Nanosensors to monitor space radiation exposure
In the not-too-distant future, molecule- would begin to glow, signaling a monitor
size sensors, built using nanomaterials that something is wrong.
called dendrimers, could be placed inside It is an elegant technology. Moreover,
the cells of astronauts to warn of health because it can be customized to target
impacts from space radiation. At the Uni- many combinations of specific cell types
versity of Michigan-Ann Arbor, the tech- and specific problems, it is also a very po-
nology that would allow this is now under tent one. Research in this area has blos-
development for NASA by scientists at the somed in recent years, with scientists ex-
Center for Biologic Nanotechnology. ploring how nanoparticles can be used to
This nanotechnology would prompt treat everything from cancer to genetic
the cells in the body to signal when the diseases such as cystic fibrosis.
person is starting to get sick before visible
symptoms appear. It would indicate when Monitoring radiation’s effects
a tumor is growing while the tumor is still NASA is interested in how this technol-
microscopic and relatively harmless. ogy might help tackle the health issue of
The ability to detect changes inside radiation exposure. One of the main hur-
individual cells while those cells are still dles for a mission to Mars is the radiation
inside the body would be a boon to med- dose that astronauts would receive during
icine. The NASA-supported technology their six-month journey to the planet.
could, if it works, provide exactly that. The spaceship would be shielded, but the
The idea is to place “nanoparticles” most advanced radiation shields that
inside the cells to function as molecule- NASA has at this time might not fully pro-
size sensors. Whenever these sensors en- tect the astronauts.
counter certain signs of trouble—a frag- Consequently, scientists are looking
ment of an invading virus, perhaps—they for medical ways to monitor, prevent, and
repair the ill effects of radia-
Millions of dendrimer nanoparticles, similar to these shown float- tion. To make the challenge
ing with cells in this computer-generated image, would be used even harder, these solutions
to detect the buildup of radiation in the bodies of astronauts. must work well in space,
Image courtesy Center for Biologic Nanotechnology, University of where astronauts must be
Michigan-Ann Arbor.
able to treat themselves, and
where there is little spare
room for bulky medical
equipment.
James Baker, director of
the Center for Biologic Nano-
technology at the University
of Michigan, believes that
nanoparticles can help. His
research group has received a
grant from NASA to look into
it. “Nanoparticles let us mon-
itor the actual biological im-
pact of radiation on the astro-
nauts’ bodies, which is more
meaningful than simply mea-
suring the radiation itself,”
Baker explains.
14 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JANUARY 2005
Baker’s group set out to develop bio-
sensors for real-time monitoring of radia-
tion-induced biologic effects in space.
They sought to develop cellular biosensors
based on dendritic polymers, using nano-
scale polymer structures less than 20 nm
in diameter as the basis for the biosensors.
Multiple components can be assem-
bled on such a polymer, including target-
ing agents, analytical devices (such as
molecular probes), and reporting agents.
Biosensing using this multifunctional
nanodevice is accomplished through mul-
tiphoton fluorescence detection and mul-
tichannel spectral analysis.
The biosensor design phase was ex-
tensive, with many sensor dyes tested and
several prototype biosensors made. The re-
searchers developed the nanoscale biosen-
sor and laser detection system. They have
completed initial in-vivo work using mice
and are preparing for further in-vivo tests.
The study has demonstrated not
only the prototype laser detector, but also
two biosensors. Each of the two biosen-
sors specifically targets a distinct human
lymphocyte cell line. Using the laser de-
vice the researchers have demonstrated
the ability to detect both healthy and un-
healthy cells with the biosensor. More-
over, they can distinguish the two cell
populations and measure their ratio.
An ideal building block
Dendrimers are polymers made from two
monomers: acrylic acid and a diamine
such as ethylene diamine.
Dendrimers and plastics, such as ny-
lon, share a very similar chemical heritage
and structure. Yet nylon differs in a most
important way from dendrimers. Nylon
and all plastics have poorly defined chem-
ical structures. These traditional polymers
are mixtures of many different molecules,
tangled together to give an average mole-
cular structure and constant bulk proper-
ties. The distribution of the constituent
molecules is probabilistic.
 By contrast, dendrimers are precisely
defined chemical structures. All of the
chemical bonds between the atoms can be
accurately described. It is this consistency
of structure that makes dendrimers an
ideal building block for creating a biolog-
ically active nanomaterial.
To make use of this nanotechnology,
an astronaut would inject a clear fluid,
laced with nanoparticles, into his blood-
stream before a space mission. During
flight, he would put a small device shaped
like a hearing aid into his ear. This device
would use a tiny laser to count glowing
cells as they flow through capillaries in
the eardrum. A wireless link would relay
the data to the spaceship’s main computer
for processing.
This scenario is at least 5-10 years
away; however, many of the necessary
pieces are already taking shape in the lab-
oratory. That clear fluid injected into the
astronaut’s bloodstream would contain
millions of microscopic nanoparticles.
The nanoparticles themselves are nothing
new; scientists have been working with
them in the laboratory for at least five
years. Moreover, they have used them
safely in lab animals.
A new take on tumbleweed
The particular kind of nanoparticle that
Baker uses resembles tumbleweed. It is a
little ball-shaped bundle of branching
“twigs” growing out from a central point.
By itself, this tumbleweed is inert
and therefore not toxic. It serves only as a
generic platform upon which to build. All
the useful functions of the nanoparticle—
seeking out the right kind of cells, detect-
ing signs of radiation damage, offering up
a fluorescent “red flag”—come from mole-
cules attached to this scaffolding. The free
ends of the twigs provide lots of binding
points where these molecules can be at-
tached. With the material that Baker’s
group uses, there are 128 such binding
points on each nanoparticle.
By choosing which molecules to at-
tach to the dendrimer binding points, the
scientists can customize the nanoparticle
to do their bidding. For example, Baker’s
group wants to tweak their nanoparticles
to enter a white blood cell called
a lymphocyte, which is especially
sensitive to radiation.
“How do we specifically tar-
get lymphocytes?” asks Thom-
mey Thomas, a research assistant
professor on Baker’s team. “Be-
cause once you inject nanoparti-
cles into the bloodstream, they
can go anywhere.
“We had to find some spe-
cific targeting molecules on the
surface of these lymphocytes,” he
explains.
All of the cells of a body Researchers at University of Michigan have developed this
model of an ear device for detection of blood cell death.
have “receptor” molecules em-
bedded on their outer surfaces.
These receptors provide a control over cent dye molecule that reacts to these sui-
which chemicals can enter the cell. For cide enzymes. Lymphocytes that were be-
example, a kidney hormone in the blood- ginning to self-destruct due to radiation
stream enters only kidney cells. By attach- damage would glow.
ing to their nanoparticles a molecule that The research group has also devel-
matches up with a specific receptor on oped a laser system to count the glowing
lymphocytes, the researchers can be sure cells. They have already shown that the
that these roaming nanoparticles will system can count cells in a mouse’s blood-
wind up inside only the right cells. stream as those cells pass through the cap-
illaries in its ear. However, Baker says it is
Telltale glow still too early to know what form this laser
Once inside the lymphocytes, nanoparti- system would take for a space mission.
cles need a way to detect radiation dam- He speculates that a microlaser might be
age. One way is to watch for signs that the integrated into a hearing-aid-like device.
cell is about to self-destruct. Lymphocytes The net result would be the continu-
commit cellular suicide, or apoptosis, ous, real-time monitoring of radiation
when they have been damaged by radia- damage to the cells in an astronaut’s blood-
tion. This genetically programmed behav- stream, with no bulky medical equipment
ior is carried out by special “suicide” en- required.
zymes. Baker’s group has discovered how Edward D. Flinn
to attach to the nanoparticles a fluores- edflinn@pipeline.com
Plasma arcs soften jet
engine noise
Silencer technology developed by re- lead to quieter jet engines. The university
searchers at Ohio State University (OSU) has applied for a patent on the design of
in Columbus, Ohio, works by creating such silencers, called localized arc fila-
electrical arcs to control turbulence in jet ment plasma actuators.
engine exhaust airflow. This turbulence is With the flip of a switch, pilots could
the chief cause of engine noise, and these turn the devices on and off, reducing noise
plasma-generating electrical arcs could around commercial airports or military
AEROSPACE AMERICA/JANUARY 2005 15
airstrips, says Mohammad Samimy, pro-
fessor of mechanical engineering at OSU.
Manipulating the airflow
Samimy and colleague Igor Adamovich,
associate professor of mechanical engi-
neering, demonstrated the technology in
a series of lab tests. They used laser light
to illuminate a simulated engine exhaust
stream and studied how different arrange-
ments of actuators affected the flow.
They tested the actuators using two
types of air streams. One simulated the ex-
haust from a commercial plane. The other
air stream simulated that of a high-speed
military aircraft. Typically, a large com-
mercial jet, such as a Boeing 747, flies at
Mach 0.85; a modern military craft can
top Mach 2.
The most important factor in silenc-
ing an aircraft during takeoff—when the
jet engine is the loudest—is controlling
exhaust airflow, Samimy says. The high-
speed airflow provides thrust for the plane
but also creates most of the noise.
The tests that he and his colleagues
ran showed that the plasma actuators suc-
ceeded in manipulating turbulence struc-
tures in the airflow.
All jet aircraft could benefit from
the technology, according to Samimy.
Until recently, noise was a problem
only for commercial airports, which are
often surrounded by residential areas.
However, as populations spread through-
Plasma actuators modify the turbulence in jet engine airflow. Images show the results of laboratory
tests of simulated engine airflow. For each pair of images, the top image was taken with the devices
switched off and the bottom with the devices switched on. A brighter color indicates a higher degree
of mixing in the gas flow. Images courtesy of Ohio State University.
16 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JANUARY 2005
out the U.S., military airports have begun
to feel pressure from the neighboring
communities to reduce noise, he explains.
“One has to reduce the noise while
not adversely affecting the thrust—that is
the challenge. When the development of
the actuators is complete, they will meet
the challenge,” says Samimy.
Samimy studies turbulence as part of
his work with fluid dynamics, one of the
most complex areas of study in science
and engineering. Flow control is a multi-
disciplinary subject that draws researchers
from various engineering disciplines, in-
cluding mechanical, aeronautical, and
electrical engineering.
By analyzing images of fluid flows,
he and his colleagues gather a wealth of
information that they can use in control-
ling the flow. For instance, they can tune
the newly developed plasma actuators to
match certain frequencies in the flow and
optimize noise reduction.
From chevron to actuator
The project grew out of Samimy’s work
for NASA in the 1990s. At that time, he
worked on structural modifications at the
trailing edge of the exhaust system. The
modifications, called tabs or chevrons, are
zig-zag-shaped cutouts at the nozzle exit
that introduce longitudinal turbulence
structures into the exhaust flow. The in-
troduction of these structures affects the
mixing and noise characteristics of the en-
gine. Some of the most recent aircraft en-
gines contain chevrons.
While chevrons reduce noise, they
also lower fuel efficiency. They are needed
only during takeoff and landing; however,
they are permanent fixtures of the engine
and cannot be disengaged at cruise alti-
tude to save fuel.
“I wanted to design actuators that
could turn on and off and exploit instabil-
ities in the flow,” says Samimy. Plasma ac-
tuators could do this, he notes.
He and colleagues at NASA Glenn
had been working out the mechanism for
what was happening in the jet exhaust.
He says that once they had a clear under-
standing of this, he began thinking about
alternative methods for introducing pres-
sure gradients that would interfere with
the jet engine flow. This led to the idea of
the plasma actuators.
The devices could also provide an ad-
ditional level of stealth for modern military
aircraft, Samimy says. Pilots could fire the
electrical arcs in certain patterns to mix the
very hot exhaust gas with outside air, sig-
nificantly reducing the heat signature that
shows up on infrared tracking systems.
Timetable and requirements
Samimy says that a number of aerospace
engine manufacturers have expressed in-
terest in the plasma actuators. He specu-
lates that the devices would probably need
5-10 years of development before they
begin to see use in jet engines. He bases
this timetable on the time it took for the
chevrons or tabs to be implemented in
current jet engines. He wrote a paper in
1994 and another in 1995 about the po-
tential of chevrons for cutting noise in en-
gines during takeoff. Now, 10 years later,
the technology is being implemented.
However, the advantage offered by
plasma actuators—their ability to be
turned on and off to maintain fuel effi-
ciency at cruise altitudes—might hasten
their development.
Samimy estimates that a jet engine
would probably require between eight and
24 plasma actuators embedded around
the jet engine nozzle. He bases this esti-
mate on the fact that engine manufactur-
ers now use between 12 and 24 chevrons
to quiet jet engines.
Samimy stresses that work on the
plasma actuator is still in an early stage.
He says he would not be able to estimate
the decibel reduction the devices would
contribute to silencing the engine noise
until he has been able to test them on an
actual engine. The actuators would prob-
ably be set in a boron nitride ring that
would be attached to the end of the jet
engine nozzle, he says.
Unlike most previous flow modifica-
tion approaches, the method developed
by Samimy and his colleagues does not
require the use of high-power pulsed
lasers, focused microwave beams, or elec-
trodes protruding into the flow. The prox-
imity of the pulsed plasma to the nozzle
wall improves its stability and reduces the
chances that plasma will be blown off by
the incident high-speed flow.
Current focus
Samimy’s approach is fundamentally dif-
ferent from the previously used glow-dis-
charge-based supersonic flow control
methods. By contrast, the main objective
of the current research is to produce
strong localized perturbations in high-
pressure transonic and supersonic flows.
This is achieved through very rapid
localized heating of the flow by a high-
current filament formed by constriction
of an electric discharge occurring at high
pressures. The resultant localized pres-
sure perturbations would act in much the
same way as a solid obstacle suddenly
placed in the flow. Repetitive pulsing of
the discharge would enable control over
the “obstacles” (pressure perturbations).
Moreover, the frequency with which the
plasma actuator fires could be set to work
with the instabilities of the jet to modify
its properties.
Samimy says boron nitride is needed
because the plasma actuators increase the
temperature of the exhaust gases well be-
yond the usual operating temperatures at
the nozzle exit. At that elevated tempera-
ture the material generally used for the
engine nozzle ablates in the high heat and
soon wears out. The boron nitride, how-
ever, shows no signs of wear, even after
many firings.
An additional advantage offered by
the plasma actuators is that one can play
with the frequencies of the flow instability,
optimizing the plasma for certain frequen-
cies. A ring of installed actuators could be
activated up to 100,000 times per second.
The devices could all be turned on at
once or could be activated according to a
particular pattern associated with certain
instabilities.
Samimy is now working on designing
and building a power supply that can pro-
vide the power needed to run the plasma
actuators. He hopes to have this power
supply available by the end of the year.
Samimy says that although he can
think of a number of potential applica-
tions for the actuators, their development
for the control of jet engine noise remains
his focus for now.
Edward D. Flinn
edflinn@pipeline.com

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