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fL
+ ( + ∑ K down ) 12 ρvdown
1 2 1 2 2
pup + 2 ρvup = p down + 2 ρv down K up 2
vdown 2
Adown
Dh = 2 = 2
K down vup Aup
fL
+ ∑ K up ) 12 ρvup
1 2 2 1 2
pup + 2 ρvup + ( = p down + 2 ρv down 2
Dh Adown
K up = K down ×
A
up
q Base area for all flow resistances (K) shown in
this section are given based on the smallest ∆p
cross sectional area of the component K=
1 ρv 2
hence the largest velocity. 2 base
fL 1
+( ρ + ∑ ρ
1 2 1 2 2 1 2
p1 + 2 ρV1 + ρgh1 = p3 + 2 ρV3 + ρgh3 2 V3 K 2 V3 )
Dh
fL
+( + ∑ K ) 12 ρV32
1 2 1 2
p1 + 2 ρV1 + ρgh1 = p3 + 2 ρV3 + ρgh3
Dh
fLeq
∑K = Dh
TFD-FD06 – Hydraulic Resistance Local (Minor!) Losses 6
Equivalent Length of Fittings
fLeq
Dh (ΣK )
ΣK = ⇒ Leq =
Dh f
§ f is the friction factor that applies to the entire pipe
§ D is the pipe hydraulic diameter
(characteristic length)
§ Leq is the equivalent length: Length of pipe which can replace
the fitting (local loss) to obtain the same pressure loss
Sudden Expansion
Sudden Contraction
Vena Contracta Effect
q Assumptions:
§ Uniform velocity distribution at 8-12 Dh
A2
cross section A1 A1
A1 2
K exp = k1 (1 − )
A2
A1
TFD-FD06 – Hydraulic Resistance Local (Minor!) Losses
Base area is A3
13
Vena Contracta Effect
q Flow passage through the
contraction is accompanied by
distortion of the trajectories of
particles with the result that
they continue their motion
by inertia toward the axis of
the opening.
q This reduces the initial area of C-C’
Plane of
the jet cross section at C-C Vena Contracta
until the area is smaller than the
area of the cross section of the
opening. Plane of vena
contracta.
q Starting mid-section CC, the trajectory of moving particles are
straightened.
q Thereafter an abrupt jet expansion takes place.
TFD-FD06 – Hydraulic Resistance Local (Minor!) Losses 14
Tube Walls Following Flow Streamlines
Base Case
Design A
Design B
∆p = 16.5kPa (100%)
Base Case
Fairing
CFD results shown in
terms of velocity Larger Inlet cross
Design B
vectors and velocity sectional area
A
2
α P1
Jet
Expansion
K Conical− Exp = 1 − 1 ⇒ α > 45
A2 P 1 < P2
A1
A2
Base area is A1
q Contraction
α A
K Conical−Contraction = 0.8 sin 1 − 1 ⇒ α < 45
2 A2 A1 α A2
α A1
K Conical−Contraction = 0.5 sin 1 − ⇒ α > 45
2 A2 Rectilinear
Converging Nozzle
TFD-FD06 – Hydraulic Resistance Local (Minor!) Losses 28
Gradual Contraction
Converging Nozzle
Rectilinear
Converging Nozzle
TFD-FD06 – Hydraulic Resistance Local (Minor!) Losses 29
Flow Resistance of
Converging Rectilinear Nozzle
q At sufficiently large angles (alpha > 10o) and area ratios less than
0.3, the flow after passing from the contracting section of the
rectilinear converging nozzle to the straight part of the tube
separates from the walls which is the main source of the flow
losses.
§ The larger the alpha and smaller the area ratio, stronger is the flow
separation and greater the pressure losses
§ Pressure losses are at maximum for the limiting case of 180 degree
angle sudden contraction.
q When fluid flow leaves the piping system, the kinetic energy of the
discharged jet is always lost.
q In the case of free discharge of the flow
from a straight section of the tube of ∆pvelocity
constant cross section into a large K= =N
1 ρv 2
volume, the total losses are reduced only to 2
∆p
K= =1
1 ρw 2
2 o
∆p (2m + 1)3 (m + 1) 3
K= =
1 ρw 2
4 m 4
(2m + 3)(m + 3)
2 o
2
∆w
K = 1 +
wo
K = 3.67
w y
= 0.585 + 164 sin( 0.2 + 3.9 )
wo bo
TFD-FD06 – Hydraulic Resistance Local (Minor!) Losses 34
Resistance to Flow with
Sudden Change in Velocity
Orifice Plate
Orifice in A Straight Tube
Orifice with Beveled Inlet Edge
Orifice with Rounded Inlet Edge
2
A Ao
0.375
A1
2
2
A Ao
0.75
K Rounded −Orifice = 1 − + ζ 1 −
o
′
A1 A1
r
−7.7
ζ ′ = 0.03 + 0.47 ×10
Dh o
2
A A
0.375
K Beveled−Orifice = 1 − o + ζ ′ 1 − o
A1 A1
l
2.3
l
− 3.4 D +88.4 D
ζ ′ = 0.13 + 0.34 × 10 ho ho
Base area is Ao
Flow Thru Orifice
TFD-FD06 – Hydraulic Resistance Local (Minor!) Losses 37
Orifice In A Straight Tube
Thick Edge Orifice
Idelchik Pg 22-224
A 0.75 A 1.375 A 2 fl
K Thick − Edge = 0.51 − o + τ 1 − o + 1 − o +
A1 A1 A1 Dh
8
0.25 + 0.535 l
τ = (2.4 − l ) × 10
0.05 + l 8
Base area is Ao
Flow Thru Orifice
voδ m
Re = ≥ 103 A0 A1
µ KWire − Screen = 1.3(1 − ) + ( − 1) 2
A1 A0
50 < Re < 103 A0 A1
KWire − Screen = k11.3(1 − ) + ( − 1) 2
A1 A0
Re < 50 22 A0 A1
KWire − Screen = + 1.3(1 − ) + ( − 1) 2
Re A1 A0
Base area is Ao
l a
q Special case of = 5 and o > 0.5
dm S1
A 2 where
K Grad − Exp = η 2 − 1 ? = 0.15 − 0.2
A1
TFD-FD06 – Hydraulic Resistance Local (Minor!) Losses 55
Sudden Change in Velocity Idelchik Pg 217 Diagram 4-9
( pe − po )A = ρAv(v − ve )
q Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections e & a Spout
§ Pressure at e is pe including the stagnant flow
region
( pe − po ) = 1 2 ρ (v )
Contracting Jet
2
− v + K contraction
2
e Slow Expansion Until
Filling the Spout
q Combining both equations