

I (1) We have' t h e e q u a t i o n s
 T h i s f o l l o w s from t h e d e f i n i t i o n s and Lemma 2 0 ( c ) .
( 2 ) Let U1, U2 be t h e subgroups of Ur o b t a i n e d by
setting t =0 , then a l s o u =0 . Then U T 3 U1 3 U2 = 1 ia the
lower c e n t r a l s e r i e s Ug 2 (Ur, Ur ) 3 ( Uc ,(Ur ,,U )) 3 ...
for Ur if t h e t y p e i s 2 ~ 2o r 2 ~ 2 , while Ur 3 U1 3 U2 3 1

is i f t h e type i s 2G2 .
Exercise: Prove t h i s .

( 3 ) If t h e c a s e * ~ * ( 4 ) i s excluded, t h e n

.. ) d ( s ) - ' ks ->
st.

d(s)x(t,. = x ( g ( s ) t,...) , with g: kq'

a homomorphism whose image g e n e r a t e s k additively.

Proof: Consider 2 ~ 2 . By (1) we have g(s) = s '-', so t h a t

g(s) = s for s e ke . Since Ck: kg] = 2 , we need o n l y show
that g t a k e s on a v a l u e o u t s i d e of ke . Now i f g doesn't,
3 ,
then s = ( s2-e)6 s o t h a t s E kg , for a l l s e kS
whence we e a s i l y conclude ( t h e r e a d e r i s asked t o supply t h e
proof) t h a t k h a s a t most 4 e l e m e n t s , a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . For

2 ~ 2 and 2 ~ 2t h e proof i s s i m i l a r , but e a s i e r .

v
(4) The automorphism cp ( o f Gr ) can b e n o r n a l i z e d by
a d i a g o n a l and a f i e l d automorphism t o b e t h e i d e n t i t y on UT/ul .
Proof: Since cp fixes U , it a l s o f i x e s U1, hence a c t s
on ug/ul . Thus t h e r e i s an a d d i t i v e isomorphism
f: k -> k such t h a t cp x ( t ,... ) = x(f(t), ...I .
By m u l t i p l y i n g cp by a d i a g o n a l automorphism we may assume
f(1) = 1 . Since rp fixes
9
HT , t h e r e i s an isomorphism
: kC -> k-l-
.Q.

such t h a t cpd(s) = d ( i ( s )) . Combining t h e s e

e q u a t i o n s w i t h t h e one i n ( 3 ) we g e t

f(g(s)t) = g(i(s))f(t) for a l l

.I.

s e k." , t e k .
Setting t = 1 , we g e t ( f(g(s)) =g(i(s)) , so that
f(g(s)t) = f(g(s))f(t) . If t h e c a s e 2 ~ 2( 4 ) is excluded, t h e n
f i s m u l t i p l i c a t i v e on k by ( 3 ) , hence i s a n automorphism. The
same c o n c l u s i o n , however, h o l d s i n t h a t c a s e a l s o s i n c e f fixes
0 and 1 and permutes t h e two e l e m e n t s of k not i n kg .
O u r o b j e c t now i s t o show t h a t once t h e n o r m a l i z a t i o n i n
( 4 ) h a s been a t t a i n e d is necessarily the identity.

(5) cp f i x e s each element of u1/u2 and U2 , and a l s o

1
some w e Gc which r e p r e s e n t s t h e n o n t r i v i a l element of t h e Weyl
group.

Proof: The first p a r t e a s i l y f o l l o w s from ( 2 ) and ( 4 ) , t h e n

t h e second f o l l o w s a s i n t h e proof of Theorem 3 3 ( b ) .

( 6 ) If t h e t y p e i s 2 ~ 2o r 2G2 , then is the identity.

Proof: Consider t h e t y p e 2 ~ 2. From t h e e q u a t i o n (b) of ( 4 ) and

the fact that f =1, we g e t g(s) = g(i(s)) , i.e., s2-28

= i ( s ) 2 - 2 e, and t h e n t a k i n g t h e 1 + F, t h power, s = i(s) ;

i n o t h e r words cp f i x e s every d(s) . By ( 4 ) and ( 5 ) ,
cpx(t , u ) = x ( t , u + ; ( t ) ) with
.! j an a d d i t i v e homomorphism.
Conjugating t h i s e q u a t i o n by d(s) = qd(s) , u s i n g ( l ) ,and
comparing t h e new e q u a t i o n w i t h t h e o l d , we g e t j(s2-2et)
= s2'j ( t) , and on r e p l a c i n g s by s
1+0 , j ( s t ) = s1+2ej(t) .
Choosing s 0 , 1, which i s p o s s i b l e because *c2(2) h a s been
e x c l u d e d , and r e p l a c i n g s by s+l and by 1 and combining
t h e t h r e e e q u a t i o n s , we g e t ( s + s2') j ( t ) = 0 . Now s + s2@$; 0 ,
s i n c e o t h e r w i s e we would have s + s2' = ( s + s2e)2' then s = s2 ,
c o n t r a r y t o t h e c h o i c e of s . Thus j(t) = 0 . I n o t h e r words
rp f i x e s e v e r y element o f Ur , If t h e t y p e i s 2 ~ 2i n s t e a d ,
0
t h e argument i s similar, r e q u i r i n g one e x t r a s t e p . Since Gc

i s g e n e r a t e d by Ur and t h e element w of ( 5 ) , is the

identity.

The preceding argument, s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d , b a r e l y f a i l s f o r

2 ~ 2, i n f a c t f a i l s j u s t f o r t h e smallest c a s e 2~2(4) . The

proof t o f o l l o w , however, works i n a l l c a s e s .

( 7 ) If t h e t y p e i s 2 ~ 2, then is the identity.

Proof: Choose w a s i n ( 5 ) a n d , assuming u $I. 0 , write

0 P P
w x ( t , u ) w- l = x n x with x,x e Ur, n e Hr w . A simple
;'
calculation i n SL3 shows t h a t x = x(at5-', :::) f o r some a 4 k

depending on w b u t n o t on t or u . (Prove t h i s . ) If now

we w r i t e cpx(t,u) = x ( t , u + j ( t ) ) , apply rp t o t h e above
-I
e q u a t i o n , a n d u s e ( 4 ) and ( 5 ) , w e g e t tc-'=t(u+ j(t)) ,
so t h a t j(t) = 0 and we may complete t h e proof a s b e f o r e .
 It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e isomorphisms among t h e
v a r i o u s C h e v a l l e y g r o u p s , b o t h t w i s t e d and u n t w i s t e d . We s t a t e
t h e r e s u l t s f o r t h e f i n i t e groups, omitting t h e proofs.

Theorem 37 : ( a ) ' Among t h e f i n i t e simple C h e v a l l e y g r o u p s , t h e i r

t w i s t e d a n a l o g u e s , and t h e a l t e r n a t i n g g r o u p s q ( n > 5) , a complete
list of isomorphisms i s g i v e n a s f o l l o w s .

(1) Those independent of k .

(3) J u s t s i x o t h e r c a s e s , of t h e i n d i c a t e d o r d e r s .
A1(4) -- Al(5) ~0~ 60

A1(7) A2(2) 168

A1(9)1. 46 360

~ ~ ( 2 ) ~ a ~ 20160
 (b) I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g c a s e s i n which t h e
Chevalley group j u s t f a i l s t o be simple.

The d e r i v e d group of B2(2) N 360

The i n d i c e s i n t h e o r i g i n a l group are 2, 3 , 2, 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . .

Remarks: (a) The e x i s t e n c e of t h e isomorphisms i n ( 1 ) and ( 2 )

i s e a s y , and i n ( 3 ) is proved, e . g . , i n Dieudonne' (Can. J. Math.1949).
There a l s o t h e f i r s t c a s e of ( b ) , c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e form
B2(2) S6 (symmetric group) i s proved.

(b) It i s n a t u r a l t o i n c l u d e t h e simple g r o u p s in 1
t h e above comparison s i n c e t h e y a r e t h e d e r i v e d g r o u p s of t h e
Weyl groups of t y p e Anml and t h e IfJeyl g r o u p s i n a s e n s e form
t h e s k e l e t o n s of t h e corresponding Chevalley groups. We would
l i k e t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e Weyl g r o u p s W(En) a r e a l s o almost
simple and a r e r e l a t e d t o e a r l i e r g r o u p s a s f o l l o w s .

Proposition: We have t h e isomorphisms:

~ W ( E w~B 2) ( 3 ) N 2~3(4)

~ ~ w ( E ~ )N/ D4(2)
c , with C t h e c e n t e r , of o r d e r 2.
 Proof : The proof i s s i m i l a r t o t h e proof of S6 = W ( A 5 ) PJ B2(2)
given n e a r t h e beginning of 3 1Q.

Aside from t h e c y c l i c g r o u n s of prime o r d e r and t h e g r o u p s

c o n s i d e r e d above, o n l y 11 o r 1 2 o t h e r f i n i t e s i m p l e g r o u p s a r e

a t p r e s e n t ($qag,1368) known. We w i l l d i s c u s s them b r i e f l y .

(a) The f i v e Mathieu g r o u p s Mn ( n = 11, 1 2 , 22, 23, 2 4 ) .

These were d i s c o v e r e d by Mathieu a b o u t a hundred y e a r s ago and p u t
on a f i r m f o o t i n g by W i t t ('Hamburger Abh. 1 2 ( 1 9 3 8 ) ) . They a r i s e
as h i g h l y t r a n s i t i v e p e r m u t a t i o n g r o u p s on t h e i n d i c a t e d numbers
of l e t t e r s . Their orders a r e :

(b) The f i r s t Janko g r o u p J1 d i s c o v e r e d by Janko

( J . Algebra 3 ( 1 9 6 6 ) ) a b o u t f i v e y e a r s ago. It i s a subgroup of

G 2 (11) and can be r e p r e s e n t e d a s a permutation

g r o u p on 266 l e t t e r s . Its order i s

The r e m a i n i n g g r o u p s were a l l uncovered l a s t f a l l , more o r l e s s .

I
 (c) The g r o u p s J2 and of Janko. The e x i s t e n c e of
j 2 1/2
J2 was p u t on a f i r m b a s i s f i r s t by H a l l and Wales u s i n g a machine,
and t h e n by T i t s i n t e r m s of a 9sgeometry.7? It h a s a subgroup of
i n d e x 1 0 0 isomorphic t o & ~ ~ ( 2,W) 2 ~ ( $2 ) , and i s i t s e l f of i n d e x
416 j n G2(4) . The g r o u p
J 2 1/2
h a s n o t y e t been p u t on a f i r m
b a s i s , and it a p p e a r s t h a t it w i l l t a k e a g r e a t d e a l of work t o
do s o ( b e c a u s e i t d o e s n o t seem t o have any 'IlargeF7s u b g r o u p s ) ,
b u t t h e e v i d e n c e f o r i t s e x i s t e n c e i s overwhelming. The o r d e r s a r e :

0
(d) The group H qf D. Higman and Sims, and t h e group H
of G. Higman. The f i r s t g r o u p c o n t a i n s M2* a s a subgroup of index
100 and was c o n s t r u c t e d i n t e r m s of t h e automorphism group of a
g r a p h w i t h 100 v e r t i c e s whose e x i s t e n c e depends on p r o p e r t i e s
of S t e i n e r systems. I n s p i r e d by t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n , G. Higman
t h e n c o n s t r u c t e d h i s own group i n t e r m s of a v e r y s p e c i a l geometry
invented f o r t h e occasion, The two g r o u p s have t h e same o r d e r ,
and everyone seems t o f e e l t h a t t h e y a r e isomorphic, b u t no one
h a s y e t proved t h i s . The o r d e r i s :

(e) The ( l a t e s t ) group S of Suzuki. This contains G2(4)

a s a subgroup of i n d e x 1782, and i s c o n t r u c t e d i n t e r m s of a g r a p h
whose e x i s t e n c e depends on t h e imbedding J2 C G 2 ( 4 ) . It p o s s e s s e s
a n i n v o l u t o r y automorphism whose s e t o f f i x e d p o i n t s i s e x a c t l y J2 .
Its order i s :

( f ) The g r o u p M o f McLaughlin. This group i s constructed

i n terms of a graph and c o n t a i n s ' ~ ~ ( 9 a)s a s u b g r o u p o f i n d e x
275. Its order i s :

Theorem 38: Among a l l t h e f i n i t e s i m p l e g r o u p s above ( i . e . , all

t h a t a r e c u r r e n t l y known), t h e o n l y c o i n c i d e n c e s i n t h e o r d e r s
which do n o t come f r o m isomorphisms a r e :

(a) Bn(q) and Cn(q) for n 23 and q odd .

(b) A2(4) and ~ ~ ( 2 ) ~ ( 2 8 . '

3'
(c) H and H if t h e y a r e n v t i s o m o r p h i c .

That t h e g r o u p s i n ( a ) h a v e t h e same o r d e r and a r e n o t

i s o m o r p h i c h a s b e e n proved e a r l i e r . The o r d e r s i n ( b ) a r e . b o t h
e q u a l t o 20160 by Theorem 2 5 , and t h e g r o u p s a r e n o t i s o m o r p h i c
since r e l a t i v e t o t h e normalizer B of a 2-Sylow s u b g r o u p t h e
f i r s t g r o u p h a s s i x d o u b l e c o s e t s and t h e second h a s 24. The p r o o f
t h a t ( a ) , ( b ) and ( c ) r e p r e s e n t t h e o n l y p o s s i b i l i t i e s d e p e n d s on
a n e x h a u s t i v e a n a l y s i s of t h e g r o u p o r d e r s which can n o t b e
undertaken here.
 2 . R e p r e s e n t 3 t i . n ~ . I n t h i s s e c t i o n we c o n s i d e r t h e i r r e d u c i b l e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e i n f i n i t e Chevalley g r o u p s . A s we s h a l l s e e ,

h e r e t h e t h e o r y i s q u i t e complete. A 1 1 r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e assumed

t o be f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l and t h e s t a n d a r d t e r m i n o l o g y i s u s e d . In

1 particular 1 must a c t a s t h e i d e n t i t y , and t h e t r i v i a l 0-dimen-

s i o n a l (but not t h e t r i v i a l 1-dimensional) r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s ex-
cluded fr'om t h e l i s t of i r r e d u c i b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . We s t a r t
w i t h a g e n e r a l lemma.

Lemma 6 8 ; Let K be a n a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d , B and C

a s s o c i a t i v e algebras with 1 over K , and A = B @C .
(a) If (B ,V) and (Y,W) a r e (finite-dimensional) irreduc-
i b l e modules f o r B and C , then (u.,U ) = ( B @ Y, V @W) i s one

for A .

(b) Conversely, every i r r e d u c i b l e A-module ( a, U ) is

I r e a l i z a b l e , uniquely, a s a .tensor product a s i n ( a ] .

Proof: (a) By B u r n s i d e l s Theorem ( s e e , e . g . , Jacobson, Lectures

i n A b s t r a c t a l g e b r a , Vol. 2 ) , BB = End V and %C = End W , whence
aA = End U and (a,U) is irreducible.
I
(b) Let V be an i r r e d u c i b l e B-submodule of U . Such
exist since U is f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l . Let L b e t h e s p a c e of
B-homomorphisms of V into U . T h i s i s nonzero and is a C-module
under t h e r u l e c4, = a ( c ) o 4 , (Check t h i s . ) Let (Y,W) be an
i r r e d u c i b l e submodule. The map : V @W -> U d e f i n e d by
v @f -> f (v) i s e a s i l y checked t o be a n A-homomorphism. V O W
i s i r r e d u c i b l e by ( a ) , and U i s by assumption. Hence by Schurrs

-,-,*,
.; .,. . -:
. ,.., -
.,cw..~.~...-,--.-
<
..:r--.
_i ' . ... . ...
 1 f
Lemma ( s e e l o c , c i - t . ) 9 is a n isomorphism, If a = B @ X is

a s e c o n d decolllposition o f t h e r e q u i r e d form, t h e n r e s t r i c t i o n t o
P @1 , i . e . m u l t i p l e s of
? 1
B yields p Q1 P and are

i s o m o r p h i c , s o t h a t by t h e Jordan-Holder o r Krull-Schmidt theorems

@ and
1
are elso. Similarly b. a n d d a r e i s o m o r p h i c , which
pr.oves t h e u n i q u e n e s s i n ( b ) .

Corollary: ( a ) If K i s an a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d a n d

G = Tci i s a d i r e c t ' p r o d u c t of a f i n i t e number o f g r o u p s , t h e n

t h e t e n s o r product V of i r r e d u c i b l e KGi-modules Vi i s a n ir-
reducible KG-module , and every i r r e d u c i b l e KG-module i s u n i q u e l y
r e a l i z a b l e i n t h i s way.

(b) S i m i l a r l y f o r a d i r e c t sum k = C
i
of L i e

algebras over K .
Proof:
.? We a p p l y Lemma 68, e x t e n d e d t o s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , i n ( a ) t o
group a l g e b r a s , i n ( b ) t o enveloping a l g e b r a s .

-
E x e r -.c i s e :
P
lf t h e d i r e c t p r o d u c t above i s one o f a l g e b r a i c g r o u p s
over K !of t o p o l o g i c a l group: , of L i e groups,. . .) , t h e n V is
.
r a t i o n a l (conlir,uoi;s , ~ ~ a . 1 - y l ; .i c. , j i f a n d o n l y i f e a c h Vi is.

Remark: If we a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i r r e d u c i b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
of a C h e v a l l e y group G , we may a s w e l l assume i t i s u n i v e r s a l .

The c o r o l l a r y t h e n i m p l i e s t h a t we may a s w e l l a l s o assume t h a t

G ( i. e . t h a t C) i s indecomposab3.e. T h i s we w i l l do whenever it
is convenient.
Now we t a k e up t h e s t u d y of r a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s f o r
I Chevalley groups o v e r a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d s viewed a s a l g e -

I b r a i c groups. I n s u c h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e

I r e p r e s e n t a t i v e m a t r i x a r e r e q u i r e d t o b e r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s of

I
J
t h e original coordinates. Whether t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t i s t o b e t a k e n
l o c a l l y ( e . g . a s i n t h e proof of Theorem 7 , Car. 1) o r g l o b a l l y
i s i m m a t e r i a l , i n view of t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t .

Lemma 69: Let G be a C h e v a l l e y group viewed a s a n a l g e b r a i c

group a s above, a n d f :G -> k a function. Then t h e f o l l o w i n g

conditions a r e equivalent.

I (a) f is expressible a s a r a t i o n a l function l o c a l l y .

(b) f is expressible a s a r a t i o n a l function globally.
(c) f i s e x p r e s s i b l e a s a polynomial.

Proof: It w i l l b e enough t o show t h a t ( a ) i m p l i e s ( c ) . Let A

I b e t h e a l g e b r a of polynomial f u n c t i o n s on

e x i s t s a n open c o v e r i n g [Ui] of G , which

G . By a s s u m p t i o n t h e r e

may- b e t a k e n f i n i t e
by t h e maximal c o n d i t i o n on t h e open s u b s e t s of G (which h o l d s
by H i l b e r t ' s b a s i s theorem i n ii) , and elements g i , hi in A
such t h a t f = gi/hi and hi + 0 on Ui for a l l i . Since t h e

hi d o n ' t a l l v a n i s h t o g e t h e r , by H i l b e r t ts N u l l s t e l l a n s a t z t h e r e
e x i s t elements a i i n 11 s u c h t h a t 1 = Z a 1 . h i on G Let .
U = fi U i ; it i s nonempty , i n f a c t dense., s i n c e G i s i r r e d u c i b l e .
0

On Uo we have f = Z aifhi = Z aigi , a p o l y n o m i a l , hence by den-

s i t y a l s o on each Ui a n d on G , as required.

P r e s e n t l y we w i l l need t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t .
Lemma 70: The a l g e b r a A of polynomial f u n c t i o n s on G is inte-
g r a l l y closed ( i n i t s quotient f i e l d ) .

Proof: We o b s e r v e f i r s t t h a t il is an i n t e g r a l domain ( s i n c e G

i s i r r e d u c i b l e a s an a l g e b r a i c s e t , t h e polynomial i d e a l d e f i n i n g
it i s p r i m e ) , s o t h a t it r e a l l y has a q u o t i e n t f i e l d . Assume
f = p1/p2 (pi E A) i s i n t e g r a l over A: f n + alf n-1 +
... + an = 0

f o r some ai E . On r e s t r i c t i o n t o t h e open s e t U-HU of G

the pi and ai become, by Theorem 7 ( b ) , polynomials i n t h e co-

ordinates -1]
(ta,ti,ti . S i n c e such polynomials form a u n i q u e
f a c t o r i z a t i o n domain, we s e e by t h e above e q u a t i o n t h a t f itself
i s such a polynomial, on U-HU . The same b e i n g t r u e on each of
t h e t r a n s l a t e s of U-HU by elements of G , we conclude t h a t f
i s a polynomial on G , i. e . f is i n A , by Lemma 69.

Two more lelnmas and t h e n t h e main theorem.

Lemma 71: The r a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s of H (hqrnomorphisms i n t o k*)

a r e j u s t t h e elements of t h e l a t t i c e L g e n e r a t e d by t h e g l o b a l
weights of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n d e f i n i n g G .
Proof: Let h be a c h a r a c t e r . Then it i s a polynomial i n t h e
d i a g o n a l elements of H ( w r i t t e n a s a group of d i a g o n a l m a t r i c e s ) ,
i.e. a l i n e a r combination of elements of L . Being m u l t i p l i c a t i v e ,
it e q u a l s some element of L . (Prove t h i s . ) Conversely, i f
h E L , then h i s a power product of weights i n t h e r e p r e s e n t a -

t i o n defining G , and a l l exponents may be t a k e n p o s i t i v e s i n c e

t h e product o f t h e l a t t e r weights ( a s f u n c t i o n s ) i s 1 , so that
h is a polynomial on H .
1
A and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w.eight s p a c e s Vh , relative t o . H , in
t h e obvious way.

--
Lemma Let '72:- V be a r a t i o n a l G-module, h a weight, v an
element of
vA
, and a a root. Then t h e r e e x i s t v e c t o r s

I: vi
t E k .
E Vh+ia(i = 1 , 2 , ...) so that x a ( t ) v = v + P tivi for all

Proof :. Since V is r a t i o n a l and t ->

xu($) i s a n isomorphism,

x,(t ) i s a polynomial i n t : x a ( t ) v = C t ivi . If we a p p l y h

t o t h i s e q u a t i o n and compare t h e r e s u l t w i t h t h e e q u a t i o n g o t by
replacing x,(t) by hxa[t)h-' = xu(a(h)t) , we get Vi Vh+ia,
* "
Setting t = 0 ., we g e t v = v
0
, whence t h e lemma.

Theorem 39 (Compare w i t h Theorem 3 ) : Let G be a C h e v a l l e y group

over an a l g e b r a i c a l l y closed f i e l d k ( i. e . a sernisirnple a l g e b r a i c

group o v e r k) , and assume t h e n o t a t i o n s a s above.

(a) Every nonzero r a t i o n a l G-module V c o n t a i n s a nonzero

element v
+ which b e l o n g s t o some weight h E L and i s f i x e d
by a l l x E U .
(b) assume V = kGv
+ w i t h v + a s i n ( a ) . Then V = kU v
-+ .
Further diin V
h
= 1 , e v e r y weight on V h a s t h e form
A - C a (a p o s i t i v e r o o t ) , a n d V = C V
P
.

(c) In (a) Q,a> E z+f o r every p o s i t i v e r o o t a .

(d) If V i s i r r e d u c i b l e , t h e n t h e weight h ( t h e "highest

weight1') and t h e l i n e kvC of ( a ) a r e u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d .

 210
(e) Given any c h a r a c t e r h on H satisfying ( c ) , there
e x i s t s a unique i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l G-module V i n which h
is r e a l i z e d a s i n ( a ) .

Proof: (a) The p r o o f i s t h e same a s t h a t of Theorem 3 ( a ) w i t h

Lemma 72 i n p l a c e of Lemma 11.

(b) Since U B i s dense i n G (Theorem 7 ) and V is

r a t i o n a l , a n y l i n e a r f u n c t i o n on V which v a n i s h e s on U-BV+

a l s o v a n i s h e s on Gv
f
. Thus V = ku-Bv
+ = kU v
-+ . The o t h e r
a s s e r t i o n s of ( b ) folLow from t h i s e q u a t i o n and Lemma 72.
f
(c) wh
, i s a weight on V (with wav a corresponding
weight v e c t o r ) . Since wh, = A -a,ax , it f o l l o w s f r o m ( b )
t h a t <h,a> E Z+ .
(d) This f o l l o w s from t h e s e c o n d and t h i r d p a r t s of ( b ) .

( e ) We w i l l u s e t h e correspondence between l o c a l weights

(on L ) and g l o b a l w e i g h t s (on G) (see p. 6 0 ) . Let A be a s
in (e) . By Lemma 7 1 , h E L . Let h a l s o d e n o t e t h e correspond-
i n g weight on , so that h(Ha) = a , a > E Z' for a l l a > 0 ..

Let (y,V ) t
be a n i r r e d u c i b l e L-module w i t h as its highest
f 1
weight, v a c o r r e s p o n d i n g weight v e c t o r , and G a correspond-
i n g C h e v a l l e y g r o u p over k ( c o n s t r u c t e d from and some
c h o i c e of t h e l a t t i c e M in v') . Since h is i n the l a t t i c e

g e n e r a t e d by t h e weights of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of k used t o

construct G , it f o l l o w s (Theorem 7 , Cor. 1) t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a

t ?
r a t i o n a l homomorphism 9 :. G -> G such t h a t x c l ( t ) -> x,(t)
or 1 for a l l a and t , . i n the usual notation. The r e s u l t i n g
I r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of G on V'
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n Class may vary w i t h t h e c h o i c e o f
need n o t be i r r e d u c i b l e {and i t s
M) , but at
l e a s t it c o n t a i n s t h e v e c t o r v
+ which i s o f weight h and i s
f i x e d by every x E U . Let V
' 1
be t h e submodule of V' gen-
e r a t e d by
f
v , and V
1' f
a maximal submodule of V
11
. (v' '
+

I
t ?
i s i n f a c t unique a s f o l l o w s from t h e e q u a t i o n V = ku-v of
(b) . Check t h i s . ) The G-module V = V' '/v 1 1 1 meets t h e e x i s -
t e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s of ( e ) . For t h e u n i q u e n e s s , l e t
+
Vi , v i ( i = 1,2)
s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n s on V,v
+ in (e). Let v
4-
=
f
vl +
+
v2 E V1 ;V 2 ,
+ . + + .
I and
the
V = kGv
G-homomorphism
Then
pl:
Vh = kv

V -> V
by ( b ) , s o t h a t

1
, projection
v2 (: V
on t h e first fac-
Consider

f
tor. Since vl generates V1, pl is onto. Since a l s o
k e r pl
+
- V2 A V , which
C is 0 because V2 i s i r r e d u c i b l e and
v2 V it f o l l o w s t h a t pl i s an isomorphism. Thus V is

I isomorphic t o V1 , and similarly t o V2 , so that Y1 and V2

I a r e isomorphic, a s r e q u i r e d .

Acomplement: If char k = 0 , t h e n i n t h e e x i s t e n c e proof above

1 1 1t 1 1 1
V is i t s e l f irreducible, i.e. V = V and V . . . = O . In

I o t h e r words, if t h e Chevalley group G i s c o n s t r u c t e d from a n

irreducible g-module. V and a f i e l d k of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 0 ,
t h e n a s a l i n e a r group it i s i r r e d u c i b l e .

Proof: Recall t h a t V was o r i g i n a l l y a n f a -module (irreducible

by a s s u m p t i o n ) , and t h a t a l a t t i c e M a s i n Theorem 2 , Cor. 1 was
I

t h e n used t o s h i f t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t o k . Clearly VQ is irre-

ducible r e l a t i v e t o . It f o l l o w s t h a t Vk is irreducible
I relative t o Lk: o t h e r w i s e
+
t h e r e would be a p r o p e r i n v a r i a n t
+ n Vg f 0 ,
i subspace

nonzero v
V1

E
, excluding
V1 such t h a t
kv
Xuv
since'

=
kv

0 for a l l CL > 0
t h e n some

, so that

writing v = C t im i (mi E M, t i E k and l i n e a r l y independent

over 9) and choosing a so that Xami $ 0 f o r some i , we
would a r r i v e a t t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n Z tiX,mi = 0 . S i n c e we can

I. r e c o v e r each Xa from G by u s i n g x,(t ) = 1 + t X a + ... for

1 s e v e r a l v a l u e s of t and t h e X,'s generate , we conclude

that Vk is i r r e d u c i b l e f o r G .
I n contrast t o t h e case j u s t considered, if char k $ 0 , then
V' $ V" and V' " $ 0 i n general and t h e exact s i t u a t i o n is not
I
a t a l l u n d e r s t o o d , e x c e p t i n a few s c a t t e r e d c a s e s ( t y p e s A1, A2,
B2 o r when char k i s l a r g e i1comparedh9
to h) . However, t h e

t
J
following is t r u e .

E x e r c i s e :- (a) For t h e l a t t i c e M of Theorem 2 , Cor. 1 ( w i t h V

t h e r e assumed t o b e i r r e d u c i b l e ) assume t h a t c v + n M i s pre-
I
scribed. Prove t h a t t h e r e i s a u n i q u e minimal c h o i c e f o r M

I ( c o n t a i n e d i n a l l o t h e r s ) a n d a u n i q u e maximal c h o i c e ,

Assume ilow a s i n t h e complement, e x c e p t t h a t char k $ 0 .

11
(b) If H i s maximal, t h e n V" = 0 , i.e. V is

I- irreducible.

(c) If M i s minimal, t h e n V
t
= V
? 1.
.
Example : If i s of t y p e :Il , char k = 2 , ai-id t h e a d j o i n t
lila x = a, H/2, Y>
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n is used, then ( b ) holds f o r M

and ( c ) holds f o r DLin = a,H , Y> , but not v i c e versa.

 21 3

The proof g i v e n above f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e i n Theorem 3 9 ( e )

b r i n g s o u t t h e c o n n e c t i o n between t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of G and
t h o s e of % and shows t h a t e v e r y i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n -

t a t i o n of a C h e v a l l e y group i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p f 0 can b e con-

s t r u c t e d by t h e r e d u c t i o n mod p of a c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of a group i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 0 . It depends, however, on t h e
e x i s t e n c e of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of % , which we have n o t proved
h e r e , thus i n i t s e n t i r e t y is very long. We s h a l l now develop an
a l t e r n a t e , more i n t r i n s i c , p r o o f .
We s t a r t w i t h t h e c o n n e c t i o n between a G-=module V and i t s
dual V" , on which G a c t s by t h e r u l e (xf)( v ) = f (x-lv) for
all x E G, f E V" , and v E V . We r e c a l l t h a t wo is t h e ele-
ment of t h e Weyl g r o u p which makes a l l p o s i t i v e . r o o t s n e g a t i v e .

Lemma 73: Let V be a n i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l G-module, h its

+
,
.
I

highest weight, v a c o r r e s p o n d i n g weight v e c t o r , A". = -woh

- +
and ff t h e element of v": defined thus: i f we w r i t e v = w 0v
and v E V as v = cv
- + terms of o t h e r (hence h i g h e r ) w e i g h t s ,

then
+
f (v) = c Then h' and f + a r e h i g h e s t weight and

.
.
I
,

h i g h e s t weight v e c t o r f o r v.'.
Proof: I n t h e d e f i n i t i o n of f + we have u s e d t h e f a c t t h a t
dim Vw = dim V h = 1 . Here, and a l s o i n s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s
0
l a t e r , we e x t e n d h to B by t h e r u l e h(h) = h(h) if

.
.I,

b = uh ( u E U, h E H) , and s i m i l a r l y f o r h"' If we w r i t e
v E V a s i n t h e lemnia and u s e Lemma 7 2 , we s e e t h a t
b v = c (woh) ( h ) v r - + h i g h e r t e r m s . Since c = ff ( v ) and
 (w0h) ( h ) = hi"(b-l) , we have f + ( b v ) = ~ ' " (-b1 ) f + ( v ) . On r e p l a c i n g
b by b-l we g e t b f + = A* ( b ) f f , as required.

Theorem 40: - For A E L let .iA be t h e s p a c e of polynomial func-

tions a on G such t h a t a(yb) = a(y)h(b) for a l l y E G,

b E B , made into a G-module i n t h e obvious way.

(a) If V , A , vf a r e a s i n Lemma 71, t h e n t h e map

J,

'P :: V q -> A
A
d e f i n e d by ( ~) (fx ) = f ( x v + ) for f E v3' and
x E G is a G-isomorphism i n t o .

(b) Conversely, i f A is such t h a t ,iA $ 0 , then

h
A

contains a unique i r r e d u c i b l e G-submodule. The l a t t e r is f i n i t e -

.
.
I
.

dimensional and r a t i o n a l and i t s h i g h e s t wieght i s hq.

Proof: (a) The p o i n t s t o be - c h e c k e d h e r e w i l l b e l e f t a s an

exercise .
(b) We o b s e r v e f i r s t t h a t a s a G-module Ah is l o c a l l y

f inite-dimensional ( i n f a c t , it i s f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l , b u t we s h a l l
n o t prove t h i s ) , s i n c e t h e s e t of polynomials of a g i v e n degree
is. Thus t h e r e e x i s t i r r e d u c i b l e submodules and a l l of them a r e
f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l and r a t i o n a l . Let p b e t h e h i g h e s t weight of
+
any one of them and a a c o r r e s p o n d i n g nonzero weight v e c t o r . . We
have (") a+(bxbl) =
-1 + I
p(b ) a (x)A(b ) f o r a l l x E G , b , b E B
1.
.
+ +
Since Bw B i s dense i n G , a ( w o )
0
0 . Since a l s o
.
+ a (bwo)
+ -1
= a (wo.wO bwo) , we g e t from t h e above e q u a t i o n t h a t p(b-l)
~ ( w z ' b w ~ ), s o t h a t
. 0 .I
',

= p = A Since /I i s u n i q u e l y determined
+
by A , the function a is determined by i t s v a l u e a t wo by
 21 5

(+) with x = w
0
and t h e d e n s i t y of BwoB in G , proving the

uniqueness i n ( b ) .

Remarks: (a) In characteristic 0 it e a s i l y f o l l o w s f r o m t h e

theorem of complete r e d u c i b i l i t y t h a t Ah i t s e l f is irreducible.

(b) Therepresentationof G on B is,, i n t h e context

h
of polynomial r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . , t h e one i n d u c e d by t h e c h a r a c t e r
h on B . The f a c t t h a t it c o n t a i n s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h i g h e s t
,
.I.

weight i s , i n view o f Theorem 3 9 ( a ) , a form of F r o b e n i u s

reciprocity.
+
Lemma 74: Let f+ b e a s i n Lemma 73 and a = ~ f +w i t h .P as
i n Theorem 4 0 ( a ) s o t h a t xv
+ =
+
a (x)wov
+ + higher terms. Let WA
b e t h e s t a b i l i z e r of A in W , and f o r w E Wh assume t h a t t h e
corresponding r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w E G has been chosen s o t h a t
wv
+ = v
+ . Then i f x E G is written uhw wul ( s e e Theorem 4 )
1
0

w e have a+(x) = ~"(h-') if w E W

A .'
= 0 otherwise.

Proof:: A choice f o r w E G a s above i s always p o s s i b l e : : if

A = 0 , then V is t r i v i a l since G = BG , while i f h + 0 ,
+ +
then wv has weight wh = h , hence i s a i n u l t i p l e o f v , so

t h a t by modifying it by a s u i t a b l e element of H we can a c h i e v e

wv
+ = v
+ . From t h e d e f i n i t i o n s and Lemma 72 we have
+
a (x)wov
+

= hw wv
+ . If w E Wh , then a + ( x ) = h"(hml) by t h e c h o i c e of
o
w , while i f a+(x) + 0 , then w fixes kv+ by t h e e q u a t i o n s o

that w E Wh .
 21 6
This b r i n g s us t o t h e

of t h e--e
- - ----.-.
Second proof m o r e n 3 9- (-e l :
- a > . - - -

Proof: Let h be a s i n Theorem 3 9 ( c ) , I t w i l l b e enough t.0 prove

t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n d e f i n e d by t h e l a s t e q u a t i o n s of Lemma 74 i s
r a t i o n a l on G . The e x i s t e n c e w i l l t h e n f o l l o w from Theorem 4 0 ( b )
with
\I.

A"' i n p l a c e of h . By Lemma 70 any power of t h i s f u n c t i o n

w i l l do, s o t h a t by Lemma 7L+ it w i l l b e enough t o c o n s t r u c t a n
i r r e d u c i b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n whose h i g h e s t weight i s some p o s i t i v e
power ( p o s i t i v e m u l t i p l e if we w r i t e c h a r a c t e r s on H additirely)
of h . T h i s we w i l l do, u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t .

Lemma 75 ( C h e v a l l e y ) : Let G be a l i n e a r a l g e b r a i c group and P

a c l o s e d subgroup. Then t h e r e e x i s t s a r a t i o n a l G-module V and
a line L in V whose s t a b i l i z e r i n G is P .
Proof:. Let ii be t h e a l g e b r a of polynomials i n t h e m a t r i c e n t r i e s
and I t h e ideal defining P . By H i l b e r t f s b a s i s theorem I
is g e n e r a t e d by a f i n i t e number of i t s e l e m e n t s , s o t h a t t h e r e
e x i s t s a finite-dimensional G-invariant subspace B of such
that B fi I , say C , generates I . For x E G we have t h e
x
--
P ; f ( x l y )= 0 f o r a l l
following equivalent conditions: E

f E I, y E P; x I C I ; xCCC
- - . If now c = dimC, V = R B ,v
is t h e product i n V of a b a s i s f o r C , and L = kv , it f o l l o w s

t h a t t h e s t a b i l i z e r of L is exactly P .
-
We resume t h e proof of e x i s t e n c e . Let II = .
{u1 , a 2 , . . ,aG)
b e t h e s e t of s i r ~ p l er o o t s . For i = 2 , . ., let Pi be t h e
p a r a b o l i c subgroup of G corresponding t o - [ai) ( s e e Lemma
0 Li = kv t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l i n e of L e m a 75, pi the
i
c o r r e s p o n d i n g r a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r on Pi , hence a l s o on B and

H , and Vi = kGvi . If j f i , then w

j
is represented i n
Pi ,
so that p i = pi and
J
S i n c e wi
<,u.,a.>= 0
1
. does n o t f i x

Li , by c h o i c e , it f o l l o w s from p a r t s ( b ) and ( c ) of Theorem 39

applied t o Vi that <pi,ai> is a p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r , s a y di .
If now A is a s b e f o r e s o t h a t Q,ui> = c
i
E Z' , it follows

that dh = Z e . p
1 i
with d = K d i and ei = cid/'di . If we form
t h e t e n s o r product
e
uvii
e
, then n v i i i s a v e c t o r of weight
dh for B , so t h a t we may e x t r a c t a n i r r e d u c i b l e component whose
h i g h e s t weight is dh , and t h u s complete our s e c o n d e x i s t e n c e
proof.

Remark: We a r e i n d e b t e d t o G . D. Mostow f o r t h e proof j u s t g i v e n .

The e x t r a problems t h a t a r i s e when char k 0 a r e compen-

s a t e d f o r by t h e f a c t t h a t o n l y a f i n i t e number of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
h a s t o c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s c a s e , a s we s h a l l now s e e .

Lemma 76: - Assume char k = p f 0 . Let Fr ( f o r Frobenius ) denote

t h e o p e r a t i o n o f r e p l a c i n g t h e m a t r i c e n t r i e s of t h e e l e m e n t s of
th
G by t h e i r p powers. i s an i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l rep-
If P
r e s e n t a t i o n of G ,
then s o is o Fr
9 .
If t h e h i g h e s t weight of

is , t h a t of
9 f Fr is -
Proof: Exercise.

Theorem 4.1: Assume t h a t G above i s u n i v e r s a l ( i . e . G is a

s i m p l y c o n n e c t e d a l g e b r a i c g r o u p ) , and t h a t char k = p $ 0 . Let

 G
2 b e t h e s e t of p i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of G
f o r which t h e h i g h e s t w e i g h t h satisfies 0 - Q,ai>
< <p -1
(ai simple) . Then e v e r y i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
m
G can b e w r i t t e n u n i q u e l y @ fj o F r J
J=O
pj E 2 )

S k e t c h of p r o o-f -: , We o b s e r v e f i r s t t h a t s i n c e G is universal
L = L1 , so that a l l A's with a l l <A , L ~ >E
4-
occur a s h i g h e s t

weights, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h o s e used t o define . Consider

JI = Ofj o FrJ Let A

j
be t h e h i g h e s t weight of
Sj The

p r o d u c t of t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w e i g h t v e c t o r s y i e l d s f o r
9 "
h i g h e s t w e i g h t v e c t o r of w e i g h t A = X pj h j , by Lemma 76. If we
vary t h e
pjts in n, we o b t a i n , i n view o f t h e u n i q u e n e s s of

t h e e x p a n s i o n of a number i n t h e s c a l e of p , each p o s s i b l e
h i g h e s t weight A e x a c t l y once. Thus t o p r o v e t h e t h e o r e m we

n e e d o n l y show t h a t e a c h above is i r r e d u c i b l e . The p r o o f of

P
t h i s f a c t depends e v e n t u a l l y on t h e l i n e a r i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e
d i s t i n c t automorphislns F (j = O,,.. .) of k . We omit t h e
d e t a i l s , r e f e r r i n g t h e r e a d e r t o R . S t e i n b e r g , Nagoya Piath. J . 22
(1963) , o r t o P. C a r t i e r , Sem. B o u r b a k i 255 ( 1 9 6 3 ) .
/

Corollary; assume t h a t one of t h e s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s of Theorem

28 h o l d s . Let fL (resp. /? -)
2
b e t h e s u b s e t s of /C defined

by <A,ui> = 0 for a l l i such t h a t a is long (resp. s h o r t ) .

Then e v e r y e l e m e n t of f can b e w r i t t e n u n i q u e l y 96 OfS with

Proof: Given f E k? , w r i t e t h e corresponding h i g h e s t weight A

 and ps a r e i n and Rs We have t o show t h a t
p-t BPS
is irreducible. I f we d e f i n e cp a s i n Theorem 26 b u t w i t h G
.*,
I and G" i n t erclianged, a n d s e t pi = cp o p4 ,
,
I
.

= w 0 yS , we haqe

t o show t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
.
I
.

ap; of G?.
-8.

is irreducible.
. .
S i n c e t h e corresponding h i g h e s t weights s a t i s f y
.b

. .
. <A;,av>
. . = QL?a> if u, is short

= 0 i f not

<h:,a"> = p a s ,a> i f a. is long

= 0 if not,

2 "' , s o
.
I

we s e e t h a t hi and / c o r r e s p o n d t o e l e m e n t s of
Gel- .
.
I

t h a t t h e c o r o l l a r y f o l l o w s f r o m Theorem 4 1 a p p l i e d t o

Examples : (a) SL2 . Here t h e r e a r e p representations

Pi (i= 0 1 , . , = 1) i n R,the it h b e i n g r e a l i z e d on t h e
s p a c e of p o l y n o m i a l s homogeneous of d e g r e e i over k2 .
I (b) Sp4, p = 2 . Here t h e r e a r e 4 r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i n

. If V i s t h e g r a p h autornorphisrn of Theorem 2 8 t h e n

o V = f s o t h a t by t h e above c o r o l l a r y , t h e s e 4 a r e , i n
t e r m s of t h e d e f i n i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n p , just 1 ( t r i v i a l ) ,

J"P 0 9 , a n d p B ( ~ o .90) .
The r e s u l t s we have o b t a i n e d can e a s i l y be e x t e n d e d t o t h e

I case t h a t k i s i n f i n i t e ( b u t perhaps n o t a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d ) .

, some
I We c o n s i d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s on v e c t o r s p a c e s over

b r a i c a l l y closed f i e l d containing k ,
K

a n d c a l l them r a t i o n a l i f
alge-
I, t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e s o u r c e . The p r e c e d i n g t h e o r y i s t h e n a p p l i -
c a b l e a l m o s t word f o r word b e c a u s e of t h e f o l l o w i n g two f a c t s b o t h
coming f r o m t h e d e n s e n e s s of G in GK ( t h i s is G with k

extended t o K) .
(a) Every i r r e d u c i b l e polynomial r e p r e s e n t a k i o n of G ex-
t e n d s u n i q u e l y t o one of
G~
(b) On r e s t r i c t i o n t o G every i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l repre-
s e n t a t i o n of GK remains i r r e d u c i b l e .

Exercise: Prove ( a ) and ( b ) .

The s t r u c t u r e of a r b i t r a r y i r r e d u c i b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i s
g i v e n i n t e r m s of t h e p o l y n o m i a l ones by t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l
theorem. Given a n isomorphism Y of k into K , we shall also
write cp f o r t h e n a t u r a l isomorphism of G onto t h e group VG

o b t a i n e d from G by r e p l a c i n g k by Yk .
Theorem 42 ( B o r e 1 , T i t s ) : L e t G b e an indecomposable u n i v e r s a l
C h e v a l l e y g r o u p over a n i n f i n i t e f i e l d k , and let D- be an

LI
f
a r b i t r a r y (not necessarily r a t i o n a l ) irreducib1.e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of G on a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l vector space V over a n a l g e b r a i -

6
g
cally closed f i e l d K . Assume t h a t c is n o n t r i v i a l . Then
t h e r e e x i s t finitely-many isomorphisms iPi of k into K and
corresponding i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of YiG
Ji
over K such t h a t = @pi o Y i . ,

1
imbeddable a s a s u b f i e l d of K . I n o t h e r words, i f k and K
a r e s u c h t h a t no s u c h imbedding e x i s t s , e . g . i f char k + char K ,
t h e n e v e r y i r r e d u c i b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of G on a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l

vector space over K is n e c e s s a r i l y t r i v i a l . (Deduce t h a t t h e

same i s t r u e even if t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s n o t i r r e d u c i b l e . ) If
k i s f i n i t e , t h e s e statements a r e , of course, f a l s e .

(b) The t h e o r e m c a n b e c o m p l e t e d by s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g

t h e u n i q u e n e s s of t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n f o r i r r e d u c -

i b i l i t y if t h e f a c t o r s a r e p r e s c r i b e d . Since these statements a r e

a b i t c o m p l i c a t e d we s h a l l omit them.

(c) The t h e o r e m was c o n j e c t u r e d by u s i n Nagoya Math.

J . 22 (1963). The p r o o f t o f o l l o w i s b a s e d on a n a s y e t unpub-
l i s h e d p a p e r by A. Bore1 a n d J . T i t s i n which r e s u l t s of a more
general character a r e considered.
1
Lemma 77: Let G, G b e indecomposable C h e v a l l e p g r o u p s o v e r
1
fields k, kt with k i n f i n i t e and k algebraically closed,
1
and r: G > G a homomorphism s u c h t h a t o-G i s dense i n G .
1
(a) T h e r e e x i s t s a n isomorphism 3 of k into k and
a r a t i o n a l hoinomor~~hism of G into G' such t h a t
9 = P o " -
(b) If G is universal, then can b e l i f t e d , u n i q u e l y ,
1
9
t o t h e u n i v e r s a l c o v e r i n g g r o u p of G .
Proof: (a) If t h e r e a d e r w i l l examine t h e p r o o f of Theorem 31
h e w i l l o b s e r v e t h a t what i s shown t h e r e i s t h a t o- can b e n o r -
T
malized s o t h a t o-x,(t) = xar ( ~ ~ $ q( (t a)) ) with a -> a an
 1
angle-preserving limp of 1 on 1 , = -
+1,V a n isomorphism of
k onto k
t
, and q(a) = 1 on p . S i n c e we a r e assuming o n l y

that o-G is dense i n G

t
, not t h a t 0-G = G
1
, the p r o o f of t h e

c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s u l t ' i n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e i s somewhat h a r d e r . How-

e v e r , t h e main i d e a s a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r . We omit t h e p r o o f . From

t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g ones on H , it f o l l o w s

f r o m Theorem 7 t h a t cr h a s t h e f o r m of ( a ) .

(b) From t h e s e e q u a t i o n s we s e e a l s o , e . g . by c o n s i d e r i n g
the relations ( ) ( 3 ), (C) of Theorem 8 , t h a t can b e l i f t e d
S
t o a n y c o v e r i n g of G
t
, uniquely since G = BG .
Proof of Theorem 42: Let A = O-ti
- , the s m a l l e s t a l g e b r a i c sub-

g r o u p of GL(V) containing o-G . We c l a i m :i is a connected

s e m i s i m p l e g r o u p , hence a C h e v a l l e y g r o u p . A s i n t h e p r o o f of
Theorem 30, s t e p ( 1 2 ) ,
-
o-U is connected, and s i m i l a r l y f o r
__IC

o-U- ,
so that A , b e i n g g e n e r a t e d by t h e s e g r o u p s , i s a l s o . Let R be

l
a c o n n e c t e d s o l v a b l e normal s u b g r o u p o f . By t h e Lie-Kolchin

, finite
I theorem R h a s w e i g h t s on V i n nu.nzber. a permutes t h e

I c o r r e s p o n d i n g w e i g h t s p a c e s , a n d , b e i n g c o n i l e c t e d , f i x e s them a l l .

I Since V i s i r r e d u c i b l e , t h e r e i s o n l y one s u c h s p a c e a n d it i s

a l l of V , so that R c o n s i s t s of s c a l a r s , of d e t e r m i n a n t 1
since A = 21 , so that R is f i n i t e . Since R i s connected,

1 R = 1 , so that A is semisimple, a s claimed. Let A1 = n~~~

I b e t h e u n i v e r s a l c o v e r i n g g r o u p of d w r i t t e n a s a p r o d u c t of

I i t s i n d e c o m p o s a b l e components, iio = Tiiio t h e corresponding

f a c t o r i z a t i o n of t h e a d j o i n t group, and a, B, $' = rxi the
 c o r r e s p o n d i n g n a t u r a l maps a s shown:

By Lemma 77 we can l i f t 86 conpsnentwise t o g e t a homomorphism

6: G -> A1 of t h e form 6(x) = roicpi(x) with each cpi a n isomor-

phism o f k illto K and E~ a r a t i o n a l hcmomor~hismof cpiG into

Ail . We have a6 = cr s i n c e o t h e r w i s e we would have a homomor-
phism o f G i n t o t h e c e n t e r of a . By Lemma 6G, Cor. ( a ) , u ,
i n t e r p r e t e d a s an i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of A1 , may
be factored @ai with ai an i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
i
of Ail . On s e t t i n g
Si = a.E
1 i
, we see that o- = u6 = Om1
.~ 1
.cp
i
= , as required.
i
CorollarE (a) Every a b s o l u t e l y i r r e d u c i b l e r e a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f a r e a l C h e v a l l e y group G is r a t i o n a l .

1 (b) Every holomorphic i r r e d u c i b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a

s emisimple coraplex L i e group i s r a t i o n a l .

(c) Zvery c o n t i n u o u s i r r e d u c i b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a
s i m p l y c o n n e c t e d s e m i s i m p l e complex L i e group i s t l i e t e n s o r p r o d u c t

of a holomorphic one and a n a n t i h o l o m o r p h i c one.

 t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e nonuniversal case i s an easy e x e r c i s e .

(b) The p r o o f i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of ( a ) .

(c) The o n l y c o n t i n u o u s isomorphisms of into are

t h e i d e n t i t y a n d complex c o n j u g a t i o n .

Exercise.: Prove t h a t t h e word ~ t a b s o l u t e l y lii n ( a ) a n d t h e words

i T s i m p l y c o n n e c t e d B 1i n ( c ) may n o t b e removed.

Now we s h a l l t o u c h b r i e f l y on some a d d i t i o n a l r e s u l t s .

-
I
Characters. A s i s customary i n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t h e o r y , t h e c h a r a c -

t e r s ( i. e . t h e t r a c e s of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e m a t r i c e s ) p l a y a v i t a l
role. We s t a t e t h e p r i n c i p a l r e s u l t s i n t h e form of a n e x e r c i s e .

Exercise: (a) P r o v e t h a t two i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l G-modules are

i s o m o r p h i c i f a n d o n l y i f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s a r e equ.al. (Consider

I . t h e c h a r a c t e r s on H .)
(b) lissume t h a t char k = 0 a n d t h a t t h e t h e o r e m of
c o m p l e t e r e d u c i b i l i t y h a s been p r o v e d i n t h i s c a s e . Prove ( a ) f o r
1
I r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s which n e e d n o t b e i r r e d u c i b l e .

(c) :issum char k = 0 . P r o v e WeylTs formnu-las : L e t V, A

b e a s i n Theorem 3 9 ( e ) , X t h e corresponding c h a r a c t e r , and 6
one-half t h e sum o f t h e p o s i t i v e r o o t s , a c h a r a c t e r on H . Set

S = C det w.w(h + 6) , a sum o f f u n c t i o n s on H . Then

A w c'iJ
(1) ~ ( h =) S h ( h ) / ' s 3 ( h ) a t a l l h E H where So(h) +0.
(2) dim V = na
u>o
+ 6,(r>/<d,a> .
(Hint. u s e t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m u l a s f o r L i e a l g e b r a s ( s e e ,- e .g.. ,.
J a c o b s o n , L i e A l g e b r a s ) a n d t h e complement t o Theorem 3 9 ) .
 225

Remark;- The forinula (1) d e t e r m i n e s X u n i q u e l y s i n c e it t u r n s

o u t t h a t t h e e l e m e n t s of G which a r e c o n j u g a t e t o t h o s e e l e m e n t s

of H f o r which So $ 0 form a d e n s e open s e t i n G .

The u n i t a r i a n t -r i c k .
. . The b a s i c r e s u l t s a b o u t t h e i r r e d u c i b l e com-
p l e x r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of a compact s e m i s i m p l e L i e g r o u p K , i.e.
a maximal compact s u b g r o u p of a complex C h e v a l l e y g r o u p G as i n
8 8 , can be deduced f r o m t h o s e of G b e c a u s e of t h e f o l l o w i n g i m -
portant f a c t : ( K is Zariski-dense in G . Because of Lemmas
43 ( b ) and 45 (K is g e n e r a t e d by t h e g r o u p s rp2SU2) t h i s comes
down t o t h e f a c t t h a t SU2 is Zariski-dense in S L ~ ( ,~ whose
)
proof i s a n easy e x e r c i s e . By ( ) t h e r a t i o n a l i r r e d u c i b l e rep-
r e s e n t a t i o n s of G r e m a i n d i s t i n c t a n d i r r e d u c i b l e on r e s t r i c t i o n
to K . T h a t a complete s e t of c o n t i n u o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of K

i s s o o b t a i n e d t h e n f o l l o w s from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
c h a r a c t e r s f o r m a complete s e t of c o n t i n u o u s c l a s s f u n c t i o n s on
K . The p r o o f of t h i s u s e s t h e f o r m u l a f o r Haar measure on K
a n d t h e o r t h o g o n a l i t y and completeness p r o p e r t i e s of complex ex-
p o n e n t i a l ~ ,and y i e l d s a s a by-product Weyl f s c h a r a c t e r formula
itself. T h i s i s how - \ i e y l proved h i s f o r m u l a i n 14ath. Z e i t . 24
( 1 9 2 6 ) and i t i s s t i l l t h e b e s t way. The theorem of complete r e -
d u c i b i l i t y can b e p r o v e d a s f o l l o w s . Given any r a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n -
I
t a t i o n space V for G and a n i n v a r i a n t s u b s p a c e V , we can,
by a v e r a g i n g o v e r K , relative t o Haar measure, any p r o j e c t i o n
f
of V onto V and t a k i n g t h e k e r n e l of t h e r e s u l t , g e t a corn-
plementary subspace i n v a r i a n t under K , thus a l s o i n v a r i a n t under
G because of ( + ) . It is t h e n n o t d i f f i c u l t t o r e p l a c e t h e complex
f i e l d by any f i e l d of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 0 .
Invari-
ant b i l i n e a m m s -. G denotes an indecoinposable i n f i n i t e
Chevalley g r o u p , V an i r r e d u c i b l e r a t i o n a l G-module, and A

i t s h i g h e s t weight.

Lemma 7 8 : The f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t .

(a) There e x i s t s on V a ( n o n z e r o ) i n v a r i a n t b i l i n e a r form.

(b) V and i t s d u a l $ a r e isomorphic.

Proof : E x e r c i s e ( s e e Lemma 7 3 ) .

Exercise: Prove t h a t -w0 i s t h e i d e n t i t y f o r a l l s i m p l e t y p e s

except An(n 2 2 ) , D2n+l, E6, and f o r t h e s e t y p e s it comes from
i n v o l u t o r y automorphism of t h e Dynkin diagram. ( H i n t : f o r a l l of
t h e u n l i s t e d c a s e s except f o r DZn t h e Dynkin diagram h a s no sym-
metry. )

E x e r c i--
se: If t h e r e e x i s t s a n i n v a r i a n t b i l i n e a r form on V , then
it i s unique up t o m u l t i p l i c a t i o n by a s c a l a r and i s e i t h e r sym-
m e t r i c o r skew-symmetric. (Hint: u s e S c h u r r s Lemma.)

--
Lemma 79 : Let h =
-
I (ha(-1 J , t h e product over t h e p o s i t i v e r o o t s .
(a) h i s i n t h e c e n t e r of G and hz = 1 .
(b) If V p o s s e s s e s a n i n v a r i a n t b i l i n e a r form t h e n it is
symmetric if h(h) = 1 ,
skew-symmetric i f ~ ( h =) -1 .
Proof: ( a ) Since ha(-1) = h -U (-1) (check t h i s ) , h is f i x e d
by a l l elements of W . This i m p l i e s t h a t h is i n t h e c e n t e r ,

a s e a s i l y f o l l o w s from Theorem 4
1
. Since ha(-1)
2
= h,(l) = 1 ,

we have h2 = 1 .
4. +
(b) We have an isomorphism 9 : V -> VeP, v -> f+
with v+ and fC a s i n Lemma 73; t h e corresponding b i l i n e a r form
on V i s g i v e n by ( v , v ) = (cpv)(v )
1 t
. It f o l l o w s t h a t
-1 +
( X V + , ~ V + ) = f C ( x yv ) f o r a l l x, y E G . T~US
+ ,wov + )
(V

= f
+
(wov )
+ 0 by t h e d e f i n i t i o n of f+ , and 4- + -1 +
(wov , v ) = f ( w o v ) .
If W o = W W W
a @ ?I*** is a minimal product of s i m p l e r e f l e c t i o n s i n
W , t h e n f o r d e f i n i t e n e s s we p i c k wo = w a ( l ) w B ( l ) in G , so ...
that wil = . w - 1 ) - w - 1 We have wU(-1) = wU(l)ha(l) ,
and s i m i l a r l y f o r , ... . S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o t h e expression f o r
w0 and b r i n g i n g a l l t h e h's t o t h e r i g h t , by r e p e a t e d con juga-
t i o n by wfs , we get t o the right h by Appendix 11 ( 2 5 ) and t o
the l e f t . w(l)w(l)w(l) which i s j u s t wo by a lemma t o
+ +
be proved i n t h e l a s t s e c t i o n . Thus wil = woh , and (wov , v )
becomes
3. +
A(h)f (wov ) = ~ ( h ) ( v,wov )
+ 4-
, as required.

Observation: h a s i n Lemma 79 i s 1 i n each of t h e f o l l o w i n g

c a s e s , s i n c e t h e c e n t e r is of odd o r d e r .

(a) G is a d j o i n t .

(b) Char k = 2 .
(c) G is of t y p e Aen,E6, E8, F 4 , G 2 .

Exercise: I n t h e remaining c a s e s f i n d h , as a product ma(-1)

n (X.

over t h e s i m p l e r o o t s .
-
Example :. SL2 . For e v e r y V t h e r e i s an i n v a r i a n t b i l i n e a r form.
Assume char k = 0 , so t h a t f o r each i = l , , . . t h e r e is

e x a c t l y one V of dimension i , v i z . t h e s p a c e of polynomials

homogeneous of degree i - 1 . Then t h e i n v a r i a n t form i s symmet-
r i c if i i s odd, skew-symmetric i f i i s even.

I n v a r i a n t Hermitean forms.
.. Assume now t h a t G i s complex, o- i s
t h e automorphism of Theorem 1 6 , K = G, i s t h e corresponding max-
irnal compact subgroup, V and v
+ a r e a s b e f o r e , and f: G ->
i s d e f i n e d by xv
+ = f (x)v
+ + t e r m s of o t h e r w e i g h t s .

(a) Prove t h a t f(o-x-') = . ( F i r s t prove it on U-HU ,

t h e n u s e t h e d e n s i t y of U-HU in G .)
(b) Prove t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a unique form ( ,) from
V x V to which i s l i n e a r i n t h e second p o s i t i o n , c o n j u g a t e
+ + -1
l i n e a r i n t h e f i r s t , a n d s a t i s f i e s (xv ,yv ) = f ( c x . y ) , a n d
t h a t t h i s form i s Hermitean.
(c) Prove t h a t ( , ) i s p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e and i n v a r i a n t
under K .
Dimensions. Assume now t h a t G i s a Chevalley group o v e r a n in-
finite field k , that V and h a r e a s before, and t h a t
vz
i s t h e u n i v e r s a l a l g e b r a of Theorem 2 , w r i t t e n i n t h e form
215 35% of page 16.

(a) Prove t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s an antiautomorphism r of

vZLsuch t h a t 6X, = X-, and o-Ha = Ha for a l l a .
(b) Define a b i l i n e a r form ( 0 ,u
t
) from q2! to a% thus:
write ru.u
T
i n t h e above form and t h e n s e t e v e r y Xu = 0 .
Prove t h a t t h i s forin i s symmetric.

( c ) Now d e f i n e a b i l i n e a r form from vz to 2 thus:

( , = h o ( , ' (interpreting h a s a l i n e a r form on %- su

that h(H,) E ZL+ for a l l a > 0) . Assuming now t h a t t h i s form

i s r e d u c e d modulo t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of k , prove t h a t its rank
is j u s t t h e dimension of V .
3 1 . Representations continued. In t h i s section t h e irreducible
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p ( t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e
base f i e l d k ) of t h e f i n i t e C h e v a l l e y g r o u p s and t h e i r t w i s t e d
a n a l o g u e s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d . The main r e s u l t i s a s f o l l o w s .

Theorem 43: Let G be a f i n i t e u n i v e r s a l C h e v a l l e y g r o u p o r one

of i t s t w i s t e d a n a l o g u e s c o n s t r u c t e d a s i n 811 a s t h e s e t of f i x e d
p o i n t s o f a n automorphism o f t h e form x,(t)
Pa
-> x
(+ t d a ) ) Then .
J

the ll-q ( a ) i r r e d u c i b l e polynomial r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e i n c l u d -

a simple
i n g a l g e b r a i c g r o u p ( g o t by e x t e n d i n g t h e b a s e f i e l d k t o its
a l g e b r a i c c l o s u r e ) f o r which t h e h i g h e s t w e i g h t s h satisfy
0 5 < h,a > <_ q(a) - 1 f o r a l l simple a remain i r r e d u c i b l e
and d i s t i n c t on r e s t r i c t i o n t o G and form a complete s e t .

By Theorem 41 we a l s o have a t e n s o r p r o d u c t theorem w i t h t h e

product
C3

0
s u i t a b l y t r u n c a t e d , f o r example t o . n3if 0
G i s a
C h e v a l l e y g r o u p o v e r a f i e l d of pn elements.

Exercise: Deduce from Theorem 43 t h e n a t u r e of t h e t r u n c a t i o n s

f o r t h e v a r i o u s t w i s t e d groups.

I n s t e a d of p r o v i n g t h e above r e s u l t s ( s e e Nagoya Math. J 22

( 1 9 6 3 ) ) , which would t a k e t o o l o n g , we s h a l l g i v e a n a p r i o r i
development, s i m i l a r t o t h e one of t h e l a s t s e c t i o n .

We s t a r t w i t h a group of t w i s t e d r a n k 1 ( i . e . o f t y p e

A1, 2 ~ 2 72 ~ 2 , o r 2G 2 , t h e degenerate cases A1(2), A1(3), ...

not being excluded). The s u b s c r i p t c on Gr, Wb , ... will
h e n c e f o r t h be o m i t t e d . We w r i t e X , Y , w, K for ya(a > o), X-a ,
t h e n o n t r i v i a l element of t h e Weyl g r o u p r e a l i z e d i n G , and a n
a l g e b r a i c a l l y closed f i e l d of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p . We o b s e r v e t h a t
U =X and U- = Y i n t h e present case. In addition, will

d e n o t e t h e sum o f t h e e l e m e n t s of X in KG .
Definition: An e l e m e n t v in a KG-module V i s s a i d t o be a
h i g h e s t w e i g h t v e c t o r i f i t i s n o n z e r o and s a t i s f i e s

(a) x v = v forall X E U .

(b) hv=h(h)v for a l l h e H and some c h a r a c t e r h onH.

-
(c) Xwv = ;l;v f o r some p E: K .
The c o u p l e (A,) i s ' c a l l e d t h e corresponding weight.

Remark: The r e f i n e m e n t (c) o f t h e u s u a l d e f i n i t i o n i s due t o

FP
C. W. C u r t i s (111. J . Math. 7(1963) and J . f u r Math. 219 ( 1 9 6 5 ) ) .
That s u c h a r e f i n e m e n t i s needed i s a l r e a d y s e e n i n t h e s i m p l e s t
case G = SL2(p) . Here t h e r e a r e p r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s r e a l i z e d on
t h e s p a c e s of homogeneous p o l y n o m i a l s of d e g r e e s i = 0 , 1, ..., p - 1,
w i t h t h e h i g h e s t weight i n t h e u s u a l sense being ihl . Since

t h e group H i s c y c l i c of o r d e r p - 1 , t h e weights 0 and

(p - l)hl a r e i d e n t i c a l on H , h e n c e do n o t d i s t i n g u i s h t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s from e a c h o t h e r .

Theorem 44: Let G ( o f r a n k 1) and t h e n o t a t i o n s be a s above.

(a) Every n o n z e r o KG-module V contains a highest

weight v e c t o r , v . For such a v we have KGv = KYv = KU-v .
 (b) If V i s i r r e d u c i b l e , t h e n it d e t e r m i n e s Kv as
t h e unique l i n e of V f i x e d by U , hence it a l s o d e t e r m i n e s t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g h i g h e s t weight.

(c) Two i r r e d u c i b l e KG-modules a r e isomorphic if and o n l y

i f t h e i r highest weights a r e equal.

The proof depends on t h e f o l l o w i n g two lemmas.

Lemma
- 80: Let Y and K be a s above, o r , more g e n e r a l l y , l e t Y
be any f i n i t e p-group and K any f i e l d of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p .
(a) Every nonzero KY-module V c o n t a i n s nonzero v e c t o r s
i n v a r i a n t under Y .
(b) Every i r r e d u c i b l e KY-module i s t r i v i a l .

(c) Rad ICY = I C c ( y ) y I Cc(y) = 01 i s t h e unique maximal

( o n e - s i d e d o r t w o - s i d e d ) i d e a l of KY . It i s n i l p o t e n t .

(d) I i s t h e unique minimal i d e a l of KY .

Proof: (a) By i n d u c t i o n on IYI . Assume IYI > 1 . Since Y
p-group, it h a s a normal subgroup of i n d e x and
t h e subspace V1 of i n v a r i a n t s of Yl on V i s nonzero by t h e
i n d u c t i v e assumption. Choose y e Y t o generate Y / Y ~ , and
v in V1 and nonzero. Then (1 - y ) P v = 0 . Now choose r
maximal so t h a t (1 - y ) r v 0 . The r e s u l t i n g v e c t o r i s f i x e d by
Y , whence ( a ) .

(b) By ( a ) .
 (c) By i n s p e c t i o n Rad KY i s a n i d e a l , maximal b e c a u s e

i t s codimension i n KY is 1 . Bring t h e k e r n e l of t h e t r i v i a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , which i s t h e o n l y i r r e d u c i b l e one by ( b ) , it i s t h e

u n i q u e maximal l e f t i d e a l ; a n d s i m i l a r l y f o r r i g h t i d e a l s . On e a c h
f a c t o r of a composition s e r i e s f o r t h e l e f t r e g u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

of KY on i t s e l f Y a c t s t r i v i a l l y b y ( b ) , h e n c e Rad KY acts

as 0 , so t h a t Rad KY is nilpotent.

Lemma 81: For x e X - 1 , write wxw = f(x)'h(x)wg(x) with

f (x), g(x) e X and h(x) e H .

(a) f and g a r e permutations of X - 1 ,

Proof: (a) If f(x) = 1 , we g e t t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n xw e B ,

w h i l e if
0
f (x ) = f (x) , we s e e t h a t w-lx-1 '.
x w E B , so that
v
x = x . Similarly f o r g .
(b) ( X W ) ~ =
-
Xx2 + C Xf(x)h(x)wg(x) .
xex-1
-
Here f (x) g e t s absorbed i n and h(x) norrnzlizes X , whence

(b).

P r o o f o f Theorem 44: (a) By Lemma 8 0 ( b ) t h e space of f i x e d

p o i n t s of U =X on V i s nonzero. Since H normalizes U and
i s A b e l i a n , t h a t s p a c e c o n t a i n s a nonzero v e c t o r v such t h a t ( a )
and ( b ) o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f h i g h e s t w e i g h t v e c t o r h o l d . Let
zwv = vl . If v1 = 0 , t h e n ( c ) h o l d s w i t h p = 0 . I f n o t , we
replace v by vl . Then ( a ) and ( b ) of t h e d e f i n i t i o n s t i l l h o l d -

with wh i n p l a c e of h , a n d by Lemmagl(b) s o d o e s ( c ) w i t h
/L = C h ( h ( x )) . Now t o p r o v e t h a t KGv = KYv it i s enough,

because o f , t h e decornposition G = YBuwB , t o prove t h a t wv e KYv .

-
By t h e two p a r t s of Lemma 81 we may w r i t e Xwv = !:v , a f t e r some
s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , i n t h e form

(: ) wv + C h ( ~ h - ' w ) ~ ( x ) v= j s v ,
xeX-1
with ' y ( x ) = wxw-1 e Y , whence o u r a s s e r t i o n . .

(b) Let V
F
= Kv and V
FP
= Rad KY-v . It f o l l o w s from
9 2v
Lemma 8 O ( c ) t h a t t h e sum V =V + V is direct. Now assume
t h e r e e x i s t s some
,"
vl E V, v
1
4 V' , f i x e d by X . We may assume
that vl e V " and a l s o t h a t vl i s an eigenvector f o r H since
- -
H i s Abelian. We have hl = wYvl = 0 ,
' since Y(1-y) = 0 fbr
any y e Y .
Thus vl i s a h i g h e s t w e i g h t v e c t o r .
.-
By ( a ) ,
,I
C KYV" = V , a c o n t r a d i c t i o n , whence ( b )
V = KYvl - .
(c) By ( b ) a n i r r e d u c i b l e KG-module d e t e r m i n e s i t s h i g h e s t
weight ( h , , ) uniquely. C o n v e r s e l y , assume t h a t V1 and V2
are irreducible KG-modules w i t h h i g h e s t w e i g h t v e c t o r s vl and

v2 of t h e same w e i g h t (x,,u) . Set v = v1 + v2 E V1 + V2 and

then V = KGv = I(Yv . Now v2 4V , s i n c e o t h e r w i s e we c o u l d w r i t e

11 11
= cv+v dtr) c E K and v E Fiad KY. v 2nd t h e n p r o j e c t i n g o n V1
2
and V2 get that c =0 and c = 1 , a contradiction. Thus we
may c o m p l e t e t h e p r o o f as i n t h e p r o o f o f Theorem 3 9 i e ) .

Theorem 4 5 :
--A Let ( b e t h e h i g h e s t w e i g h t of a n i r r e d u c i b l e
KG-,module V.
(a) ~ f ' h S l ,t h e n r = O . If & = I ,t h e n , u = ~

(b) Every w e i g h t a s i n ( a ) c a n b e r e a l i z e d . Thus t h e

number of p o s s i b i l i t i e s i s (HI. + 1.

Proof: (1) Proof of ( b , In KG let HA = C h ( h c * lh) , then

u = xi3hw% and v = XFh.
- A s i n t h e p r o o f of Theorem 44 ( a ) , a
~TEH

simple c a l c u l a t i o n y i e l d s
-~ w ( u + c v )
h ( h ( x )) u + C Z W H ~ Z *
=
XEX-1
Here H a c t s , from t h e l e f t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c h a r a c t e r s
wh,h,wh on t h e r e s p e c t i v e t e r m s . Thus i f wh f h, we may r e a l - -

i z e t h e weight (h,O) by t a k i n g c = 0. If wh = h, we t a k e
c = - Ch(h(x)) instead. Finally if h = 1, t h e n ~ h ( h ( x ) )= - 1

and we g e t $; = - 1 by t a k i n g c = 0. To a c h i e v e ( h , , ' ~ ) i n an

i r r e d u c i b l e module we s i m p l y take K G ( U + C V )modulo a maximal

submodule.

(2) If dim V = 1, t h e n V i s t r i v i a l and ( h , ~ )= ( 1 , O ) .

Since X and Y a r e p--groups, t h e y a c t t r i v i a l l y by Lemma g O ( b ) ,
whence ( 2 ) .
T 71
(3) If dim V ,6 1, t h e n h determines , Write V = V + V

a s i n t h e p r o o f o f Theorem 4 4 ( b ) . We have V" f 0 . Since Y ::-

fixes vi7 i t f i x e s some l i n e i n i t , u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d i n V,

by Theorem 44 ( b ) w i t h Y i n place of X. Since Y clearly

fixes wv, we c o n c l u d e t h a t wv & V

17
. Projecting (::.Io f t h e p r o o f
o f Theorem 44 ( a ) o n t o v'., we g e t
( 2 h(wh-1w) = ,!5,

whence ( 3 ) .
4 Proof o f ( a ) . Combine (1) , ( 2 ) and (3 .
o Theorems 4.4 and 45 :
(a) If h l then C h ( h ( x )) = 0. The number o f
XEX- 1
solutions n(h) of h ( x ) = h w i t h h g i v e n i s , modulo p ,

independent o f h, i n p a r t i c u l a r f o r each h is a t least 1

( c f . Lemma 64, S t e p ( 1 ) ) .
(b) The i r r e d u c i b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of weight (h,,u) can
b e r e a l i z e d i n t h e l e f t i d e a l g e n e r a t e d by
-X H ~ W X+ C ~ wHi t h ~

c = 1 f o r the t r i v i a l representation (1,0)

= 0 otherwise.
(c) If L C K is a splitting field for H, i t i s one

for G.
(dl Dim V = 1x1 if ( h , , : ~=) (1,-1)

( 1x1 i f not.
(el The number of p - r e g u l a r conjugacy c l a s s e s o f G is
]HI + 1.

Proof: (a) If h $ 1, then 9 = 0 by Theorem 45 (a), s o t h a t

C l (h(x)) = 0 by ( above a p p l i e d w i t h h r e p l a c e d by wh .
Then Cn(h)h(h) = 0 f o r every h $ 1. By t h e o r t h o g o n a l i t y
r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r s on H (which a r e v a l i d s i n c e p $ / hI ) ,
we conclude t h a t n ( h ) , a s an element o f K, i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f h.

If n(h) were 0 f o r some h, we w o u l d g e t ) H ( = c ~ ( ~ ) =(mod

o p),

a contradiction.
 (b) Let
has t h e h i g h e s t weight

t h e isomorphism

space of f u n c t i o n s

for a l l y E G, b

Coverting f u n c t i o n s . on

a rJ C a (x)x,
V

p of

a h i g h e s t weight v e c t o r f o r

V = KW+ + Rad K X ~ W V ' ,

a : G

by t h e e q u a t i o n s of Lemma 7 4 , w i t h

we s e e t h a t
G
+
b e a n i r r e d u c i b l e module whose d u a l

h , .
V"

B d e f i n e d by
V.
K

we may d e f i n e

t h a t i t i s a h i g h e s t w e i g h t v e c t o r , and t h a t
We c o n s i d e r , a s i n Theorem 40
i n t o t h e induced r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

such t h a t

(cpf) ( x ) =

Using t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n

t o elements o f

a+
23 7

a ( y b ) = a ( y )h'"(b)

f (xv')

f C a s i n Lemma 73, p r o v e

a'
i n p l a c e of

KG

becomes t h e e l e m e n t o f
=
with
V"

yf+ i s given
h

i n t h e u s u a l way,
.

(b),
v+

whence (b) . k t t h e same t i m e we s e e t h a t V may b e r e a l i z e d

i n t h e i n d u c e d module Bh;: .--+ G, a s t h e unique i r r e d u c i b l e

submodule i n c a s e h l a s one o f two i n c a s e h = 1.

(c) By (b).
- -
(dl If /I = 0, then Xwv = 0, whence Yv = 0 and

dim V < IX 1 by Theorem 44 ( a ) . C o n v e r s e l y i f dim V 1x1,

-
t h e n t h e a n n i h i l a t o r of v in KY contains Y b y Lemma 8 0 ( d ) ,
so that ;(L = 0.
(el By a c l a s s i c a l t h e o r e m o f B r a u e r a n d N e s b i t t
( U n i v e r s i t y o f Toronto S t u d i e s , 1 9 3 7 ) t h e number i n q u e s t i o n

e q u a l s t h e number o f i r r e d u c i b l e KG-modules, hence equals

IHI + 1 by Theorem 4 5 ( b ) .

Example: G = SL2(q). Here (HI = q - 1, so t h a t /HI+ 1= q .

-
Remarks. (a) We s e e t h a t t h e e x t r a c o n d i t i o n Xv = rn serves

two p u r p o s e s . F i r s t i t d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e s m a l l e s t module (I,o)

 23 8
from t h e l a r g e s t (1, 1 - Secondly, i n t h e proof o f t h e key
relation KGv = KU? i t t a k e s t h e p l a c e of t h e d e n s i t y argument

(U-B dense i n G) used i n t h e i n f i n i t e case.

(b) The p r e c e d i n g development a p p l i e s t o a wide c l a s s o f
doubly t r a n s i t i v e permutation groups (with B the stabi'lieer
of a point, H o f two p o i n t s ) , s i n c e i t depends o n l y on t h e

facts that H i s A b e l i a n and h a s i n B a n o r m a l complement U

which i s a p-Sylow s u b g r o u p o f G.

Now we c o n s i d e r g r o u p s o f a r b i t r a r y r a n k . W ( = w ~ )w i l l
b e g i v e n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f r e f l e c t i o n g r o u p a s i n Theorem 3 2 w i t h
Z/R ( s e e p . 177), p r o j e c t e d i n t o Vo a n d s c a l e d down t o a s e t
of u n i t v e c t o r s , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r o o t s y s t e m . For each s i m p l e
root a, we w r i t e Y, for X-a and choose
-
wa in cXa , Ya>
t o represent wa in W. If w E W i s a r b i t r a r y , we choose a

minimal e x p r e s s i o n w = .. . a s a p r o d u c t
wawb o f s i m p l e re-
f l e c t i o n s , 'and s e t
- --
w = wawb . . . . Then F i s independent
o f t h e minimal e x p r e s s i o n chosen. We p o s t p o n e t h e p r o o f of t h i s
f a c t , which c o u l d ( a n d p r o b a b l y s h o u l d ) have b e e n g i v e n much
e a r l i e r , t o t h e end o f t h e s e c t i o n s o a s n o t t o i n t e r r u p t t h e
p r e s e n t development. A s a c o n s e q u a n c e we h a v e :

Lemma 82 : If w = w,wb . .. i s a n y minimal e x p r e s s i o n , then

- --
Proof: Since w = wawb . .. t h i s e a s i l y follows by i n d u c t i o n

on ~ ( w ) o r b y Appendix 11.25.

We e x t e n d t h e e a r l i e r d e f i n i t i o n of h i g h e s t w e i g h t v e c t o r
 23 9
b y t h e new r e q u i r e m e n t :
-- (pa K) f o r every simple r o o t a.
(c) XaWa v = pav E

Theorem 4 6 : Let G b e a ( p e r h a p s t w i s t e d ) f i n i t e Chevalley

g r o u p (of a r b i t r a r y r a n k ) .

a , ( b ( c Same as ( a , b , c of Theorem 44.

(d) Let Ha = H n <Xa, Ya> . If ( i s the highest
weight o f some i r r e d u c i b l e module t h e n ,ua = 0 if ~ J H , + 1,
and ira = 0 o r -1 i f ~IH, = 1.

(e) Every weight a s i n ( a ) c a n b e r e a l i z e d on some

irreducible KGmodule.

Proof: We s h a u prove t h i s theorem i n s e v e r a l s t e p s .

(all There e x i s t s i n V a nonzero e i g e n v e c t o r v for B.
This i s proved as i n Theorem 44 ( a ) .
--
(a21 If v is as i n (al), then so is vl = Xa wa v
( a s i m p l e ) , u n l e s s it i s 0.

t
P r o o f : Let x b e any element o f U. Write x = x a xa with
t ?
xa E Xa and xa E Xa , t h e subgroup o f e l e m e n t s o f U whose Xa
t
components a r e 1. We r e c a l l t h a t Xa and Fa n o r m a l i z e Xa
I- -
( s e e Appendix 1.11). Thus xvl = x a X a wa v = v l , s i n c e U v = v .
-
S i n c e H n o r m a l i z e s Xa and i s n o r m a l i z e d by we s e e t h a t
wa
vl i s a l s o an e i g e n v e c t o r f o r H.
(a31 Choose v as i n (all, then w E W SO that ~ ( w )
-
i s maximal s u b j e c t t o vl = ~ ' i S v 0. Then vl is a highest

weight v e c t o r .
 240
Proof: By Lemma 82 and ( a 2 ) , vl i s an e i g e n v e c t o r f o r B.
Let a be any simple r o o t . If w-la > 0, then N (waw) = N (w) + l
- -= -
by Appendix 1 1 . 1 9 , s o t h a t
'waw waw Xa a w w Xw by Lemma 82,
-
and XaFawl = 0 by. t h e c h o i c e o f w. If w-la < 0, t h e n we
may choose a minimal e x p r e s s i o n w = wawb ... s t a r t i n g with , wa.
Then
-
XaGavl = (Val2 XbFb
- . .v by Lemma 82

= ,!L Tava?tb Fb . .. v , with ,u E K by Lemma 8 l ( b )

By [al! and (a31 we have t h e f i r s t s t a t e m e n t i n (a).

Proof: We have G = GoG C

- U % U-B by Theorem 4. Thus i t i s
enough t o show each w
- fixes
W
KU-IT, and f o r this we may assume
t
w = wa with a simple. Assume y E U-. . Write y = yaya as
above, b u t u s i n g n e g a t i v e r o o t s i n s t e a d . Then ya and t$
normalize :Y , so t h a t Gayv = Say,yav
t
E U- Gayav - KU-v
C by
Theorem 44 ( a ) applied t o c X a ,Ya> .
91 ?
(bl) If V = vT+V with V = Kv and V" = R a d KU-v
-
a s before, then V" i s f i x e d by every XaTj, .
t
Proof : Write y = yaya as before.

Then zaijayv = Z y(x)xijav with y(x) E U-.

xeXa
Thus
-x , ~ ~ ( y - l ) =v C (y(x)-l)xijav E V
P?
.
xeXa

(b2) Proof of ( b ) . If t h i s i s f a l s e , t h e r e e x i s t s
 24 1
1
I vl E V" , vl 0, vl f i x e d by X. A s u s u a l we may c h o o s e vl

a s an eigenvector f o r H, and t h e n by (bl) and (a31 a l s o an

1
-XaGa C ft
,
4
1:
e i g e n v e c t o r f o r each Then, a s b e f o r e , V = KGvl = KU-V~
- V

3
a contradiction.

(c) Same p r o o f a s f o r Theorem 44 ( c ) .

(dl By Theorem 4 5 ( a ) applied t o < Xa,Ya > .
P
(el Let n be t h e s e t o f simple r o o t s a such t h a t a = 0,
L

and W, t h e corresponding subgroup o f W. The r e a d e r s h o u l d h a v e

no t r o u b l e i n p r o v i n g t h a t t h e l e f t i d e a l o f KG g e n e r a t e d by

C
-
IJHh %Zw i s a n i r r e d u c i b l e KG- module whose h i g h e s t w e i g h t
" wnwo
i s (h,,ua) .
Corollary: (a) A splitting field for H i s a l s o one f o r G.

(b ) Let V b e i r r e d u c i b l e , of h i g h e s t w e i g h t (h,,ua).

Then dim V = ) U 1 if h = 1 and a l l , = -1.

a
< 1 ~ 1i f not .
(c) For each s e t p of s i m p l e r o o t s , l e t H, be t h e
g r o u p g e n e r a t e d by a l l Ha(a E n). Then t h e number o f i r r e d u c i b l e

5 KGmodules , or, e q u i v a l e n t l y , o f p - r e g u l a r con j u g a c y c l a s s e s o f

Proof: (a) Clear.

- -
(b) Write UG,V = X v =
a - a b b
...
v , with
wo
w0 -
- wawb .. . a s i n Lemma 8 2 , and t h e n p r o c e e d as i n t h e p r o o f
of Cor. ( d l t o Theor- 44 a n d 45.
(c) The g i v e n sum c o u n t s t h e number o f p o s s i b l e w e i g h t s
(h,pa) according t o t h e s e t n. of simple r o o t s a such t h a t
 E x e r c i s e. : I f
. G i s u n i v e r s a l , t h e above number i s

I4 -
a simple ( I H a I + l),= ~ ( a ) , i n t h e n o t a t i o n o f 'Theorem

43. If i n a d d i t i o n G i s n o t t w i s t e d , t h e n t h e number i s q* .
It remains t o prove t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t used ( i n e s s e n t i a l l ~ )
i n t h e proof o f Lemma 82.

Lemma $3: (a) If w & W, t h e n any two minimal e x p r e s s i o n s f o r

w a s a p r o d u c t o f s i m p l e r e f l e c t i o n s can b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o
each o t h e r b y t h e r e l a t i o n s

(*) wawbwa . . = wbwawb .. (n terms on each s i d e ,

n = order wawb , with a and b d i s t i n c t simple r o o t s ) .

(b) Assume t h a t f o r each s i m p l e r o o t a the
-
c o r r e s p o n d i n g element wa of G (any Chevalley g r o u p ) is

chosen t o l i e i n i Xa,X-a >. Let w = wawb ... b e a minimal

--
expression f o r w E W. Then
-
w = wawb ... i s independent o f t h e
minimal e x p r e s s i o n chosen.

Proof: (a) T h i s i s a r e f i n e m e n t o f Appendix IV.38 since the

relations w, = 1 a r e not required. It i s a n e a s y e x e r c i s e t o
c o n v e r t t h e proof o f t h e l a t t e r r e s u l t i n t o a proof o f t h e former,
which we s h a l l l e a v e t o t h e r e a d e r .
(b) Because of ( a ) we o n l y have t o prove (b) when w
h a s t h e form o f t h e two s i d e s o f ( For t h i s we can r e f e r t o
t h e proof o f Lemma 56 s i n c e t h e e x t r a r e s t r i c t i o n s t h e r e , that
G i s u n t w i s t e d and t h a t
-
wa = wa(l) f o r each a, a r e not
e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e proof.

Remark: It would b e n i c e i f someone c o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e i n t h e

e l e m e n t a r y development j u s t g i v e n t h e t e n s o r p r o d u c t theorem
mentioned a f t e r Theorem 43 o r a t l e a s t a p r o o f t h a t e v e r y
i r r e d u c i b l e K-module f o r G c a n b e extended t o t h e i n c l u d i n g

a l g e b r a i c g r o u p , hence a l s o t o t h e o t h e r f i n i t e Chevalley g r o u p s
c o n t a i n e d i n t h e l a t t e r group.
814. R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s conc1,uded. Now we t u r n t o t h e complex
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e groups j u s t considered4 Here t h e t h e o r y
i s i n poor shape. Only GLn (Green, T4A.M.S. 1955) and a few
groups of low r a n k have been worked o u t c o m p l e t e l y , t h e n o n l y i n
terms of t h e c h a r a c t e r s . Here we s h a l l c o n s i d e r a few g e n e r a l
r e s u l t s which may l e a d t o a g e n e r a l t h e o r y * '

Henceforth K w i l l d e n o t e t h e complex f i e l d * Given a

(one--dimensional) c h a r a c t e r h on a subgroup B of a group G,

r e a l i z e d on a s p a c e Vh , we s h a l l w r i t e
G
Vh f o r t h e induced
module f o r G. T h i s may b e d e f i n e d by G
Vh = KG %Vh (this

d i f f e r s from o u r e a r l i e r v e r s i o n i n t h a t we have n o t s w i t c h e d t o
a s p a c e of f u n c t i o n s ) , and may b e r e a l i z e d i n KG i n the left
i d e a l g e n e r a t e d by Bh = biB
h(b-')b (and w i l l b e used i n t h i s
form). I t s dimension i s (G/B].

E x e r c i s e : Check t h e s e a s s e r t i o n s .

Lemma 84.: Let B, C b e subgroups of a f i n i t e g r o u p G, let

, ,!L b e c h a r a c t e r s on B, C, and l e t
G
Vh , vG
,u
b e t h e correspond-
i n g modules f o r G.

(a) If x E G, then Bh x C in KG i s determined up

P
t o m u l t i p l i c a t i o n by a nonzero s c a l a r by t h e (B,c) double c o s e t
t o which x belongs.
G
(b) I4omC(e , v~:) i s isomorphic a s a K-space t o t h e one
g e n e r a t e d by a l l Bh x Cp .
(c) If B = C and h = L!, , t h e n t h e isomorphism i n ( b )
i s one o f a l g e b r a s .
 24 5
G
(dl The dimension o f ~ o r n ~ ,( V~ f i s t h e number of
P
(B,c) double c o s e t s D such t h a t Bh x C $, 0 f o r some,
P
hence f o r every x in D , o r , e q u i v a l e n t l y , such t h a t t h e
r e s t r i c t i o n s of , h and xy to B n x Cx -1 a r e equal.

Proof: (a) This i s c l e a r .

(b ) Assume T E om^ (VhG , VyG ) . Since Bh generates

as a KG- module, TBh determines T. Let TBh = C
x s G/C
cx x C
P
-
Slnce bBh = h ( b ) B h , we g e t by a v e r a g i n g o v e r B that
TJ3, = C c B x C/,. Thus T i s r e a l i z e d on Bh, hence o n
X.E B\G/C
x h

a l l of VhG , by r i g h t m u l t i p l i c a t i o n by ( B ]-1 C cxBh x C

Y
Conversely, any such r i g h t m u l t i p l i c a t i o n y i e l d s a homomorphism,
which proves (b ) .
(c) By d i s c u s s i o n i n ( b ) .
The f i r s t s t a t e m e n t f o l l o w s from ( a ) and ( b ) .
(dl
Let B 1 = B n x C x - 1 and C1 = x - l ~ xT\ C , and lyi ] and lzJ ]
systems of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f o r B ~ \ B and C / C ~ . Set
t 1 -1
Bh = C h (y;l)yi and GI, = C p ( 2 . ) z . . Then
J J
T T

B?t. '9 = BhBlhBl,xp xC ,LL with (xp)(xcx -3 = il(c)

since x clx-' = Bl . If h $, x u on B1, then BlhBl,xP = 0.

1f h = x4, this product i s I B I ~ B ~ and~? then Bh x Cfi $, 0

s i n c e t h e elements yibl x z - are a l l distinct.
J

Remarks: (a) T h i s i s a s p e c i a l c a s e o f a theorem o f G. Mackey.

(See, e . g . , F e i t f s n o t e s . )
(b) The a l g e b r a o f (c) i s a l s o c a l l e d t h e commuting
 a l g e b r a s i n c e it c o n s i s t s o f a l l endomorphisms o f v that

I commute w i t h t h e a c t i o n of G.

~ Theorem 4 7 : Let G b e a ( p e r h a p s t w i s t e d ) f i n i t e Chevalley group.

(a) If h .is a c h a r a c t e r on H extended t o B i n the
G -
u s u a l way, then Vh 1s i r r e d u c i b l e i f and o n l y i f wh $ h for
every w E W such t h a t w $ 1 .
(b) If h , fl b o t h s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n s of ( a ) , then
V
: i s isomorphic t o if and o n l y i f h = wfi f o r some w E W.

-
Proof: (a) v i s i r r e d u c i b l e i f and o n l y i f i t s commuting
a l g e b r a i s one-dimensional ( S c h u r r s ernm ma)., i.e., by ( c ) and ( d l
o f Lemma 84, i f and o n l y i f h and wh a g r e e on B f~WBW-',

hence on H, f o r e x a c t l y one w E W, i.e. f o r only w = 1.

G
(b) Since Vh and V: a r e i r r e d u c i b l e , they a r e iso-
G
morphic i f and o n l y i f dim HomG(Vh, v,)G = 1, which., a s above,
h o l d s e x a c t l y when h = WY f o r some (hence f o r e x a c t l y one) w E W.
~xercise.: (a) dim HO~~(V: , vG ~ =) 1~~ 1 if h = w,u f o r some w,

= 0 otherwise.

(b) I n Theorem 47 t h e c o n c l u s i o n i n ( b ) h o l d s even i f

t h e condition i n (a) doesn?t.

Here Wh i s the stabilizer of h in W. We see,, i n

particular, t h a t if h = 1 t n e n t h e commuting a l g e b r a of V: is
1w 1 - dimensional. But more i s t r u e .

Theorem 48': Let V b e t h e KG-module induced by t h e t r i v i a l

one-dimensional Wmodule. Then t h e commuting a l g e b r a ~ n (v)
d ~
i s isomorphic t o t h e group a l g e b r a KW.

Reformulations :

(a) The m u l t i p l i c i t i e s o f t h e i r r e d u c i b l e components o f V

a r e j u s t t h e degrees of t h e i r r e d u c i b l e KW- modules.
(b) The s u b a l g e b r a , c a l l it A, of KG spanned by t h e
--
d o u b l e c o s e t sums BwXw i s i s o m o r p h i c t o KW.
(c) The a l g e b r a of f u n c t i o n s f : G -3 K b i i n v a r i a n t under
1
B (f(bxbT)= f(x) for a l l b,b E 8) w i t h c o n v o l u t i o n a s m u l t i -
p l i c a t i o n is isomorphic t o KW.

Proof: The t h e o r e m i s e q u i v a l e n t t o ( a ) by S c h u r t s Lemma and t o

( b ) by Lemma 84, w h i l e ( b ) and ( c ) a r e c l e a r l y e q u i v a l e n t . We
4
s h a l l g i v e a p r o o f o f ( b ) , due t o J. Tits. w w i l l denote t h e

average i n KG of t h e elements o f t h e double c o s e t BwB. The

A 4
elements w form a b a s i s of A and 1 i s t h e u n i t element. If

a i s a simple r o o t , ca w i l l denote Ixa I-' .

(1) A i s g e n e r a t e d as a n a l g e b r a by
A
[wa I a simple]
subject t o the relations
A
"2 A
(a) wa = cal 4 (1-ca)wa for all a.
A 4 A
(P)
A A f '
wawbwa . = wbwawb . .. , a s i n Lemma $3 ( a ) .

Proof: We o b s e r v e t h a t i f e a c h ca i s r e p l a c e d by 1 then these

r e l a t i o n s go o v e r i n t o a d e f i n i n g s e t f o r KW, by Appendix 11.38.

Since B U BwaXa i s a g r o u p , we have (Fwaxa) = r 3 + sBwaXa with

r,s E K. Since Bwa X c o n t a i n s w i t h each o f i t s e h m e n t s i t s

i n v e r s e , we g e t r = (BW,X, 1, and t h e n from t h e t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t

s = IBW~X,] - B . Thus (a) holds i n A, and s o d o e s (P) by

 24-8
Lemma 2 5 , C o r . , which a l s o shows t h a t t h e
A
wa generate A.
A
Conversely, l e t A1 b e t h e a b s t r a c t a s s o c i a t i v e algebra (with 1)
A
g e n e r a t e d b y symbols wa subject t o (a) and (@I.
For each

w E W choose a minimal e x p r e s s i o n w = wa wb " * and s e t

h
w = wawb
A A
... . By Lemma 83 ( a ) and ( B ) t h i s i s i n d e p e n d e n t of
t h e e x p r e s s i o n chosen. By ( a ) it follows t h a t

A
Thus t h e w form a b a s i s f o r A1, which, h a v i n g t h e same

dimension a s A, i s t h e r e f o r e isomorphic t o it.

( 2 ) There e x i s t s a p o s i t i v e number c =: C ( G ) such t h a t

na
C = c w i t h n a a p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r d e p e n d i n g o n l y on t h e t y p e
a
o f G. The m u l t i p l i c a t i o n t a b l e o f A i n t e r m s o f t h e b a s i s $1
i s g i v e n b y polynomials i n c d e p e n d i n g o n l y on t h e type.

Proof: Consider 2~ ( q2 ) f o r example. Here t h e two

4
possibilities for Ixa( are q2 and q3 by Lemma 6 3 ( c ) . If we
set c = q -', t h e n t h e corresponding values of na are 2 and 3,
which depend o n l y on t h e t y p e . For each of t h e o t h e r t y p e s t h e
verification i s similar. From t h e f i r s t s t a t e m e n t o f ( 2 ) a n d t h e
e q u a t i o n s o f t h e p r o o f of (1) t h e s e c o n d s t a t e m e n t f o l l o w s .

(3) An a . s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a AC with multiplication table

g i v e n b y t h e p o l y n o m i a l s o f ( 2 ) e x i s t s f o r e v e r y complex number c.
In particular = A and A1 = KW .
Proof: Since t h e t y p e o f t h e group G c o n t a i n s a n i n f i n i t e number
 24 9
o f members, t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n t a b l e i s a s s o c i a t i v e f o r an

i n f i n i t e s e t of values o f c., h e n c e f o r a l l v a l u e s .

( 4 ) AC i s semisimple f o r c = c(G)., for c = 1 , and

f o r a l l b u t a f i n i t e number of v a l u e s o f c.

Proof: Ac is f o r c = C(G) t h e commuting a l g e b r a o f a

KG-module and f o r c = 1 a group a l g e b r a KW, h e n c e s e m i s i m p l e

i n both cases. The d i s c r i m i n a n t o f Ac i s a polynomial i n c,

nonzero a t c = 1 since then Ac i s semisimple, hence nonzero

f o r a l l b u t a f i n i t e number o f v a l u e s o f c.

(5) Completion o f p r o o f . Since A i s s e m i s i m p l e and K

is an algebraically closed f i e l d , A i s a d i r e c t sum o f c o m p l e t e
metric a l g e b r a s , o f c e r t a i n degrees over K (see, e.g.,

J a c o b s o n f s S t r u c t u r e o f Rings o r F e i t f s n o t e s ) , and s i m i l a r l y

for KW. We h a v e t o show t h a t t h e d e g r e e s a r e t h e same i n t h e

two c a s e s . If a i s any f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a
which i s s e p a r a b l e , i . e . which i s s e m i s i m p l e when t h e b a s e f i e l d

i s extended t o i t s a l g e b r a i c c l o s u r e , we d e f i n e t h e n u m e r i c a l

invariants of t o b e t h e degrees of t h e r e s u l t i n g matric alge-

bras. The proof o f Theorem 4 8 w i l l b e c o m p l e t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g

lemma.

Lemma 85 .: Let R b e a n i n t e g r a l domain, F its f i e l d of

q u o t i e n t s , and f a homomorphism o f R onto a f i e l d K. Let

a be a finite-dimensional associative algebra over R, and

QF and aK t h e r e s u l t i n g a l g e b r a s o v e r F and K. If
$ and aK a r e s e p a r a b l e , t h e n t h e y h a v e t h e same n u m e r i c a l
 250
invariants.

I n f a c t , from (3) and t h e lemma w i t h R = K[c], d = A, ,

and f i r s t f ; c-> c (G) and t h e n f : c + 1, it follows
that A and KW have t h e same n u m e r i c a l i n v a r i a n t s , hence
t h a t t h e y a r e isomorphic.

Proof of t h e lemma:

(a) Assume t h a t 0 i s a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l semisimple

a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a o v e r an a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d L,
that bl,b2,. . 2
bn form a b a s i s f o r @/L, that xl,x2,.. . ,xn
a r e independent indeterminates over L, that b = E xibi , and
that ~ ( t i)s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c polynomial o f b a c t i n g from
t h e l e f t on fi L(xl,. . . written as ~ ( t= ) TT ~ ~ ( t )
Pi
:Xn)
w i t h the Pi d i s t i n c t monic polynomials i r r e d u c i b l e over
L(xl,. .. , x n ) . Then:

(al) The pi a r e t h e n u m e r i c a l i n v a r i a n t s of 0 .
(a21 pi = dgtPi f o r each 1.
i
s any f a c t o r i z a t i o n over
(a3 If ~ ( t= )T Q ~ ( i~
J
) J

L(xl). .. )xn) such t h a t q

J
=- dg &
t j
f o r each j, then it agrees

w i t h t h e one above s o t h a t t h e a r e t h e numerical i n v a r i a n t s

qj

Proof: For (all and (a21 we may assume t h a t 63 is the

complete m a t r i c a l g e b r a End L' and t h a t b = Cx. E. . in
l j 13
terms of t h e matric u n i t s E. .. I f[x. -1, t h e n
X =
13 13
P ( t )= d e t (tI - , s o t h a t we have t o show t h a t d e t (tI - X)
i s i r r e d u c i b l e over L(x. -1. This i s so since specialization t o
1J
t h e s e t of companion m a t r i c e s

PP

y i e l d s t h e general equation
of degree p. In (a31 i f some Q- were r e d u c i b l e o r e q u a l t o
J
some Qk with k j, t h e n any i r r e d u c i b l e f a c t o r Pi of
Q~

would v i o l a t e (a2).
.I- I

(b) Let R'" b e t h e i n t e g r a l c l o s u r e of R in F

( c o n s i s t i n g o f a l l elements s a t i s f y i n g monic polynomial e q u a t i o n s
-
over R)., and xl,x2,. .. xn indeterminates over F. Then
*
R [xl,.. . xn ] i s t h e i n t e g r a l closure of R[xl,. .. x n ] in
-
F (xl, -:,xn)

Proof : S e e , e. g. , Bourbaki , Commutative Algebra, Chapter V.,

Prop. 13.
(c) If R* i s as i n (b) , then any homomorphism of R into
4- -
K can b e extended t o one o f R- into K.

-0.

Proof: By Z o r n t s lemma t h i s can b e reduced t o t h e c a s e R*r = ~ [ a ] , )

-
where it i s almost immediate s i n c e K i s a l g e b r a i c a l l y closed.
(dl Completion o f proof. Let {ai] be a b a s i s f o r &/R,
hence a l s o f o r UF/~? and ixi] independent i n d e t e r m i n a t e s o v e r
- -
F and a l s o o v e r K. The g i v e n homomorphism f :R>
- K defines
a homomorphism f : -+a . By ( c ) i t e x t e n d s t o a homo-
.#. -
morphism o f R" into K and t h e n n a t u r a l l y t o one o f
>k
R [xl,. .. ,xn] i n t o -K[xl,. . . xn 1. If a = Z x.1 a 1. and
P i i s i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c polynomial, f a c t o r e d
~ ( t= ) r[ Pi ( t ) over
-
F(xl). ..) x n ) a s b e f o r e , t h e n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f each Pi are
rn

252
i n t e g r a l p o l y n o m i a l s i n i t s r o o t s , hence i n t e g r a l o v e r t h e

c o e f f i c i e n t s of P, hence i n t e g r a l over R[xl,x2, ...,xn],

hence belong t o
1 .
.fa

R [xl,. .. ,xn] by (b 1. Thus i f f ( a ) = Pxif ( a 1,

t h e n i t s c h a r a c t e r polynomial has a corresponding f a c t o r i z a t i o n

Pf ( t ) = r [Pif ( t )P i o v e r -K(xl, ...,

x n ) . By ( a l l t h e pi a r e
t h e numerical i n v a r i a n t s of Q , and by (a21 t h e y s a t i s f y
pi = dgtPi = dgtPif, s o t h a t by ( a ? ) with 6=a they a r e

a l s o t h e numerical i n v a r i a n t s of a K , which p r o v e s t h e lemma.

Exercise: If h i s a c h a r a c t e r on H extended t o B i n the

u s u a l way, t h e n ~ n d ~ ( ~ ;i s
) isomorphic t o KWh . (Observe t h a t

t h i s r e s u l t i n c l u d e s b o t h Theorem 47 and Theorem 48.1

Remark: Although A i s isomorphic t o KW t h e r e d o e s n o t seem

t o b e any n a t u r a l isomorphism and no one h a s s u c c e e d e d i n decom-
p o s i n g t h e module V of Theorem 48 i n t o i t s i r r e d u c i b l e com-

p o n e n t s , e x c e p t f o r some g r o u p s o f low r a n k . We may o b t a i n some

p a r t i a l r e s u l t s , i n terms o f c h a r a c t e r s , by inducing from t h e
parabolic subgroups and u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g simple f a c t s .

Lemma 86: Let n be a s e t o f simple r o o t s , W, and the Gn

W
corresponding subgroups o f W and G ( s e e Lemma 3 ~ 1 , and V n
G
and Vn t h e c ~ r r e s p o n d i n gt r i v i a l modules i n d u c e d t o W and G;
and s i m i l a r l y f o r a' .
(a) A system of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n W for the (Wn,Wn~)

d o u b l e c o s e t s becomes in G a system o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f o r

G , double cosets.

dim H 0 m G ( V , ,
G G
V,T ) = dim HomW(Vn, vnt
W W 1.
(b)
Proof: (a) Exercise.

(b) By Lemma $&{dl and ( a ) .

C o r o l l a r y 1: Let X G
denote t h e c h a r a c t e r of VnG and s i m i l a r l y

for W. I f In,] i s a s e t o f i n t e g e r s such t h a t X W=~n&: is

a n i r r e d u c i b l e c h a r a c t e r of W, then X = E nnX, is,up t o sign,

one o f G.

-
Proof: Let (X, )G denote t h e average of Xv over G. We h a v e

) G H O ~ ~ ( GV , ,v z r ) ,
( Xn G ,n ~ G =~dim and s i m i l a r l y f o r W. since xW
i s irreducible, (x' ,xW
) = 1, i t f o l l o w s t h a t (xG,xGl G = 1,
so t h a t -X
+ i s i r r e d u c i b l e , by t h e o r t h o g o n a l i t y r e l a t i o n s f o r
f i n i t e group characters.

Remarks : ( a ) I n a b e a u t i f u l paper i n B e r l i n e r Sitzungsberichte,

1900, F r o b e n i u s h a s c o n s t r u c t e d a complete s e t o f i r r e d u c i b l e
c h a r a c t e r s f o r t h e symmetric g r o u p S n , 1.e. t h e Weyl group o f

type An-1 a s a s e t of i n t e g r a l combinations o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s

xW
n Using h i s method and t h e p r e c e d i n g c o r o l l a r y one can de-
corgpose t h e c h a r a c t e r o f V i n Theorem 48 i n c a s e G i s of type

An- 1. (See R. S t e i n b e r g T.A.M.S. 1951).

(b) The s i t u a t i o n of ( a ) does n o t h o l d i n g e n e r a l .

C o n s i d e r , f o r example, t h e g r o u p W of t y p e i. e. t h e d i h e d r a l
B2
g r o u p o f o r d e r 8. I t h a s f i v e i r r e d u c i b l e modules ( o f dimensions

1 7 1 , 1 1 , 2 7 while t h e r e a r e o n l y f o u r X ; , S t o workwith.

(c) A r e s u l t of a g e n e r a l n a t u r e i s a s f o l l o w s .

Corollary 2 : I f t h e n o t a t i o n i s a s above and (-1 is as i n

Lemma 66 ( d ) , t h e n x = Z ( -1 ) n~z i s an i r r e d u c i b l e character
of G and i t s d e g r e e i n ]u(.

Proof: Consider x = C ( -1)n X,W . By ( 8 ) on p. 1 4 2 , extended t o

t w i s t e d groups (check t h i s u s i n g t h e h i n t s g i v e n i n t h e proof o f
Lemma 66) , ?: = det , an irreducible character. Hence 2 x
i s a l s o one by Cor. 1 above. We have ~ ~ (= -1 ) ~ G . If
G

G i s u n t w i s t e d and t h e b a s e f i e l d h a s q elements, then by

Theorem 4' applied t o G and t o Gn t h i s can b e c o n t i n u e d
N a s i n ( 4 ) of t h e proof o f Theorem
Z ( -1)% ( q ) / ~ n ( q ) = q = I U I,
26. If G i s t w i s t e d , t h e proof i s s i m i l a r .

We c o n t i n u e w i t h some remarks on t h e a l g e b r a A of Theorem

48(b).

Lemma 87: The homomorphisms o f A onto K a r e g i v e n by:

4.
f (wa) = 1 o r - ca f o r each s i m p l e r o o t a , subject t o t h e
4
condition t h a t f (wa) i s c o n s t a n t on each W-orbit.

Proof: For a and b simple, l e t n(a,b) denote t h e order of

wawb i n W. We c l a i m t h a t ( a and b b e l o n g t o t h e same

W-orbit i f and o n l y i f t h e r e e x i s t s a sequence o f s i m p l e r o o t s
a = ao 2 '1 , ,ar = b such t h a t n(ai,ai+l) i s odd f o r every I.

he e q u a t i o n )" = 1 with n odd can b e r e w r i t t e n t o

show t h a t wa- and a r e c o n j u g a t e , s o t h a t i f t h e sequence
1 wai+l
e x i s t s then a and b a r e conjugate. If a and b a r e conjugate,
then so are and wb , and t h i s remains t r u e when we p r o j e c t
wa
i n t o t h e r e f l e c t i o n group o b t a i n e d b y imposing on Tld t h e a d d i t i o n a l
2
relations : (wcwd) = 1 whenever n (c ,d) i s even. I n t h i s new
group wa and wb must b e l o n g t o t h e same component, s o t h a t t h e
r e q u i r e d sequence e x i s t s . By ( t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e lemma h o l d s
4 4
e x a c t l y when f (wa) = f (wb) whenever n(a,b) i s odd, i.e.
e x a c t l y when f preserves t h e relations ($1 (of t h e proof of
Theorem 4 8 ) . Since
A
f (wa) = 1 o r - ca e x a c t l y when f preserves
(a) (solve t h e quadratic), we have t h e lemma.

Remark: By f i n d i n g t h e a n n i h i l a t o r i n A of t h e kernel of each of

t h e homomorphisms o f Lemma 87, we g e t a one-dimensional ideal I in
A. This c o r r e s p o n d s t o a n i r r e d u c i b l e submodule o f m u l t i p l i c i t y 1
in V, r e a l i z e d i n t h e l e f t i d e a l KG1 of KG. By working o u t t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g i d e m p o t e n t , t h e d e g r e e o f t h e submodule can b e found.

4 4
Exercise: (a) If f (wa) = 1 f o r a l l a, show t h a t I =KC q w
W
with 4, = l ~ l , and t h a t t h e corresponding KGmodule i s t h e
t r i v i a l one. (Hint: by w r i t i n g W a s a union o f r i g h t c o s e t s
h A
relative t o [l,wa ] and w r i t i n g (a) i n t h e form (wa-l)(w,+ ca) = 0 ,
show t h a t I i s as i n d i c a t e d . )
A
(b) If f(wa) = -c
a for a l l a, show t h a t
I = K 1 ( d e t w)$, and t h a t i n t h i s c a s e t h e dimension i s 1 U 1.
(Hint : i f e i s t i l e g i v e n sum and c = qw -1 , show t h a t e2 =me
W
with m = C c
W
= JG/BI/I uJ.)
(c) For G = B (q) work o u t a l l ( f o u r ) c a s e s o f Lemma
2
87, hence o b t a i n t h e d e g r e e s of a l l ( f i v e ) i r r e d u c i b l e components

(dl Same f o r A2 and f o r G2 .

Remark: It c a n b e shown t h a t t h e module o f ( b ) i s i s o m o r p h i c t o
t h e one w i t h c h a r a c t e r xG a s i n Lemma 86, Cor.2. I f we r e d u c e
 256
t h e element C(det w ) I U / x w lFwG (which i s IBI]u( e) of I

mod P, we s e e from t h e proof o f Theorem 46 ( e l t h a t t h e given

module r e d u c e s t o t h e one o f t h a t theorem f o r which h = 1 and

every ,ua =-1. This l a t t e r module can i t s e l f b e shown t o b e

isomorphic t o t h e one i n Theorem 43 f o r which < h ,a > = q(a)-l
f o r every a. From t h e s e f a c t s and WeylTs formula t h e c h a r a c t e r
o f t h e o r i g i n a l module can b e found up t o s i g n and t h e r e s u l t u s e d
t o prove t h a t t h e number of p-elements (of o r d e r a power o f p)
of G is 1u12 . For t h e d e t a i l s s e e R. S t e i n b e r g , Endomorphisms
o f l i n e a r a l g e b r a i c g r o u p s , t o appear.

F i n a l l y , we s h o u l d mention t h a t t h e a l g e b r a A admits a n
i n v o l u t i o n g i v e n by
4
wa >
- l - c a -Wa4
for all a (which i n c a s e
c, ---3 1 and A >
- KW reduces t o w -+ ( d e t w)w).

The p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n p o i n t s up t h e f o l l o w i n g
Problem: Develop a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t h e o r y f o r f i n i t e r e f l e c t i o n
groups and u s e it t o decompose t h e module V (or t h e algebra A)
of Theorem 4 8 .
It i s n a t u r a l t h a t i n s t u d y i n g t h e complex r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f
G we have c o n s i d e r e d f i r s t t h o s e induced by c h a r a c t e r s on B since
f o r representations of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p this l e a d s t o a complete
set. I n characteristic 0, however, t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e , a s even
t h e simplest case G = SL shows. One must d e l v e deeper. There-
2
f o r e , we s h a l l c o n s i d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f G induced by (one-
dimensional) characters h on U . We can n o t expect such a
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ever t o be i r r e d u c i b l e s i n c e i t s degree ~ G / u ( i s
l/ 2
too large (larger than I G ] , b u t what we s h a l l show i s t h a t
if h i s s u f f i c i e n t l y g e n e r a l t h e n a t l e a s t it i s m u l t i p l i c i t y - f r e e .
 G
I n o t h e r words, EndG(Vh) i s A b e l i a n , hence a d i r e c t sum o f f i e l d s .
(If h i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y g e n e r a l , we can e x p e c t t h e Weyl g r o u p
t o p l a y a r o l e , a s i n Theorem 4 8 . )

Before s t a t i n g t h e t h e o r e m , we prove two Iemn1.a~.

Lemma 88: Let k b e a f i n i t e f i e l d and h a nontrivial character

cI.

from t h e a d d i t i v e group of k into K Then e v e r y c h a r a c t e r c a n

b e w r i t t e n uniquely h
C
: t ->h(ct) f o r some c E k .
Proof: The map c -+Ac i s a homomorphism o f k into its dual,
and i t s k e r n e l i s c l e a r l y 0.

Lemma 89: For w E W t h e following conditions a r e equivalent.

(a) If a and wa art. p o s i t i v e m o t s r;nd one o f thcrr, i s
simple, then so i s t h e other.

(b) If a i s s i m p l e and wa is positive, then wa is

simple.

(c) w = w ow n f o r some s e t n of s i m p l e r o o t s , w i t h wo as
u s u a l and w, t h e corresponding o b j e c t of W, .
There a r e 2' possibilities for w.

Proof: (c) + (a) Because w, maps . n onto -n and (+) per-

mutes t h e p o s i t i v e r o o t s w i t h s u p p o r t n o t i n n (sane proof a s

f o r Appendix '1.11).

(a) + (b) Obvious.

(b) 9 (c) Let n be t h e s e t of simple r o o t s kept p o s i t i v e ,

hence s i m p l e , by w. We c l a i m : ( if a > 0 and supp a -rc ,

then wa 0. Write a = b + c with supp b & n , supp c GTT- n.

Then wa = wb + wc. Here wc 0 by t h e c h o i c e o f n, and

 258
s u p p wc wn 2 supp wb. Thus wa c 0. If a i s a simple root

not i n n then ww,a < 0 by (x) and (::k), w h i l e if a i s

in n t h i s h o l d s by t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f n . Thus ww, -- wo ,
whence (c).

Theorern 49: Let G b e a f i n i t e , perhaps t w i s t e d , Chevalley group

J.

and h :U >- K' a c h a r a c t e r s u c h t h a t 1 if a i s simple,

= 1 if a is

p o s i t i v e b u t n o t s i m p l e . Then :V is multiplicity-free. I n other

G
words, ~ n ( vd ~ )~i s A b e l i a n , o r , e q u i v a l e n t l y , t h e s u b a l g e b r a A
of KG spanned by t h e elements Uh hGUh (h E H ,w E W) i s Abelian.
and we assume t h a t t h e
-
w are
Here Uh = Z h (u-')u 9
UEU
c h o s e n ' a s , i n Lemma Ef3( b ) .
Remarks : (a) If a i s not simple, then usually Xa c u , so
t h a t t h e assumption hlxa = 1 i s s u p e r f l u o u s , b u t t h i s i s n o t always

I t h e case, e.g. for

2
o r F4 w i t h k
B = 2 or for
G2
with

I ( k( = 3. I n these l a t t e r groups, t h e r e a r e other p o s s i b i l i t i e s ,

I which b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s p e c i a l n a t u r e w i l l n o t b e g o n e i n t o h e r e .
The p r o o f t o f o l l o w i s s u g g e s t e d by t h a t o f G e l f a n d
(b)
1 1

and Graev, Coalady, 1963, who h a v e g i v e n a p r o o f f o r SLn and

I announced t h e g e n e r a l r e s u l t f o r t h e u n t w i s t e d g r o u p s . T. Yokonuma,

I C. Renduss, P a r i s , 1967, has a l s o given a proof f o r t h e s e l a t t e r

I g r o u p s , b u t h i s d e t a i l s a r e u n n e c e s s a r i l y com.plicated.

P r o o f o f Theorem. 49: The f a c t t h a t A i s A b e l i a n w i l l f o l l o w from

t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an ( i n v o l u t o r y ) antiautomorphism f of G such
that
(a) f U = U .
 259
(c) For e a c h d o u b l e c o s e t UnU such t h a t Uhn Uh 0 , we
have fn = n (here n E N = X HB).
For s i n c e f extended t o KG and ' t h e n r e s t r i c t e d t o A i s an
antiautomorphism and a t t h e same t i m e t h e i d e n t i t y (by (a)? (b)?

( c ) ) it i s clear t h a t A i s Abelian. The e x i s t e n c e o f f will

b e proved i n s e v e r a l s t e p s .

(1) I f UhnUh $ 0 and n E HE, then w = wow, f o r some

set n of s i m p l e r o o t s .

Proof: By Lemma 89 we need o n l y p r o v e t h a t i f a i s s i m p l e and

wa positive then wa i s simple. Writing t h e f i r s t Uh above
with the X component on t h e r i g h t , and t h e second w i t h t h e Xa
wa
component on t h e l e f t , we g e t %a , h "'a , h n-I 0 . S i n c e h i s
n o n t r i v i a l on Xa i t i s a l s o s o on \2, whence wa i s s i m p l e

by t h e a s s u m p t i o n s on h, which p r o v e s (1).

The c o n d i t i o n i n ( 1 ) e s s e n t i a l l y f o r c e s t h e c o r r e c t
definition of f. We s e t
,. =
.L

a' - wo a . If a i s simple, so i s
a
4
1
.

. I n o.rder t o s i m p l i f y t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n one o r two s p o t s we

assume h e n c e f o r t h t h a t G (i.e. i t s r o o t s y s t e m ) i s indecomposable.
If G is u n t w i s t e d , we s t a r t w i t h t h e g r a p h automorphism correspond-
,
I
.

ing to ' ( s e e t h e C o r o l l a r y on p. 1561, compose i t w i t h t h e

-1
inversion x ->x , and f i n a l l y w i t h a d i a g o n a l automorphism s o

that the result f s a t i s f i e s , not only fU = U but also hf = h

on U. T h i s i s p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f Lemma 89 aizd t h e assumptions

on h i n t h e theorem. If G is t w i s t e d , t h e n we may omit t h e
.L
g r a p h automorphism ( b e c a u s e -, i s then t h e i d e n t i t y ) , and u s e
t h e e x p l i c i t - isomorphism xa/Bxa 2 k of (2) o f t h e proof of
Theorem. 36 i n combination w i t h Lemma 89 t o a c h i e v e t h e second
 260
condition. We s e e t h a t
(2) f i s a n i n v o l u t o r y a n t i a u t o m o r p h i s m which s a t i s f i e s
t h e required conditions (a) and (b) . We must p r o v e t h a t i t
also satisfies ( c. A s c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n we h a v e :

f o r every h E H.

(4) If a
T1-
.,

= a, then f i s t h e i d e n t i t y on xa/fix a .
-,-
.I,

(5) If a = a, t h e r e e x l s t s a n o n t r i v i a l element of Xa
f i x e d by f.

Proof: For Xa of' t y p e A1 t h i s f o l l o w s from (4). For Xa of

type 2 ~ 2we c h o o s e t h e e l e m e n t ( t, u ) o f Lemma 63 ( c ) with

t = 2, u = 2 if p $ 2, and t = 0, u = 1 if p = 2, since

f ( t, u ) = ( t , - t t 8u ) (check t h i s , r e f e r r i n g t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
f) . For types
C2
a n d 2 ~ 2w e m a y c h o o s e ( 0 , l ) and (0,1,0)
since f i s t h e i d e n t i t y on { ( o , u ) ] a n d { ( o , u , o ) 1.
-
(6) The e l e m e n t s wa E G may b e s o c h o s e n t h a t :
-
(6a) f a -
- w f o r every simple root a.
(6b) If a and b e r e s i m p l e and n E N i s such t h a t

n Xan--1-- Xb and h ( n x n- l ) = h(x) f o r a l l x E Xa , then

nGan -1 = wb - .

Proof: Under t h e a c t i o n o f f and t h e i n n e r automorphisms in

by e l e m e n t s n as i n (6b) the Xa (a simple) form o r b i t s .

.I<

From e a c h o r b i t we s e l e c t a n e l e m e n t Xa . If a'' = a, we

choose xa E Xa as i n (51, w r i t e it a s (s) xa = x Fx with

l a 2
x1,x2 E X-a , and c h o o s e -
wa a c c o r d i n g l y . Since f i s an
-
a n t i a u t o m o r p h i s m and f i x e s X-a , it a l s o f i x e s wa by t h e
 261
u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e above form. If a" f a, we choose xa e Xa,xa $ 1,
arbitrarily. We t h e n u s e t h e e q u a t i o n s fGa = 5;:
and i
-
w =
-
wb
n a
of ( 6 a ) and ( 6 b ) t o e x t e n d t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f G t o t h e o r b i t of
a. We must show t h i s can b e done c o n s i s t e n t l y , t h a t we always
r e t u r n t o t h e same v a l u e . Let al,a2,. .. an b e a sequence o f
)

simple r o o t s such t h a t al -
- an = a and f o r each j e i t h e r
= a :: o r e l s e t h e r e e x i s t s n . such t h a t t h e assumptions i n
aj+l j J
(6b) holds w i t h a. a- n- i n p l a c e of a , b , n . Let g d e n o t e
J ' ~ + 1J'
t h e p r o d u c t of t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g sequence o f f t s and in 's .
- J
We must show t h a t g fixes ma . We have gXa - Xa , = X
-a '
and i n f a c t g a c t s on xa/65 Xa ' identified with k, by
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n by a s c a l a r c a s f o l l o w s from t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f
f and t h e u s u a l formulas f o r in. Since hg = h by t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n d i t i o n on f and each i n , it f o l l o w s from
Lemma 89 t h a t c = 1, so t h a t g i s t h e i d e n t i t y on x,/&
a
X .
If X = 0, then g f i x e s t h e element xa above, hence a l s o
a
-w, by ( , whether g i s a n automorphism o r an antiautomorphism.
f 0,
-1,

If &X then G i s twisted so t h a t a" = a. If g i s an

a
automorphism, t h e n by t h e proof of Theorem 36 from ( 5 ) on i t s
-
restriction to < Xa,X-a > is t h e i d e n t i t y so t h a t it f i x e s wa ,
while i f g i s a n antiautomorphism t h e n by t h e same r e s u l t i t s
-
r e s t r i c t i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h a t of f so t h a t it f i x e s wa by
t h e choice of
-wa .
Remark: If G i s u n t w i s t e d , t h e above proof i s q u i t e s i m p l e .

We assume h e n c e f o r t h t h a t t h e wa are a s i n (6).

(7) If
-w = w-a w-b ... a s i n Lemma 8 3 ( b ) and
-1 -1
w : : = w0w wo ,
C

then
-
f w = w*
- .
Proof: Since wawb . .. i s minimal, ...a
.,* i s also.
wb:+ w
I
.
'

(check t h i s . ) Since f i s a n a n t i a u t o m o r p h i s m i t f o l l o w s from

(6a) that fw =
-
... -wb , w-a ,-- "
- ' - Wb: Wa"
-
= W-I.
.0-
.
(8) I f w i s as: i n (1) t h e n fw = %.

Proof: w" - w i n t h i s case (see (7))

( 9 ) If n i s a s i n (1) t h e n f n = n.

Proof: By ( l ) , n e K H w i t h w=wow,. Assume a c x .

Then wa i s s i m p l e and h ( n x n-'1 = h(x) f o r a l l x e Xa ,
-1 --
b y t h e i n e q u a l i t y i n t h e p r o o f o f (1). Thus nGan - Wwa
by (6b), f r o m which we g e t , on p i c k i n g a minimal e x p r e s s i o n
for w, , that ( ntj,n-' =
n
since
~ ( w )= N (wow,) = N (wo) - N (w,) , i t f o l l o w s t h a t i f we p u t t-

g e t h e r minimal e x p r e s s i o n s f o r w and w, we w i l l g e t one f o r

Thus
-
wo =
--
ww, b y Lemma 83 ( b ) , a n d s i m i l a r l y
L

wo =
- -
w +w ,
wo n
so t h a t (:;<::) --
WW,W = w :
;
71
. I f now we w r i t e n = Gh , then

h commutes w i t h -
w, by (::) and ( ) Hence
-
fn = f h - fw since f i s a n antliautornorphism
= Fi0h~i1w b y (3) and (8)
4- -w,- 1 -. --
= ww, h since wo = ww,

= wh since h commutes w i t h w,

= n .

Thus f s a t i s f i e s condition (c) and t h e p r o o f o f Theorem 49

i s complete.
 263
Exercise: (a) Prove t h a t i f { F ~ ] i s a s i n ( 6 ) and w as i n
(l), t h e n UkwUk 0.

(b) Deduce t h a t i f H, denotes t h e k e r n e l of t h e s e t

of s i m p l e r o o t s .n t h e n t h e dimension o f A, hence t h e number of
i r r e d u c i b l e components o f VkG , i n Theorem 49 i s C ] H ~ I.
Remark: The n a t u r a l g r o u p f o r t h e p r e c e d i n g theorem seems t o b e
t h e a d j o i n t g r o u p extended by t h e d i a g o n a l automorphisms, a g r o u p
o f t h e same o r d e r a s t h e u n i v e r s a l g r o u p , b u t w i t h something e x t r a
a t t h e t o p i n s t e a d o f a t t h e bottom. For t h i s g r o u p , GI, prove
- -
t h a t t h e dimension above i s j u s t I I ( 1~~ 1 + 1) = I I q(a) i n the

n o t a t i o n of t h e e x e r c i s e j u s t b e f o r e Lemma 83. Prove a l s o t h a t i n

t h is case VhG i s i n d e p e n d e n t of h .
Remark: The problem now i s t o decompose t h e a l g e b r a A of Theorem

49 i n t o i t s s i m p l e (one-dimensional) components. If t h i s were done,

i t would b e a m.ajor s t e p t o w a r d s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t h e o r y f o r G.

A s f a r a s we know t h i s h a s been done o n l y f o r t h e g r o u p A1 (see

Gelfand and Graev, Doklady, 1 9 6 2 ) . It would n o t , however, b e t h e

complete s t o r y . For n o t e v e r y i r r e d u c i b l e G-module i s contained
i n one i n d u c e d by a c h a r a c t e r o n U, i . e. , by F r o b e n i u s r e -
c i p r o c i t y , c o n t a i n s a one-dimensional U-module, a s t h e following,
o u r f i n a l , example, due t o 1vI. Kneser, shows ( a l t h o u g h i t i s f o r

some t y p e s o f groups s u c h a s A,).

A s remarked e a r l i e r , r e d u c t i o n mod 3 y i e l d s a n isomorphism

o f t h e subgroup W+ o f e l e m e n t s o f d e t e r m i n a n t 1 o f t h e Weyl

group W of t y p e E6 o n t o t h e group G = SO5 ( 3 ) , the adjoint

 264
group of type B2(3). If we r e v e r s e t h i s i s o m o r p h i s m a n d e x t e n d

t h e s c a l a r s we o b t a i n a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f G on a complex s p a c e
V. The a s s e r t i o n i s t h a t U, i .e . a 3-Sylow s u b g r o u p of G,
f i x e s no l i n e o f , V. Consider t h e f o l l o w i n g diagram.

T h i s i s t h e Dynkin d i a g r a m o f w i t h t h e lowest r o o t ad j o i n e d
E6 a7
(a7
i s t h e unique r o o t i n - D ( s e e Appendix I I I . ~ ~ u)n,i q u e

because a l l r o o t s a r e conjugate i n t h e present case. It i s

connectled a s shown b e c a u s e o f symmetry and t h e f a c t t h a t e a c h
p r o p e r s u b d i a g r a m must r e p r e s e n t a f i n i t e r e f l e c t i o n g r o u p . ) We
1
choose a s a b a s i s f o r V the a s with a omitted, a union
3
of t h r e e bases of mutually orthogonal planes. w1w2 acts as a
r o t a t i o n o f 12C0 i n t h e plane ial,a2> and a s t h e i d e n t i t y i n
t h e o t h e r two p l a n e s , and s i m i l a r l y f o r
w4W5
and W6W7 . The
group W+ a l s o c o n t a i n s a n e l e m e n t p e r m u t i n g t h e t h r e e p l a n e s
c y c l i c a l l y a s shown, b e c a u s e o f t h e c o n j u g a c y o f s i m p l e s y s t e m s
a n d t h e uniqueness o f l o w e s t r o o t s , and t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s g e n e r a t e
a 3-subgroup of W+ . It i s now a s i m p l e m a t t e r t o p r o v e t h a t
t h i s s u b g r o u p f i x e s no l i n e o f V.
 APPENDIX ON FINITE REFLECTION GROUPS

The r e s u l t s (and some o f t h e terminology i n what f o l l o w s )

a r e m o t m a t e d by t h e t h e o r y o f semisimple L i e a l g e b r a s , b u t no
knnowledge o f t h i s t h e o r y i s assumed. The main r e s u l t s a r e s t a r r e d .

V w i l l be a finite-dimensional r e a l o r r a t i o n a l Euclidean
space. By a r e f l e c t i o n (on V) i s meant a r e f l e c t i o n i n some
h y p e r p l a n e H. If . a i s a nonzero v e c t o r o r t h o g o n a l t o H, the
r e f l e c t i o n , denoted ca , i s g i v e n by

1) = p-z(p,a)/(a,a).a ( y EV).
We o b s e r v e t h a t i s a n automorphism o f V, o f o r d e r 2.
A useful f a c t is:

(2) If w i s a n automorphism o f V, then maw-' -

-% a*

To prove t h i s , a p p l y b o t h s i d e s t o P V, t h e n u s e (I)
and t h e i n v a r i a n c e o f ( , under w.

C w i l l d e n o t e a f i n i t e s e t of nonzero elements o f V such

that :
(3) a E Z => - u E Z and ka@C if k + -+ 1 .
(4) a E Z crZ = C .
a
The e l e m e n t s of C w i l l b e c a l l e d r o o t s , and W w i l l denote t h e
g r o u p g e n e r a t e d by a l l ra ( a E Z ) .
( 5 ) Lemma. The r e s t r i c t i o n of W to C i s faithful.
 F o r , each w W f i x e s p o i n t w i s e t h e o r t h o g o n a l complement
of C.

(6) -
Cor. W is finite.
( 7 ) Examples. (a) If C i s t h e r o o t system o f a semisimple
L i e a l g e b r a o v e r t h e complex f i e l d , t h e n W i s t h e corresponding
Weyl g r o u p . ( b ) If W i s any f i n i t e group g e n e r a t e d by r e f l e c t i o n s ,
eeg. t h e group o f symmetries o f a r e g u l a r s o l i d , C may b e t a k e n
as t h e s e t of u n i t normals t o t h e h y p e r p l a n e s i n which r e f l e c t i o n s
of W t a k e place.

( 8 Definitions, A s u b s e t of r o o t s i s c a l l e d a p o s i t i v e system
i f it c o n s i s t s of t h e r o o t s which a r e p o s i t i v e r e l a t i v e t o some

ordering of V. (Recall that t h i s involves t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of

a subset V+ of V which i s c l o s e d under a d d i t i o n and u n d e r
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n b y p o s i t i v e sca.l.2-s and s a t i s f i e s t r i c h o t o m y . ) A
s u b s e t of r o o t s , s a y , i s a s i m p l e system i f (a) is a
l i n e a r l y independent s e t , and (b) every r o o t i s a l i n e a r
combination o f t h e elements of i n which a l l nonzero c o e f f i c i e n t s
a r e e i t h e r a l l p o s i t i v e o r a l l negative.

:k ( 9 ) P r o p o s i t i o n . ( a ) Each s i m p l e system i s c o n t a i n e d i n a u n i q u e
p o s i t i v e system. (b) Each p o s i t i v e system c o n t a i n s a unique
s i m p l e system.
11
If i s a s i m p l e system, t h e n c l e a r l y t h e a l l positive'1
r o o t s i n ( 8 b ) form t h e unique p o s i t i v e system c o n t a i n i n g ,
whence ( a ) . Now l e t P b e any p o s i t i v e system. Let be
a s u b s e t of P which g e n e r a t e s P under p o s i t i v e l i n e a r
c o m b i n a t i o n s and i s minimal r e l a t i v e t o t h i s p r o p e r t y . Then
(';') a , fl E r r , a $ . B => ( c , ~ <
)- 0 . Assume n o t , s o t h a t

aCI I3
'
= p - ccr with c > 0 . Assume g p E P , s o t h a t
rap = I:c Y y (y s TT , cy >_ 0 ) I f cs < 1, t h e l a s t e q u a t i o n ,
written s u i t a b l y , expresses 9 as a p o s i t i v e c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e

o t h e r e l e m e n t s of , a c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o t h e m i n i m a l i t y of rr ,
while if >
-
1 , it e x p r e s s e s 0 a s a p o s i t i v e combination

of e l e m e n t s of rr , hence of P , equally a contradiction.

Similarly - d;lP E P l e a d s t o a c o n t r a d i c t i o n , whence (::) .

Now a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n on rr may be w r i t t e n I: aca = I: b p
B
w i t h t h e two sums o v e r d i s j o i n t p a r t s of rr and a,,bg >_ 0 .
9iriting t h i s a s P = o- and u s i n g ( ) we g e t (e,fl = ((' ,o- ) <_ 0 ,
whence (' = 0 and t h e n e v e r y
a~ = 0 because t h e G?S are
a l l positive. S i m i l a r l y e v e r y bR = 0 Thus . is
i n d e p e n d e n t , i s a s i m p l e system. From t h e d e f i n i t i o n of

a simple system any simple system contained i n P consists

of t h o s e e l e m e n t s of P which a r e n o t p o s i t i v e c o r i b i n a t i o n s of
o t h e r s , hence i s u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d by P .
(10) Lemma. Let be a s i m p l e system and P the positive
system c o n t a i n i n g 1-r . (a) c, p E , c f 0 => (c: 5) <_ 9 .
(b) p E P* there exists c E so t h a t ( e ,a) > 0 .
For ( b ) write e = ~ c ~ n E( c~ , CI c>_ 0) a s i n ( U b ) , and
then use 0 < ( e,?) = I:ca( P , c ) .
"(11) Main lemma.
.-- Let rr , P be a s i n ( 1 0 ) and c~ rr . Then
oa o = - a and rcc:(P\c:) = P\ a .
Pick P\c7 P = 2 c g ? (cg >_ 0 ; 0 ~ n ) (3) BY some
 B
> 0 (B a). Application of Ca does n o t change t h i s
'
Hence % p EP \ a.

( 1 2 ) Theorem. Any, two s i m p l e ( o r positive) systems a r e c o n j u g a t e

under W.

By (9) we need o n l y c o n s i d e r two p o s i t i v e systems, say P

and P
t
. Weuseinductionon n = \ ~ n ( )-I . ~ If
t
n = 0 ,
P = P
t
. Assume n > 0. Then t h e r e i s a r o o t a simple
relative t o P such t h a t a P n (- t
P). By (11),
IG~P n (-P t
1) = n-1, whence IP~-c-P t
I = n-1. BY t h e
t
i n d u c t i v e assumption cap is conjugate t o P ; hence s o i s
1
P. .
Henceforth n ,P w i l l be a s i n (10) and f i x e d .

(13) D e f i n i t i o n . If p EZ , p = Z ca G as i n ($b) , then

a Err
i s c a l l e d t h e h e i g h t of a:ld 3 i r l t t e n h t .

(&) Lemma. Let lo be t h e group g e n e r a t e d by {ahla En ] .

If p E P, t h e minimum v a l u e o f ht on t h e s e t Wofm p is 1

and i s t a k e n on o n l y on Wo P nn.
T
Let p be a minimum p o i n t and assume, i f p o s s i b l e , t h a t
pt . By ( l o b ) there is a En so t h a t ( P ,a) > 0,
whence by (1) h t G , - P ' ~h t PT and by (11) r a p >fO , a
contradiction t o t h e choice of p
t
.
(15) Corollary. (a) If P EP ,P r,t h e n ht P> 1.
(b) Won = E . i.e. Every r o o t p I s conjugateunder Wo to a
simple root.

By ( 1 4 ) , ( a ) i s c l e a r and so i s ( b ) i f 'j > 0. If f' 0,

then - f > 0, whence - f=' = wa ( w E W o , a En), s o t h a t
'j = (wras)a.
(16) Theorem. W i s g e n e r a t e d by la E TT
{ca 1. I. e. W = Wo i n (&I.
If P i s a r o o t we have p = wa (w E Wo ,a E 1, by
( l 5 b ) , whence cy = wbaw -1 ( s e e ( 2 ) ) , an element o f Wo . Hence
WCW0 - and W = W o .

I1 The f u n c t i o n N

(17) Definition. For w E W, ~ ( w ) w i l l d e n o t e t h e number of

roots p such t h a t f' > 0 and w p 0. I n o t h e r words,

Prove t h i s .

(19) Lemma. Assume w E W, a! E-j- .

(a) If w-Ia > 0, t h e n N(CT-W) = N(W) + 1.
(at) If w-lo 0, then N(caw) = N ( w ) - 1.

(b) If wa> 0, then N(ma) = N(w)+l.

~ ( w -) 1.
1
(b ) If wu. < 0 , then N(wra) =

Let ~ ( w )= P ~ w - ' ( - P ) . Then S(craw) = w - l a v S ( W ) ,

whence (a). To g e t (at) replace w by caw in (a), and t o
get (b) and (bt ) replace w by w-l and u s e (18).
 1 1 1
(20) Problem. (a) N(ww) (_N(w) + N ( w ) and N(ww ) =
N(w) + bI(wt) mod 2. (b) det w = (- llN(~) . w w
t
E w).
(21) Lemma Assume w = wlw2.. .wn (wi= cra . ' a i E T I ) . If
1
~ ( wq) n , t h e n f o r some I , ( -1 i - j - - 1 , we h a v e :
( a ) ai --
W ~ + ~ W ~ +* w~ j.a .j + l

(b) Wi+1Wi+2.'.Wj+l = W1
.W. ...W-J
1+1 .
(c) W = W w
1 2 * * *
t
* *
t
.. .W
n7 with y and w.
J +l
missing.

By (19b) and N(w) q n, W ~ W ~ . : . W ~ ~ ~ +0 ~ f o r some

j -
< n-1. Since ajcl > 0, we have wi ( w ~ + ~.wjaj+=
*. )< 0 and

wi+l' ''Wjaj+l > O f o r some i &j , whence W~+~...WCZ- =a-

j ~ + 11
by (111, which i s ( a ) . Using ( 2 ) with w = w ~ + ~ and
*'Wj
a = aj+l 9 we g e t ( b ) , and t h e n r e p l a c i n g t h e l e f t s i d e of ( b )
by t h e r i g h t s i d e i n t h e p r o d u c t f o r w and u s i n g w: = 1, we

get (c).
Problem. Prove, conversely, t h a t ( a ) , (b) o r ( c ) implies
N(W) q n.
(22) -
Cor. If w E W, then ~ ( w ) i s t h e number of t e r m s i n a
minimal e x p r e s s i o n o f w a s a p r o d u c t of r e f l e c t i o n s correspond-
i n g t o simple r o o t s .

w w
Let
1 2
w
w
n
= ... b e a minimal e x p r e s s i o n . By (19)
((a) or (b)), ~ ( w 5
) n, and by (2 lc) , N ( ~ ) > n.
* (23) Theorem. For w E W, if wP = P or w TI = or N (w) = 0 ,
then w = 1.

The t h r e e a s s u m p t i o n s a r e c l e a r l y e q u i v a l e n t . Now ~ ( w =) 0
 2.7%

i m p l i e s t h a t t h e minimal e x p r e s s i o n o f w i n ( 2 2 ) i s empty,
whence w = 1.
* (24) Theorem. W i s simply t r a n s i t i v e on t h e p o s i t i v e systems,
and a l s o on t h e s i m p l e systems.
By ( 1 2 ) and ( 2 3 ) .
( 2 5 ) Problem. (a) For w W, choose a minimal e x p r e s s i o n a s
i n (221, w = ww
1 2
...
wn (wi = rai, ai ~ n ( s)o t h a t n = N(w)),
and s e t pi = wlw2...wilai . Prove t h a t 9.
1
(1- i ( n ) is a
complete l i s t of a l l r o o t s f' such t h a t P > 0 and w-l P c 0.
(b) Since -P i s a p o s i t i v e system, t h e r e e x i s t s by ( 2 4 ) a
unique wo E W such t h a t woP = -P. Write wo = wlw2 * wn
( n = N(%) = IPI) as above. Prove t h a t ( 1i -n is
a complete l i s t o f a l l p o s i t i v e r o o t s . (Hint :, (19) , (21) ) ..
I11 A fundamental domain f o r W.

(26) Definition. D w i l l denote t h e region { f E ~ ] ,( ae) > O , a E n ] ,

Thus D i s a c l o s e d convex cone, and i f TT spans V i t i s even
a s i m p l i c i a 1 cone w i t h v e r t e x a t 0.
(27) Lemma. Every P EV i s c o n j u g a t e t o some P t
E D, in
t
f a c t t o some p in D such t h a t p --
1
i s a nonnegative
combination o f t h e elements o f .
Let S b e t h i s s e t of nonnegative combinations ( i n o t h e r
words, t h e d u a l cone of D) . We i n t r o d u c e a p a r t i a l o r d e r i n V

by t h e d e f i n i t i o n 5 2/ d T i f and o n l y i f 3- E S. Among
t h e conjugates p t - of p under W such t h a t p1 , we
p i c k one which i s maximal r e l a t i v e t o t h i s p a r t i a l o r d e r .

Then a E =j, ca b,
7
+ y y ==> (y
Y
,a) >0 (by ( I ) ) , whence
pT E D and (27) follows.
( 2 8 ) Theorem. Assume w E W, YE V , p n o t o r t h o g o n a l t o any
r o o t , and wp - p. Then w = 1. [Restatement: w $ l j w F =P=>,p
i s o r t h o g o n a l t o some r o o t .

By ( 2 7 ) we may assume E D. For P a E P, (wa,? )

-1
= (a,w p ) = ( a , ? ) > O . Hence w a E P , for a l l a E P ,
s o t h a t wP = P . Then w = 1 by ( 2 3 ) .

(29) meI f p v i s n o t o r t h o g o n a l t o any r o o t , i t s

c o n j u g a t e s under W are a l l distinct. (And c o n v e r s e l y , o f
course. )
(30) Core The o n l y r e f l e c t i o n s i n W a r e t h o s e i n h y p e r p l a n e s
orthogonal t o r o o t s , i . e . t h o s e of t h e form cp(f EX).
Let u be any r e f l e c t i o n i n a h y p e r p l a n e H not
o r t h o g o n a l t o any r o o t . The r o o t s b e i n g f i n i t e i n number,
there exists p H,p n o t o r t h o g o n a l t o any r o o t . Then

u $1,u p -r -.> .CW, by ( 2 8 ) .

( 3 1 ) Problem. Let S be a s e t of r o o t s such t h a t {cr, 1 a E 5 ]
generates W. Prove t h a t e v e r y r o o t i s c o n j u g a t e , under W,

to some a S, and e v e r y r e f l e c t i o n i n W t o some ca( a E s ) .

(32) --
Lemma. Assume p ,FED, wEW, w p = c . Then (a) w
i s a product of simple r e f l e c t i o n s ( i . e r e l a t i v e t o simple r o o t s )
fixing f . (b) P =c.

For ( a ) we u s e i n d u c t i o n on N(w) . If N(w) = 0, then

 w = 1 by (23). Assume N(w) > O . Pick a so t h a t
w a c 0. Then O > (0-,wa) =(p: a ) > O , whence ( ? , a ) = O
and f a y = P a Since ( = o - , and N(WG,) = ~ ( ~ ) - l
7
by (19b ) , t h e i n d u c t i v e a s s u m p t i o n a p p l i e d to w, yields (a).
Clearly (a) implies (b).

: (33) Theorem. D i s a f u n d a m e n t a l domain f o r W on V. In other

words, e a c h element o f V i s c o n j u g a t e t o e x a c t l y one element
of D.

By (27) and (32b)-

(34) Problem. If D and w E W, show t h a t ?-w? is

a n o n n e g a t i v e combination o f p o s i t i v e r o o t s .

(35) R e s t a t e m e n t . The r e f l e c t i n g h y p e r p l a n e s ( t h o s e o r t h o g o n a l
t o roots) partition V i n t o c l o s e d chambers, each o f which i s a
fundamental domain f o r W. For a g i v e n chamber, t h e r o o t s normal

t o t h e w a l l s and i n w a r d l y d i r e c t e d form a s i m p l e s y s t e m , and each

s i m p l e s y s t e m i s o b t a i n e d i n t h i s way. Prove t h e s e a s s e r t i o n s
and a l s o t h a t t h e a n g l e between two w a l l s o f a chamber i s always
a submultnple of n .
11 2% (36) Theorem. If S i s any s u b s e t o f V , t h e subgroup o f W
1
1 which f i x e s S p o i n t w i s e 1s a r e f l e c t i o n group. I n o t h e r words,
t
every w W which f i x e s S pointwise i s a product of r e f l e c t i o n s
1 which a l s o do.
I I

Remark. (36) i s a n e x t e n s i o n of (28). Verify t h i s .

I

For t h e p r o o f o f (36) we may assume t h a t S i s indepedent, 1

1
i
hence f i n i t e , and u s i n g i n d u c t i o n , r e d u c e t o t h e c a s e where S
I
h a s a s i n g l e element, say P, which may b e t a k e n ' i n D by

(27). Then ( 3 2 a ) with CT = f y i e l d s our r e s u l t .

(37) Prouern. For each s u b s e t fl of n let W(n' ) denote t h e
group g e n e r a t e d by { 1a ' ] Prove t h a t W(n'n n") =

ITJ Generators and r e l a t i o n s f o r W.

* (38) Theorem. For a,$ E , let n(a,$) denote t h e order

of 0-0- i n W. (So n ( a , a ) = 1, w h i l e n ( a , $ ) > 1 i f a $ $.)
a B
1 a En
Then t h e group W i s d e f i n e d by t h e g e n e r a t o r s [6a
subject t o the relations
aCTB {Ao- n(a,b) = 1 I a , $ ~ 1n. In
o t h e r words, t h e g i v e n elements g e n e r a t e W and t h e g i v e n
r e l a t i o n s imply a l l o t h e r s i n W.

By (16) t h e g i v e n elements g e n e r a t e W. Suppose t h e

r e l a t i o n (*) wlw2. . .wr =
a. 1 (wi =
ai
CJ-
l7 ) h o l d s i n W.
1
We w i l l show i t i s a f o r m a l consequence o f t h e g i v e n r e l a t i o n s ,
by i n d u c t i o n on r. By (20b) o r by (19) r i s even, say
r = 2s. If s = 0 t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o show. suppose s > 0.

We s t a r t w i t h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n :
(0) (3) i s equivalent t o wi+lwi+2 ...wr w1 w2 ...wi = l ( l-< -i cr ) .
Case 1. Suppose al $ w2w3 ...wsas + l . We have
N (w1w2. ..ws +l) = N( w ~ ~ w ~- w~s +-2) ~ - s + l , by (19a).
Hence by ( 2 1 ) we have ( 2 1 a ) and (21b) f o r some i ,j such t h a t
- - - s.
1 < i <j c Since i , j = 1,s i s excluded i n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e ,
b o t h s i d e s o f (21b) have l e n g t h < s. By o u r i n d u c t i v e
a s s u m p t i o n we may r e p l a c e t h e l e f t s i d e o f ( 2 1 b ) by t h e r i g h t
side i n (c). If w: i s t h e n r e p l a c e d by 1, t h e i n d u c t i v e

assumption can b e a p p l i e d t o t h e r e s u l t i n g r e l a t i o n t o complete

t h e proof, i n t h e present case.
Case 2 . Suppose al $ a3. (If s = 1, t h i s c a s e d o e s n r t o c c u r . )

By t h e f i r s t c a s e we may assume al = w w
2 3
...wsa s + l and t h e n
by (0) also a2 = w w • . ~ ~ + , ~ whence
a ~ + ~
(*:?I by (2).
W2w3"'W s + l = W3w4" ' Ws+2
If ( ) is substituted into ( we c a n s h o r t e n ( ) a s above.
Thus we a r e r e d u c e d t o showing t h a t (2k:c;c) i s a consequence o f t h e
o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n s i n (38) , i. e. t h a t

W W W
3,2 ~ " ' W s + l w s + ~ w s + l * *= *W1~ i s . Since
a3 +-
al = w w
2 3
...
w6. " .s + l , w e a y e back i n Case 1. -

Because of (0) above t h e o n l y c a s e t h a t remains is:

Case 3 . Suppose al -
- a3 = a5
-
- ... and a
2
=G"4=a6=... -
Then ( h a s t h e form (o.0- I S = 1 with CL = a P = a
B 1' 2
Here s must b e a m u l t i p l e o f n ( a , ~ ) , the order of CT c
a B '.
so t h a t (*) i s a consequence of t h e r e l a t i o n (cc r )n ( a , ~ )= 1.
a B
(39) Examples. (a) @J = Sn. The symmetric g r o u p o f d e g r e e n
a c t s on a n n - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e by permuting t h e c o o r d i n a t e s
r e l a t i v e t o an orthomormal b a s i s
&-i - -
(1c i c n ) . The t r a n s -
position (ij) corresponds t o t h e r e f l e c t i o n i n t h e hyperplane
orthogonal t o E - E
-j
. We may t a k e C = [ E ~ - E- -
J
/ i $ j], and
r e l a t i v e t o a lexicographic ordering , =
-
{ E ~ -E
,'
~ + 5~ i
11 - n-11
t
i 276
i
Thus S1; i s g e n e r a t e d by t h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n s wi = ( i i+l)

- i c n - 1) s u b j e c t t o t h e r e l a t i o n s wi2
(1i - = 1, ( w ~ w ~3 + =~ 1)
)
and (w.w.)
1 J
0,
= 1 i'f li- jl > 1. ( b ) W = Octn The .
o c t a h e d r a l g r o u p i n c l u d e s s i g n changes a s w e l l as p e r m u t a t i o n s
o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s , so has o r d e r ! Here we may t a k e

X = { + E -
J
+ E - ~ Ii
) J] and n = ! E . ~ - & ~ + E~ , - -
)l<i<n-l].
So, comparing with ( a ), we have one more g e n e r a t o r . wn and n
more r e l a t i o n s wn2 = 1, (wnm1 w )4 = 1, ( wI- wn l 2 = 1 i f i ~ n - 2 . -
We observe that Sn and Octn a r e t h e g r o u p s o f symmetries o f
t h e r e g u l a r s i m p l e x and t h e r e g u l a r cube.
( 4 0 ) Problem. Prove t h a t W i s d e f i n e d by t h e g e n e r a t o r s

31 a E Z ] s u b j e c t t o t h e r e l a t i o n s
{c

(Hint. Using (15b) and ( 1 6 ) show t h a t t h e g r o u p s o d e f i n e d i s

g e n e r a t e d by {ca( a E ] as a consequence of (B), and t h e n
Using ( 2 1 ) show t h a t any n o n t r i v i a l r e l a t i o n w1w2. ..wn = 1

(y = q;
I
, E T ) which h o l d s i n W can b e s h o r t e n e d a s a
ai
consequence of (A) and (B)

We c o n s i d e r some r e f i n e m e n t s i n o u r r e s u l t s which o c c u r
i n t h e c r y s t a l o g r a p h i c c a s e , when 2 ( a , ~ /) (a,@) i s an integer
for a l l a,B E c , which we h e n c e f o r t h assume. (This case
o c c u r s when we have r o o t s y s t e ~ . :o f 'Lie a l g e b r a s . )
(41) Refinement of .(8), I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e , a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s
 277

i n (8b) a r e i n t e g e r s .

Prove t h i s , by i n d u c t i o n on ht ( P C) ( s e e (13) 1.
(42) *. ht p i s always a n i n t e g e r .
(43) Problem. Under t h e assumptions of (341, assume a l s o
that (2 p, a)/ ( a , a ) i s a n i n t e g e r f o r every a E n. Show
that f' - tv p i s a n o n n e g a t i v e i n t e g r a l combination o f t h e
e l e m e n t s o f (7 .
(44) Problem. If o! and B are roots, a $ - $ and ( a , ~ ) 0,

prove t h a t a + p is a root. ( H i n t : prove t h a t a + 8 equals

rap or cpa .