Global Warming

Global warming
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
For scientific and political disputes, see Global warming controversy, Scientific opinion
on climate change and Public opinion on climate change.
For past climate change see Paleoclimatology and Geologic temperature record. For the
Sonny Rollins album see Global Warming (album).
1880-2010 global annual mean surface air temperature change relative to the 1951–1980
average. The red line is the 5-year running mean (temperature averaged over 5 years).
Source: NASA GISS
Comparison of surface based (blue) and satellite based (red: UAH; green: RSS) records
of global temperature change since 1979. Linear trends plotted since 1982.
2000-2009 global mean land-ocean surface temperature anomalies relative to the 1951-
1980 average. Source: NASA Earth Observatory [1]
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of Earth's near-surface air
and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. According to the
2007 Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), global surface temperature increased by 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) during
the 20th century.[2][A] Most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the
20th century has been caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, which
result from human activities such as the burning of fossil fuel and deforestation.[3][4]
Global dimming, a phenomenon of increasing atmospheric concentrations of man-made
aerosols, which affect cloud properties and block sunlight from reaching the surface, has
partially countered the effects of warming induced by greenhouse gases.
Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that the global
surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the 21st
century.[2] The uncertainty in this estimate arises from the use of models with differing
sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations and the use of differing estimates of future
greenhouse gas emissions. An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise
and will change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion of
subtropical deserts.[5] Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be
associated with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects
include more frequent and intense extreme weather events, species extinctions, and
changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related changes will vary from region to
region around the globe, though the nature of these regional variations is uncertain.[6] As a
result of contemporary increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, the oceans have become
more acidic, a result that is predicted to continue.[7][8]
The scientific consensus is that anthropogenic global warming is occurring.[9][10][11][B]

Nevertheless, skepticism amongst the wider public remains. The Kyoto Protocol is aimed
at stabilizing greenhouse gas concentration to prevent a "dangerous anthropogenic
interference".[12] As of November 2009, 187 states had signed and ratified the protocol.[13]
Proposed responses to climate change include mitigation to reduce emissions, adaptation

to the effects of global warming, and geoengineering to remove greenhouse gases from
the atmosphere or block incoming sunlight.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Temperature changes
• 2 External forcings
o 2.1 Greenhouse gases
o 2.2 Aerosols and soot
o 2.3 Solar variation
• 3 Feedback
• 4 Climate models
• 5 Attributed and expected effects
o 5.1 Natural systems
o 5.2 Ecological systems
o 5.3 Social systems
• 6 Responses to global warming
o 6.1 Mitigation
o 6.2 Adaptation
o 6.3 Geoengineering
o 6.4 UNFCCC
• 7 Views on global warming
o 7.1 Politics
o 7.2 Public opinion
o 7.3 Other views
• 8 Etymology
• 9 See also
• 10 Notes
• 11 References
• 12 Further reading
• 13 External links
Temperature changes
Main article: Temperature record
Two millennia of mean surface temperatures according to different reconstructions, each

smoothed on a decadal scale, with the instrumemtal temperature record overlaid in black.
Evidence for warming of the climate system includes observed increases in global
average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising
global average sea level.[14][15][16][17] The most common measure of global warming is the
trend in globally averaged temperature near the Earth's surface. Expressed as a linear
trend, this temperature rose by 0.74 ± 0.18 °C over the period 1906–2005. The rate of
warming over the last half of that period was almost double that for the period as a whole
(0.13 ± 0.03 °C per decade, versus 0.07 °C ± 0.02 °C per decade). The urban heat island
effect is estimated to account for about 0.002 °C of warming per decade since 1900.[18]
Temperatures in the lower troposphere have increased between 0.13 and 0.22 °C (0.22
and 0.4 °F) per decade since 1979, according to satellite temperature measurements.
Temperature is believed to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand years
before 1850, with regionally varying fluctuations such as the Medieval Warm Period and
the Little Ice Age.[19]
Estimates by NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) and the National
Climatic Data Center show that 2005 was the warmest year since reliable, widespread
instrumental measurements became available in the late 19th century, exceeding the
previous record set in 1998 by a few hundredths of a degree.[20][21] Estimates prepared by
the World Meteorological Organization and the Climatic Research Unit show 2005 as the
second warmest year, behind 1998.[22][23] Temperatures in 1998 were unusually warm
because the strongest El Niño in the past century occurred during that year.[24] Global
temperature is subject to short-term fluctuations that overlay long term trends and can
temporarily mask them. The relative stability in temperature from 2002 to 2009 is
consistent with such an episode.[25][26]
Temperature changes vary over the globe. Since 1979, land temperatures have increased
about twice as fast as ocean temperatures (0.25 °C per decade against 0.13 °C per
decade).[27] Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of
the larger effective heat capacity of the oceans and because the ocean loses more heat by
evaporation.[28] The Northern Hemisphere warms faster than the Southern Hemisphere
because it has more land and because it has extensive areas of seasonal snow and sea-ice
cover subject to ice-albedo feedback. Although more greenhouse gases are emitted in the
Northern than Southern Hemisphere this does not contribute to the difference in warming
because the major greenhouse gases persist long enough to mix between hemispheres.[29]
The thermal inertia of the oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that
climate can take centuries or longer to adjust to changes in forcing. Climate commitment
studies indicate that even if greenhouse gases were stabilized at 2000 levels, a further
warming of about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) would still occur.[30]
External forcings
External forcing refers to processes external to the climate system (though not necessarily
external to Earth) that influence climate. Climate responds to several types of external
forcing, such as radiative forcing due to changes in atmospheric composition (mainly
greenhouse gas concentrations), changes in solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and
variations in Earth's orbit around the Sun.[31] Attribution of recent climate change focuses
on the first three types of forcing. Orbital cycles vary slowly over tens of thousands of
years and thus are too gradual to have caused the temperature changes observed in the
past century.
Greenhouse gases
Main articles: Greenhouse effect, Radiative forcing, and Carbon dioxide in Earth's
atmosphere
Greenhouse effect schematic showing energy flows between space, the atmosphere, and
earth's surface. Energy exchanges are expressed in watts per square meter (W/m2).
Recent atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) increases. Monthly CO2 measurements display
seasonal oscillations in an upward trend; each year's maximum occurs during the
Northern Hemisphere's late spring, and declines during its growing season as plants
remove some atmospheric CO2.
The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared
radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere and surface. It
was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first investigated quantitatively by
Svante Arrhenius in 1896.[32]
Naturally occurring greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 °C

(59 °F).[33][C] The major greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 36–70
percent of the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 9–26 percent;
methane (CH4), which causes 4–9 percent; and ozone (O3), which causes 3–7 percent.[34]
[35][36]
Clouds also affect the radiation balance, but they are composed of liquid water or
ice and so have different effects on radiation from water vapor.
Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane,
tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide. The concentrations of CO2 and methane
have increased by 36% and 148% respectively since 1750.[37] These levels are much
higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years, the period for which reliable data
has been extracted from ice cores.[38][39][40] Less direct geological evidence indicates that
CO2 values higher than this were last seen about 20 million years ago.[41] Fossil fuel
burning has produced about three-quarters of the increase in CO2 from human activity
over the past 20 years. Most of the rest is due to land-use change, particularly
deforestation.[42]
Over the last three decades of the 20th century, GDP per capita and population growth
were the main drivers of increases in greenhouse gas emissions.[43] CO2 emissions are
continuing to rise due to the burning of fossil fuels and land-use change.[44][45]:71 Emissions
scenarios, estimates of changes in future emission levels of greenhouse gases, have been
projected that depend upon uncertain economic, sociological, technological, and natural
developments.[46] In most scenarios, emissions continue to rise over the century, while in
a few, emissions are reduced.[47][48] These emission scenarios, combined with carbon cycle
modelling, have been used to produce estimates of how atmospheric concentrations of
greenhouse gases will change in the future. Using the six IPCC SRES "marker"
scenarios, models suggest that by the year 2100, the atmospheric concentration of CO2
could range between 541 and 970 ppm.[49] This is an increase of 90-250% above the
concentration in the year 1750. Fossil fuel reserves are sufficient to reach these levels and
continue emissions past 2100 if coal, oil sands or methane clathrates are extensively
exploited.[50]
The destruction of stratospheric ozone by chlorofluorocarbons is sometimes mentioned in

relation to global warming. Although there are a few areas of linkage, the relationship
between the two is not strong. Reduction of stratospheric ozone has a cooling influence.
[51]
Substantial ozone depletion did not occur until the late 1970s.[52] Ozone in the
troposphere (the lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere) does contribute to surface
warming.[53]
Aerosols and soot
Ship tracks over the Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of the United States. The climatic
impacts from aerosol forcing could have a large effect on climate through the indirect
effect.
Global dimming, a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the
Earth's surface, has partially counteracted global warming from 1960 to the present.[54]
The main cause of this dimming is aerosols produced by volcanoes and pollutants. These
aerosols exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight. The
effects of the products of fossil fuel combustion—CO2 and aerosols—have largely offset
one another in recent decades, so that net warming has been due to the increase in non-
CO2 greenhouse gases such as methane.[55] Radiative forcing due to aerosols is temporally
limited due to wet deposition which causes aerosols to have an atmospheric lifetime of
one week. Carbon dioxide has a lifetime of a century or more, and as such, changes in
aerosol concentrations will only delay climate changes due to carbon dioxide.[56]
In addition to their direct effect by scattering and absorbing solar radiation, aerosols have
indirect effects on the radiation budget.[57] Sulfate aerosols act as cloud condensation
nuclei and thus lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds
reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets.[58] This
effect also causes droplets to be of more uniform size, which reduces growth of raindrops
and makes the cloud more reflective to incoming sunlight.[59] Indirect effects are most
noticeable in marine stratiform clouds, and have very little radiative effect on convective
clouds. Aerosols, particularly their indirect effects, represent the largest uncertainty in
radiative forcing.[60]
Soot may cool or warm the surface, depending on whether it is airborne or deposited.
Atmospheric soot aerosols directly absorb solar radiation, which heats the atmosphere
and cools the surface. In isolated areas with high soot production, such as rural India, as
much as 50% of surface warming due to greenhouse gases may be masked by
atmospheric brown clouds.[61] When deposited, especially on glaciers or on ice in arctic
regions, the lower surface albedo can also directly heat the surface.[62] The influences of
aerosols, including black carbon, are most pronounced in the tropics and sub-tropics,
particularly in Asia, while the effects of greenhouse gases are dominant in the
extratropics and southern hemisphere.[63]
Solar variation
Main article: Solar variation
Solar variation over thirty years.
Variations in solar output have been the cause of past climate changes.[64] The effect of
changes in solar forcing in recent decades is uncertain, but small, with some studies
showing a slight cooling effect,[65] while others studies suggest a slight warming effect.[31]
[66][67][68]
Greenhouse gases and solar forcing affect temperatures in different ways. While both
increased solar activity and increased greenhouse gases are expected to warm the
troposphere, an increase in solar activity should warm the stratosphere while an increase
in greenhouse gases should cool the stratosphere.[31] Observations show that temperatures
in the stratosphere have been cooling since 1979, when satellite measurements became
available. Radiosonde (weather balloon) data from the pre-satellite era show cooling
since 1958, though there is greater uncertainty in the early radiosonde record.[69]
A related hypothesis, proposed by Henrik Svensmark, is that magnetic activity of the sun
deflects cosmic rays that may influence the generation of cloud condensation nuclei and
thereby affect the climate.[70] Other research has found no relation between warming in
recent decades and cosmic rays.[71][72] The influence of cosmic rays on cloud cover is
about a factor of 100 lower than needed to explain the observed changes in clouds or to
be a significant contributor to present-day climate change.[73]
Feedback
Main article: Climate change feedback
Feedback is a process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity, and the
change in the second quantity in turn changes the first. Positive feedback increases the
change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it. Feedback is important in
the study of global warming because it may amplify or diminish the effect of a particular
process. The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to
increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, a significant greenhouse gas. The
main negative feedback is radiative cooling, which increases as the fourth power of
temperature; the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space increases with the
temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere. Imperfect understanding of feedbacks is a
major cause of uncertainty and concern about global warming. A wide range of potential
feedback process exist, such as Arctic methane release and ice-albedo feedback.
Consequentially, potential tipping points may exist, which may have the potential to
cause abrupt climate change.[74]
Climate models
Main article: Global climate model
Calculations of global warming prepared in or before 2001 from a range of climate

models under the SRES A2 emissions scenario, which assumes no action is taken to
reduce emissions and regionally divided economic development.
The geographic distribution of surface warming during the 21st century calculated by the
HadCM3 climate model if a business as usual scenario is assumed for economic growth
and greenhouse gas emissions. In this figure, the globally averaged warming corresponds
to 3.0 °C (5.4 °F).
The main tools for projecting future climate changes are mathematical models based on
physical principles including fluid dynamics, thermodynamics and radiative transfer.
Although they attempt to include as many processes as possible, simplifications of the
actual climate system are inevitable because of the constraints of available computer
power and limitations in knowledge of the climate system. All modern climate models
are in fact combinations of models for different parts of the Earth. These include an
atmospheric model for air movement, temperature, clouds, and other atmospheric
properties; an ocean model that predicts temperature, salt content, and circulation of
ocean waters; models for ice cover on land and sea; and a model of heat and moisture
transfer from soil and vegetation to the atmosphere. Some models also include treatments
of chemical and biological processes.[75] Warming due to increasing levels of greenhouse
gases is not an assumption of the models; rather, it is an end result from the interaction of
greenhouse gases with radiative transfer and other physical processes.[76] Although much
of the variation in model outcomes depends on the greenhouse gas emissions used as
inputs, the temperature effect of a specific greenhouse gas concentration (climate
sensitivity) varies depending on the model used. The representation of clouds is one of
the main sources of uncertainty in present-generation models.[77]
Global climate model projections of future climate most often have used estimates of
greenhouse gas emissions from the IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES).
In addition to human-caused emissions, some models also include a simulation of the
carbon cycle; this generally shows a positive feedback, though this response is uncertain.
Some observational studies also show a positive feedback.[78][79][80] Including uncertainties
in future greenhouse gas concentrations and climate sensitivity, the IPCC anticipates a
warming of 1.1 °C to 6.4 °C (2.0 °F to 11.5 °F) by the end of the 21st century, relative to
1980–1999.[2]
Models are also used to help investigate the causes of recent climate change by
comparing the observed changes to those that the models project from various natural and
human-derived causes. Although these models do not unambiguously attribute the
warming that occurred from approximately 1910 to 1945 to either natural variation or
human effects, they do indicate that the warming since 1970 is dominated by man-made
greenhouse gas emissions.[31]
The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate current or
past climates.[81] Current climate models produce a good match to observations of global
temperature changes over the last century, but do not simulate all aspects of climate.[42]
Not all effects of global warming are accurately predicted by the climate models used by
the IPCC. Observed Arctic shrinkage has been faster than that predicted.[82] Precipitation
increased proportional to atmospheric humidity, and hence significantly faster than
current global climate models predict.[83][84]
Attributed and expected effects

Main articles: Effects of global warming and Regional effects of global warming
Global warming may be detected in natural, ecological or social systems as a change

having statistical significance.[85] Attribution of these changes e.g., to natural or human
activities, is the next step following detection.[86]
Natural systems
Sparse records indicate that glaciers have been retreating since the early 1800s. In the
1950s measurements began that allow the monitoring of glacial mass balance, reported to
the WGMS and the NSIDC.
Global warming has been detected in a number of systems. Some of these changes, e.g.,
based on the instrumental temperature record, have been described in the section on
temperature changes. Rising sea levels and observed decreases in snow and ice extent are
consistent with warming.[17] Most of the increase in global average temperature since the
mid-20th century is, with high probability,[D] attributable to human-induced changes in
greenhouse gas concentrations.[87]
Even with current policies to reduce emissions, global emissions are still expected to
continue to grow over the coming decades.[88] Over the course of the 21st century,
increases in emissions at or above their current rate would very likely induce changes in
the climate system larger than those observed in the 20th century.
In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, across a range of future emission scenarios,
model-based estimates of sea level rise for the end of the 21st century (the year 2090-
2099, relative to 1980-1999) range from 0.18 to 0.59 m. These estimates, however, were
not given a likelihood due to a lack of scientific understanding, nor was an upper bound
given for sea level rise. Over the course of centuries to millennia, the melting of ice
sheets could result in sea level rise of 4–6 m or more.[89]
Changes in regional climate are expected to include greater warming over land, with most
warming at high northern latitudes, and least warming over the Southern Ocean and parts
of the North Atlantic Ocean.[88] Snow cover area and sea ice extent are expected to
decrease. The frequency of hot extremes, heat waves, and heavy precipitation will very
likely increase.
Ecological systems
In terrestrial ecosystems, the earlier timing of spring events, and poleward and upward
shifts in plant and animal ranges, have been linked with high confidence to recent
warming.[17] Future climate change is expected to particularly affect certain ecosystems,
including tundra, mangroves, and coral reefs.[88] It is expected that most ecosystems will
be affected by higher atmospheric CO2 levels, combined with higher global temperatures.
[90]
Overall, it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species
and reduced diversity of ecosystems.[91]
Social systems
There is some evidence of regional climate change affecting systems related to human
activities, including agricultural and forestry management activities at higher latitudes in
the Northern Hemisphere.[17] Future climate change is expected to particularly affect
some sectors and systems related to human activities.[88] Low-lying coastal systems are
vulnerable to sea level rise and storm surge. Human health will be at increased risk in
populations with limited capacity to adapt to climate change. It is expected that some
regions will be particularly affected by climate change, including the Arctic, Africa,
small islands, and Asian and African megadeltas. In some areas the effects on agriculture,
industry and health could be mixed, or even beneficial in certain respects, but overall it is
expected that these benefits will be outweighed by negative effects.[92]
Responses to global warming

Mitigation
Main article: Climate change mitigation

See also: Fee and dividend
Reducing the amount of future climate change is called mitigation of climate change. The
IPCC defines mitigation as activities that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, or
enhance the capacity of carbon sinks to absorb GHGs from the atmosphere.[93] Many
countries, both developing and developed, are aiming to use cleaner, less polluting,
technologies.[45]:192 Use of these technologies aids mitigation and could result in
substantial reductions in CO2 emissions. Policies include targets for emissions reductions,
increased use of renewable energy, and increased energy efficiency. Studies indicate
substantial potential for future reductions in emissions.[94] Since even in the most
optimistic scenario, fossil fuels are going to be used for years to come, mitigation may
also involve carbon capture and storage, a process that traps CO2 produced by factories
and gas or coal power stations and then stores it, usually underground.[95]
Adaptation
Main article: Adaptation to global warming
Other policy responses include adaptation to climate change. Adaptation to climate

change may be planned, e.g., by local or national government, or spontaneous, i.e., done
privately without government intervention.[96] The ability to adapt is closely linked to
social and economic development.[94] Even societies with high capacities to adapt are still
vulnerable to climate change. Planned adaptation is already occurring on a limited basis.
The barriers, limits, and costs of future adaptation are not fully understood.
Geoengineering
Another policy response is engineering of the climate (geoengineering). This policy

response is sometimes grouped together with mitigation.[97] Geoengineering is largely
unproven, and reliable cost estimates for it have not yet been published.[98]
Geoengineering encompasses a range of techniques to remove CO2 from the atmosphere
or to block incoming sunlight. As most geoengineering techniques would affect the entire
globe, the use of effective techniques, if they can be developed, would require global
public acceptance and an adequate global legal and regulatory framework.[99]
UNFCCC
Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC).[100] The ultimate objective of the Convention is to prevent
"dangerous" human interference of the climate system.[101] As is stated in the Convention,
this requires that GHGs are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can
adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened, and economic
development can proceed in a sustainable fashion.
The UNFCCC recognizes differences among countries in their responsibility to act on

climate change.[102] In the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, most developed countries
(listed in Annex I of the treaty) took on legally binding commitments to reduce their
emissions.[103] Policy measures taken in response to these commitments have reduced
emissions.[104] For many developing (non-Annex I) countries, reducing poverty is their
overriding aim.[105]
At the 15th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, held in 2009 at Copenhagen, several
UNFCCC Parties produced the Copenhagen Accord.[106] Parties agreeing with the Accord
aim to limit the future increase in global mean temperature to below 2 °C.[107] The 16th
Conference of the Parties (COP16) was held at Cancún in 2010. It produced an
agreement, not a binding treaty, that the Parties should take urgent action to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions to meet the 2 °C goal. It also recognized the need to consider
strengthening the goal to a global average rise of 1.5 °C.[108]
Views on global warming

Main articles: Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming
See also: Scientific opinion on climate change and Public opinion on climate change
Per capita greenhouse gas emissions in 2000, including land-use change.
Total greenhouse gas emissions in 2000, including land-use change.
There are different views over what the appropriate policy response to climate change
should be.[109][110] These competing views weigh the benefits of limiting emissions of
greenhouse gases against the costs. In general, it seems likely that climate change will
impose greater damages and risks in poorer regions.[111]
Politics
Developed and developing countries have made different arguments over who should
bear the burden of economic costs for cutting emissions. Developing countries often
concentrate on per capita emissions, that is, the total emissions of a country divided by
its population.[112] Per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as
much as ten times the average in developing countries.[113] This is used to make the
argument that the real problem of climate change is due to the profligate and
unsustainable lifestyles of those living in rich countries.[112]
On the other hand, commentators from developed countries point out that total carbon
emissions,[112] carrying capacity, efficient energy use and civil and political rights are very
important issues. World population is the number of humans per unit area. However the
land is not the same everywhere. Not only the quantity of fossil fuel use but also the
quality of energy use is a key debate point. For example, efficient energy use supporting
technological change might help reduce excess carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere. The
use of fossil fuels for conspicuous consumption and excessive entertainment are issues
that can conflict with civil and political rights. People in developed countries argue that
history has proven the difficulty of implementing fair rationing programs in different
countries because there is no global system of checks and balances or civil liberties.
The Kyoto Protocol, which came into force in 2005, sets legally binding emission
limitations for most developed countries.[103] Developing countries are not subject to
limitations. This exemption led the U.S. and Australia to decide not to ratify the treaty,[114]
[115][116]
although Australia did finally ratify the treaty in December 2007.[117] Debate
continued at the Copenhagen climate summit and the Cancún climate summit.
Public opinion
In 2007–2008 Gallup Polls surveyed 127 countries. Over a third of the world's population
was unaware of global warming, with people in developing countries less aware than
those in developed, and those in Africa the least aware. Of those aware, Latin America
leads in belief that temperature changes are a result of human activities while Africa,
parts of Asia and the Middle East, and a few countries from the Former Soviet Union
lead in the opposite belief.[118] In the Western world, opinions over the concept and the
appropriate responses are divided. Nick Pidgeon of Cardiff University said that "results
show the different stages of engagement about global warming on each side of the
Atlantic", adding, "The debate in Europe is about what action needs to be taken, while
many in the U.S. still debate whether climate change is happening."[119][120] A 2010 poll by
the Office of National Statistics found that 75% of UK respondents were at least "fairly
convinced" that the world's climate is changing, compared to 87% in a similar survey in
2006.[121] A January 2011 ICM poll in the UK found 83% of respondents viewed climate
change as a current or imminent threat, while 14% said it was no threat. Opinion was
unchanged from an August 2009 poll asking the same question, though there had been a
slight polarisation of opposing views.[122] A survey in October, 2009 by the Pew Research
Center for the People & the Press showed decreasing public perception in the United
States that global warming was a serious problem. All political persuasions showed
reduced concern with lowest concern among Republicans, only 35% of whom considered
there to be solid evidence of global warming.[123] The cause of this marked difference in
public opinion between the United States and the global public is uncertain but the
hypothesis has been advanced that clearer communication by scientists both directly and
through the media would be helpful in adequately informing the American public of the
scientific consensus and the basis for it.[124]
Other views
Most scientists accept that humans are contributing to observed climate change.[44][125]
National science academies have called on world leaders for policies to cut global
emissions.[126] However, some scientists and non-scientists question aspects of climate-
change science.[127][128]
Organizations such as the libertarian Competitive Enterprise Institute, conservative
commentators, and some companies such as ExxonMobil have challenged IPCC climate
change scenarios, funded scientists who disagree with the scientific consensus, and
provided their own projections of the economic cost of stricter controls.[129][130][131][132] In
the finance industry, Deutsche Bank has set up an institutional climate change investment
division (DBCCA),[133] which has commissioned and published research[134] on the issues
and debate surrounding global warming.[135] Environmental organizations and public
figures have emphasized changes in the current climate and the risks they entail, while
promoting adaptation to changes in infrastructural needs and emissions reductions.[136]
Some fossil fuel companies have scaled back their efforts in recent years,[137] or called for
policies to reduce global warming.[138]
Etymology
The term global warming was probably first used in its modern sense on 8 August 1975
in a science paper by Wally Broecker in the journal Science called "Are we on the brink
of a pronounced global warming?".[139][140][141] Broecker's choice of words was new and
represented a significant recognition that the climate was warming; previously the
phrasing used by scientists was "inadvertent climate modification," because while it was
recognized humans could change the climate, no one was sure which direction it was
going.[142] The National Academy of Sciences first used global warming in a 1979 paper
called the Charney Report, it said: "if carbon dioxide continues to increase, [we find] no
reason to doubt that climate changes will result and no reason to believe that these
changes will be negligible."[143] The report made a distinction between referring to surface
temperature changes as global warming, while referring to other changes caused by
increased CO2 as climate change.[142]
Global warming became more widely popular after 1988 when NASA scientist James
Hansen used the term in a testimony to Congress.[142] He said: "global warming has
reached a level such that we can ascribe with a high degree of confidence a cause and
effect relationship between the greenhouse effect and the observed warming."[144] His
testimony was widely reported and afterward global warming was commonly used by the
press and in public discourse.[142]
See also
Global Warming portal
• Glossary of climate change

• Index of climate change articles
• History of climate change science
Notes
A. ^ Increase is for years 1905 to 2005. Global surface temperature is defined in the IPCC
Fourth Assessment Report as the average of near-surface air temperature over land and
sea surface temperature. These error bounds are constructed with a 90% confidence
interval.
B. ^ The 2001 joint statement was signed by the national academies of science of Australia,
Belgium, Brazil, Canada, the Caribbean, the People's Republic of China, France,
Germany, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Malaysia, New Zealand, Sweden, and the UK.
The 2005 statement added Japan, Russia, and the U.S. The 2007 statement added Mexico
and South Africa. The Network of African Science Academies, and the Polish Academy
of Sciences have issued separate statements. Professional scientific societies include
American Astronomical Society, American Chemical Society, American Geophysical
Union, American Institute of Physics, American Meteorological Society, American
Physical Society, American Quaternary Association, Australian Meteorological and
Oceanographic Society, Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences,
Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society, European Academy of Sciences
and Arts, European Geosciences Union, European Science Foundation, Geological
Society of America, Geological Society of Australia, Geological Society of London-
Stratigraphy Commission, InterAcademy Council, International Union of Geodesy and
Geophysics, International Union for Quaternary Research, National Association of
Geoscience Teachers, National Research Council (US), Royal Meteorological Society,
and World Meteorological Organization.
C. ^ Note that the greenhouse effect produces an average worldwide temperature increase
of about 33 °C (59 °F) compared to black body predictions without the greenhouse effect,
not an average surface temperature of 33 °C (91 °F). The average worldwide surface
temperature is about 14 °C (57 °F).
D. ^ In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, published in 2007, this attribution is given a
probability of greater than 90%, based on expert judgement.[145] According to the US
National Research Council Report – Understanding and Responding to Climate Change -
published in 2008, "[most] scientists agree that the warming in recent decades has been
caused primarily by human activities that have increased the amount of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere."[44]
References
1. ^ 2009 Ends Warmest Decade on Record. NASA Earth Observatory Image of the
Day, January 22, 2010.
2. ^ a b c IPCC (2007-05-04). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). Climate Change
2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-spm.pdf. Retrieved 2009-07-
03.
3. ^ "Understanding and Responding to Climate Change". United States National
Academy of Sciences. 2008.
http://americasclimatechoices.org/climate_change_2008_final.pdf. Retrieved 30 May
2010. "Most scientists agree that the warming in recent decades has been caused
primarily by human activities that have increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere."
4. ^ America's Climate Choices: Panel on Advancing the Science of Climate
Change; National Research Council (2010). Advancing the Science of Climate Change.
Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. ISBN 0309145880.
http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12782. "… there is a strong, credible body of
evidence, based on multiple lines of research, documenting that climate is changing and
that these changes are in large part caused by human activities. While much remains to be
learned, the core phenomenon, scientific questions, and hypotheses have been examined
thoroughly and have stood firm in the face of serious scientific debate and careful
evaluation of alternative explanations."
5. ^ Lu, Jian; Vecchi, Gabriel A.; Reichler, Thomas (2007). "Expansion of the
Hadley cell under global warming" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters 34: L06805.
doi:10.1029/2006GL028443.
http://www.atmos.berkeley.edu/~jchiang/Class/Spr07/Geog257/Week10/Lu_Hadley06.p
df.
6. ^ IPCC (2007) (Full free text). Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report.
Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and
Reisinger, A. (eds.)]. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_s
ynthesis_report.htm.
7. ^ "Future Ocean Acidification". Climate Change Science. U.S. EPA. 2010-08-
20. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/futureoa.html. Retrieved 2010-12-01.
8. ^ "What is Ocean Acidification?". Pmel.noaa.gov.
http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/OA/background.html. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
9. ^ Oreskes, Naomi (December 2004). "BEYOND THE IVORY TOWER: The
Scientific Consensus on Climate Change". Science 306 (5702): 1686.
doi:10.1126/science.1103618. PMID 15576594.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1686. "Such statements suggest
that there might be substantive disagreement in the scientific community about the reality
of anthropogenic climate change. This is not the case. [...] Politicians, economists,
journalists, and others may have the impression of confusion, disagreement, or discord
among climate scientists, but that impression is incorrect."
10. ^ "Joint Science Academies' Statement" (PDF).
http://nationalacademies.org/onpi/06072005.pdf. Retrieved 2010-08-09.
11. ^ "Understanding and Responding to Climate Change" (PDF).
http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/materials-based-on-
reports/booklets/climate_change_2008_final.pdf. Retrieved 2010-08-09.
12. ^ "Article 2". The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change..
http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/background/items/1353.php. Retrieved
15 November 2005. "Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to
allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is
not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner"
13. ^ "Kyoto Protocol: Status of Ratification" (PDF). United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change. 2009-01-14.
http://unfccc.int/files/kyoto_protocol/status_of_ratification/application/pdf/kp_ratificatio
n.pdf. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
14. ^ Joint science academies’ statement (16 May 2007). "Joint science academies’
statement: sustainability, energy efficiency and climate protection". UK Royal Society
website. http://royalsociety.org/Joint-science-academies-statement-sustainability-energy-
efficiency-and-climate-protection/. Retrieved 2010-04-17.
15. ^ NRC (2008). "Understanding and Responding to Climate Change". Board on
Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, US National Academy of Sciences. p. 4.
16. ^ USGRCP (n.d.). "Key Findings. On (website): Global Climate Change Impacts
in the United States". U.S. Global Change Research Program website.
http://www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/us-impacts/key-
findings. Retrieved 2010-04-17.
17. ^ a b c d IPCC (2007). "1. Observed changes in climate and their effects. In
(section): Summary for Policymakers. In (book): Climate Change 2007: Synthesis
Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and
Reisinger, A. (eds.))". Book publisher: IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. This version: IPCC
website. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms1.html. Retrieved
2010-04-17.
18. ^ Trenberth, Kevin E.; et al. (2007). "Chapter 3: Observations: Surface and
Atmospheric Climate Change" (PDF). IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. Cambridge,
United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. p. 244.
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter3.pdf.
19. ^ Jansen, E., J. Overpeck; Briffa, K.R.; Duplessy, J.-C.; Joos, F.; Masson-
Delmotte, V.; Olago, D.; Otto-Bliesner, B.; Peltier, W.R. et al. (2007-02-11).
"Palaeoclimate". In Marquis, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, Z. et al.. Climate Change 2007: The
Physical Science Basis : contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC Fourth Assessment
Report. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 466–478. ISBN 978-
0-521-70596-7. OCLC 132298563. http://www.ipcc-wg1.unibe.ch/publications/wg1-
ar4/ar4-wg1-chapter6.pdf.
20. ^ Hansen, James E.; et al. (2006-01-12). "Goddard Institute for Space Studies,
GISS Surface Temperature Analysis". NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/2005/. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
21. ^ "NOAA/NCDC 2009 climate". http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/?
report=global&year=2009&month=13. Retrieved 2010-02-15.
22. ^ "Global Temperature for 2005: second warmest year on record" (PDF).
Climatic Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia.
2005-12-15. Archived from the original on April 17, 2007.
http://web.archive.org/web/20070417183747/http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/press/2005-
12-WMO.pdf. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
23. ^ "WMO statement on the status of the global climate in 2005" (PDF). World
Meteorological Organization. 2005-12-15.
http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/wcp/wcdmp/statement/documents/WMO998_E.pdf.
Retrieved 2009-04-24.
24. ^ Changnon, Stanley A.; Bell, Gerald D. (2000). El Niño, 1997–1998: The
Climate Event of the Century. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513552-0.
25. ^ Knight, J.; Kenney, J.J.; Folland, C.; Harris, G.; Jones, G.S.; Palmer, M.;
Parker, D.; Scaife, A. et al. (August 2009). "Do Global Temperature Trends Over the
Last Decade Falsify Climate Predictions? [in "State of the Climate in 2008""] (PDF).
Bull.Amer.Meteor.Soc. 90 (8): S75–S79.
http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/corporate/pressoffice/2009/global_temperatures_09.pdf.
26. ^ Global temperature slowdown — not an end to climate change. UK Met
Office. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climatechange/policymakers/policy/slowdown.html.
Retrieved 2009-09-08.[dead link]
27. ^ "IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Chapter 3" (PDF). 2007-02-05. p. 237.
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter3.pdf. Retrieved
2009-03-14.
28. ^ Rowan T. Sutton, Buwen Dong, Jonathan M. Gregory (2007). "Land/sea
warming ratio in response to climate change: IPCC AR4 model results and comparison
with observations". Geophysical Research Letters 34: L02701.
doi:10.1029/2006GL028164.
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2007/2006GL028164.shtml. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
29. ^ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001). "Atmospheric Chemistry
and Greenhouse Gases". Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-01495-6.
http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_tar/?
src=/CLIMATE/IPCC_TAR/WG1/127.htm.
30. ^ Meehl, Gerald A.; et al. (2005-03-18). "How Much More Global Warming and
Sea Level Rise" (PDF). Science 307 (5716): 1769–1772. doi:10.1126/science.1106663.
PMID 15774757. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/307/5716/1769.pdf. Retrieved
2007-02-11.
31. ^ a b c d Hegerl, Gabriele C.; et al. (2007). "Understanding and Attributing Climate
Change" (PDF). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. IPCC. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-
chapter9.pdf. "Recent estimates indicate a relatively small combined effect of natural
forcings on the global mean temperature evolution of the second half of the 20th century,
with a small net cooling from the combined effects of solar and volcanic forcings."
32. ^ Weart, Spencer (2008). "The Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effect". The
Discovery of Global Warming. American Institute of Physics.
http://www.aip.org/history/climate/co2.htm. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
33. ^ IPCC (2007). "Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Climate Change Science"
(PDF). IPCC WG1 AR4 Report. IPCC. pp. p97 (PDF page 5 of 36).
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter1.pdf. Retrieved 21
April 2009. "To emit 240 W m–2, a surface would have to have a temperature of around
−19 °C. This is much colder than the conditions that actually exist at the Earth’s surface
(the global mean surface temperature is about 14 °C). Instead, the necessary −19 °C is
found at an altitude about 5 km above the surface."
34. ^ Kiehl, J.T.; Trenberth, K.E. (1997). "Earth's Annual Global Mean Energy
Budget" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78 (2): 197–208.
doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<0197:EAGMEB>2.0.CO;2. Archived from the
original on 2008-06-24.
http://web.archive.org/web/20080624223905/http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/cour
selinks/spring04/atmo451b/pdf/RadiationBudget.pdf. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
35. ^ Schmidt, Gavin (6 Apr 2005). "Water vapour: feedback or forcing?".
RealClimate. http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=142. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
36. ^ Russell, Randy (May 16, 2007). "The Greenhouse Effect & Greenhouse
Gases". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research Windows to the Universe.
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/climate/greenhouse_effect_gases.html&ed
u=high. Retrieved Dec 27, 2009.
37. ^ EPA (2007). "Recent Climate Change: Atmosphere Changes". Climate Change
Science Program. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/recentac.html. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
38. ^ Spahni, Renato; et al. (November 2005). "Atmospheric Methane and Nitrous
Oxide of the Late Pleistocene from Antarctic Ice Cores". Science 310 (5752): 1317–1321.
doi:10.1126/science.1120132. PMID 16311333.
39. ^ Siegenthaler, Urs; et al. (November 2005). "Stable Carbon Cycle–Climate
Relationship During the Late Pleistocene" (PDF). Science 310 (5752): 1313–1317.
doi:10.1126/science.1120130. PMID 16311332.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/310/5752/1313. Retrieved 25 August
2010.
40. ^ Petit, J. R.; et al. (3 June 1999). "Climate and atmospheric history of the past
420,000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica" (PDF). Nature 399 (6735): 429–436.
doi:10.1038/20859. http://www.daycreek.com/dc/images/1999.pdf. Retrieved 27
December 2009.
41. ^ Pearson, PN; Palmer, MR (2000). "Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations
over the past 60 million years". Nature 406 (6797): 695–699. doi:10.1038/35021000.
PMID 10963587.
42. ^ a b IPCC (2001). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). Climate Change 2001:
The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC.
http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/pdf/WG1_TAR-FRONT.pdf. Retrieved 21
April 2009.
43. ^ Rogner et al., 2007. 1.3.1.2 Intensities
44. ^ a b c NRC (2008). "Understanding and Responding to Climate Change". Board
on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, US National Academy of Sciences. p. 2.
45. ^ a b World Bank (2010). World Development Report 2010: Development and
Climate Change. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The
World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-7987-
5. ISBN 978-0-8213-7987-5. http://go.worldbank.org/BKLQ9DSDU0. Retrieved 2010-
04-06.
46. ^ Fisher, B.S., N. Nakicenovic, K. Alfsen, J. Corfee Morlot, F. de la Chesnaye,
J.-Ch. Hourcade, K. Jiang, M. Kainuma, E. La Rovere, A. Matysek, A. Rana, K. Riahi, R.
Richels, S. Rose, D. van Vuuren, R. Warren (2007). 3.1 Emissions scenarios. In (book
chapter): Issues related to mitigation in the long term context. In: Climate Change 2007:
Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R.
Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. This version: IPCC website. ISBN 978-0-521-
70598-1. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch3s3-1.html. Retrieved
2010-06-19.
47. ^ Morita, T. and J. Robertson (co-ordinating lead authors). A. Adegbulugbe, J.
Alcamo, D. Herbert, E.L.L. Rovere, N. Nakicenovic, H. Pitcher, P. Raskin, K. Riahi, A.
Sankovski, V. Sokolov, B. de Vries, and D. Zhou (lead authors). K. Jiang, Ton Manders,
Y. Matsuoka, S. Mori, A. Rana, R.A. Roehrl, K.E. Rosendahl, and K. Yamaji
(contributing authors). M. Chadwick and J. Parikh (review editors) (2001). 2.5.1.4
Emissions and Other Results of the SRES Scenarios. In (book chapter): 2. Greenhouse
Gas Emission Mitigation Scenarios and Implications. In: Climate Change 2001:
Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz, O. Davidson, R. Swart, and J.
Pan (eds.)). Print version: Cambridge University Press. This version: GRID-Arendal
website. doi:10.2277/0521807697. ISBN 978-0-521-80769-2.
http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg3/081.htm#2514. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
48. ^ Rogner et al., 2007, Figure 1.7
49. ^ Prentice, I.C. (co-ordinating lead author). G.D. Farquhar, M.J.R. Fasham, M.L.
Goulden, M. Heimann, V.J. Jaramillo, H.S. Kheshgi, C. Le Quéré, R.J. Scholes, D.W.R.
Wallace (lead authors). D. Archer, M.R. Ashmore, O. Aumont, D. Baker, M. Battle, M.
Bender, L.P. Bopp, P. Bousquet, K. Caldeira, P. Ciais, P.M. Cox, W. Cramer, F.
Dentener, I.G. Enting, C.B. Field, P. Friedlingstein, E.A. Holland, R.A. Houghton, J.I.
House, A. Ishida, A.K. Jain, I.A. Janssens, F. Joos, T. Kaminski, C.D. Keeling, R.F.
Keeling, D.W. Kicklighter, K.E. Kohfeld, W. Knorr, R. Law, T. Lenton, K. Lindsay, E.
Maier-Reimer, A.C. Manning, R.J. Matear, A.D. McGuire, J.M. Melillo, R. Meyer, M.
Mund, J.C. Orr, S. Piper, K. Plattner, P.J. Rayner, S. Sitch, R. Slater, S. Taguchi, P.P.
Tans, H.Q. Tian, M.F. Weirig, T. Whorf, A. Yool (contributing authors). L. Pitelka, A.
Ramirez Rojas (review editors) (2001). Executive Summary. In (book chapter): 3. The
Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. In: Climate Change 2001: The
Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M.
Noguer, P.J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, C.A. Johnson (eds)). Print version:
Cambridge University Press. This version: GRID-Arendal website. ISBN 978-0-521-
80767-8. http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/096.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
50. ^ Nakicenovic., N., et al. (2001). "An Overview of Scenarios: Resource
Availability". IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. IPCC.
http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/emission/104.htm. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
51. ^ Ramaswamy, V.; Schwarzkopf, M.D.; Shine, K.P. (1992). "Radiative forcing
of climate from halocarbon-induced global stratospheric ozone loss". Nature 355: 810–
812. doi:10.1038/355810a0.
52. ^ Sparling, Brien (May 30, 2001). "Ozone Depletion, History and politics".
NASA. http://www.nas.nasa.gov/About/Education/Ozone/history.html. Retrieved 2009-
02-15.
53. ^ Shindell, Drew; Faluvegi, Greg; Lacis, Andrew; Hansen, James; Ruedy, Reto;
Aguilar, Elliot (2006). "Role of tropospheric ozone increases in 20th-century climate
change". Journal of Geophysical Research 111: D08302. doi:10.1029/2005JD006348.
54. ^ Mitchell, J.F.B., et al. (2001). "Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of
Causes: Space-time studies". Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. IPCC. http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/462.htm. Retrieved 21
April 2009.
55. ^ Hansen, J; Sato, M; Ruedy, R; Lacis, A; Oinas, V (2000). "Global warming in
the twenty-first century: an alternative scenario". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97 (18):
9875–80. doi:10.1073/pnas.170278997. PMC 27611. PMID 10944197.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=27611.
56. ^ Ramanathan, V.; Carmichael, G. (2008). "Global and regional climate changes
due to black carbon". Nature Geosciences 1: 221–227. doi:10.1038/ngeo156.
57. ^ Lohmann, U. & J. Feichter (2005). "Global indirect aerosol effects: a review".
Atmos. Chem. Phys. 5: 715–737. doi:10.5194/acp-5-715-2005. http://www.atmos-chem-
phys.net/5/715/2005/acp-5-715-2005.html.
58. ^ Twomey, S. (1977). "Influence of pollution on shortwave albedo of clouds". J.
Atmos. Sci. 34: 1149–1152. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1977)034<1149:TIOPOT>2.0.CO;2.
59. ^ Albrecht, B. (1989). "Aerosols, cloud microphysics, and fractional cloudiness".
Science 245 (4923): 1227–1239. doi:10.1126/science.245.4923.1227. PMID 17747885.
60. ^ IPCC, 2007: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M.
Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
61. ^ Ramanathan, V; Chung, C; Kim, D; Bettge, T; Buja, L; Kiehl, JT; Washington,
WM; Fu, Q et al.; et al. (2005). "Atmospheric brown clouds: Impacts on South Asian
climate and hydrological cycle". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 102 (15): 5326–5333.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0500656102. PMC 552786. PMID 15749818.
http://www.pnas.org/content/102/15/5326.abstract.
62. ^ Ramanathan, V., et al. (2008). "Report Summary" (PDF). Atmospheric Brown
Clouds: Regional Assessment Report with Focus on Asia. United Nations Environment
Programme.
http://www.rrcap.unep.org/abc/impact/files/ABC_Report_Summary_Final.pdf.
63. ^ Ramanathan, V., et al. (2008). "Part III: Global and Future Implications"
(PDF). Atmospheric Brown Clouds: Regional Assessment Report with Focus on Asia.
United Nations Environment Programme. http://www.rrcap.unep.org/abc/publication/Part
%20III.pdf.
64. ^ National Research Council (1994). Solar Influences On Global Change.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. p. 36. ISBN 0-309-05148-7.
http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4778&page=R1.
65. ^ Lockwood, Mike; Fröhlich, Claus (8 June 2008). "Recent oppositely directed
trends in solar climate forcings and the global mean surface air temperature. II. Different
reconstructions of the total solar irradiance variation and dependence on response time
scale". Proc. R. Soc. A 464 (2094): 1367–85. doi:10.1098/rspa.2007.0347.
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/464/2094/1367.abstract.
66. ^ Duffy, Santer and Wigley, "Solar variability does not explain late-20th-century
warming" Physics Today, January, 2009, pp 48-49. The authors respond to recent
assertions by Nicola Scafetta and Bruce West that solar forcing "might account" for up to
about half of 20th-century warming.
67. ^ Hansen, J. (2002). "Climate". Journal of Geophysical Research 107: 4347.
doi:10.1029/2001JD001143.
68. ^ Hansen, J. (2005). "Efficacy of climate forcings". Journal of Geophysical
Research 110: D18104. doi:10.1029/2005JD005776.
69. ^ Randel, William J.; Shine, Keith P.; Austin, John; Barnett, John; Claud,
Chantal; Gillett, Nathan P.; Keckhut, Philippe; Langematz, Ulrike et al. (2009). "An
update of observed stratospheric temperature trends". Journal of Geophysical Research
114: D02107. doi:10.1029/2008JD010421.
70. ^ Marsh, Nigel; Henrik, Svensmark (November 2000). "Cosmic Rays, Clouds,
and Climate" (PDF). Space Science Reviews 94 (1–2): 215–230.
doi:10.1023/A:1026723423896. http://www.dsri.dk/~hsv/SSR_Paper.pdf. Retrieved
2007-04-17.
71. ^ Lockwood, Mike; Claus Fröhlich (2007). "Recent oppositely directed trends in
solar climate forcings and the global mean surface air temperature" (PDF). Proceedings
of the Royal Society A 463: 2447. doi:10.1098/rspa.2007.1880. Archived from the
original on September 26, 2007.
http://web.archive.org/web/20070926023811/http://www.pubs.royalsoc.ac.uk/media/proc
eedings_a/rspa20071880.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-21. "Our results show that the observed
rapid rise in global mean temperatures seen after 1985 cannot be ascribed to solar
variability, whichever of the mechanisms is invoked and no matter how much the solar
variation is amplified".
72. ^ T Sloan and A W Wolfendale (2008). "Testing the proposed causal link
between cosmic rays and cloud cover". Environ. Res. Lett. 3: 024001. doi:10.1088/1748-
9326/3/2/024001. http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/1748-9326/3/2/024001/.
73. ^ Pierce, J.R. and P.J. Adams (2009). "Can cosmic rays affect cloud
condensation nuclei by altering new particle formation rates?". Geophysical Research
Letters 36: L09820. doi:10.1029/2009GL037946.
74. ^ Lenton, T. M.; Held, H.; Kriegler, E.; Hall, J. W.; Lucht, W.; Rahmstorf, S.;
Schellnhuber, H. J. (Feb 2008). "Tipping elements in the Earth's climate system" (Free
full text). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (6): 1786–1793.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0705414105. PMC 2538841. PMID 18258748.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18258748. edit
75. ^ Denman, K.L., et al. (2007). "Chapter 7, Couplings Between Changes in the
Climate System and Biogeochemistry" (PDF). Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-
report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter7.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
76. ^ Hansen, James (2000). "Climatic Change: Understanding Global Warming". In
Robert Lanza. One World: The Health & Survival of the Human Species in the 21st
century. Health Press (New Mexico). pp. 173–190. ISBN 0-929173-33-3.
http://books.google.com/?id=sx6DFr8rbpIC&dq=robert+lanza&printsec=frontcover.
77. ^ Stocker, Thomas F.; et al. (2001). "7.2.2 Cloud Processes and Feedbacks".
Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC.
http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/271.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
78. ^ Torn, Margaret; Harte, John (2006). "Missing feedbacks, asymmetric
uncertainties, and the underestimation of future warming". Geophysical Research Letters
33 (10): L10703. doi:10.1029/2005GL025540. L10703.
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2006/2005GL025540.shtml. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
79. ^ Harte, John; et al. (2006). "Shifts in plant dominance control carbon-cycle
responses to experimental warming and widespread drought". Environmental Research
Letters 1 (1): 014001. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/1/1/014001. 014001.
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1748-9326/1/1/014001/erl6_1_014001.html. Retrieved
2007-05-02.
80. ^ Scheffer, Marten; et al. (2006). "Positive feedback between global warming
and atmospheric CO2 concentration inferred from past climate change." (PDF).
Geophysical Research Letters 33: L10702. doi:10.1029/2005gl025044. http://www.pik-
potsdam.de/~victor/recent/scheffer_etal_T_CO2_GRL_in_press.pdf. Retrieved 2007-05-
04.
81. ^ Randall, D.A., et al. (2007). "Chapter 8, Climate Models and Their Evaluation"
(PDF). Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
IPCC. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter8.pdf.
82. ^ Stroeve, J., et al. (2007). "Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than forecast".
Geophysical Research Letters 34: L09501. doi:10.1029/2007GL029703.
83. ^ Wentz,FJ, et al. (2007). "How Much More Rain Will Global Warming Bring?".
Science 317 (5835): 233–5. doi:10.1126/science.1140746. PMID 17540863.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/317/5835/233.
84. ^ Liepert, Beate G.; Previdi. < (2009). "Do Models and Observations Disagree
on the Rainfall Response to Global Warming?". Journal of Climate 22 (11): 3156.
doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2472.1.
http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2008JCLI2472.1. "Recently analyzed
satellite-derived global precipitation datasets from 1987 to 2006 indicate an increase in
global-mean precipitation of 1.1%–1.4% decade−1. This trend corresponds to a
hydrological sensitivity (HS) of 7% K−1 of global warming, which is close to the
Clausius–Clapeyron (CC) rate expected from the increase in saturation water vapor
pressure with temperature. Analysis of two available global ocean evaporation datasets
confirms this observed intensification of the atmospheric water cycle. The observed
hydrological sensitivity over the past 20-yr period is higher by a factor of 5 than the
average HS of 1.4% K−1 simulated in state-of-the-art coupled atmosphere–ocean climate
models for the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.".
85. ^ IPCC (2007d). "1.1 Observations of climate change. In (section): Synthesis
Report. In (book): Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working
Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.))". Book
version: IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. This version: IPCC website.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains1.html. Retrieved 2010-04-
26.
86. ^ IPCC (2007d). "2.4 Attribution of climate change. In (section): Synthesis
Report. In (book): Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working
Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.))". Book
version: IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. This version: IPCC website.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains2-4.html. Retrieved 2010-04-
26.
87. ^ IPCC (2007d). "2. Causes of change. In (section): Summary for Policymakers.
In (book): Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II
and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.))". Book version:
IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. This version: IPCC website.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms2.html. Retrieved 2010-04-26.
88. ^ a b c d IPCC (2007d). "3. Projected climate change and its impacts. In (section):
Summary for Policymakers. In (book): Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report.
Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and
Reisinger, A. (eds.))". Book version: IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. This version: IPCC
website. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms3.html. Retrieved
2010-04-26.
89. ^ IPCC (2007b). "Magnitudes of impact. In (section): Summary for
Policymakers. In (book): Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof,
P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds.)". Book version: Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK. This version: IPCC website.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c-15-magnitudes-
of.html. Retrieved 2010-04-26.
90. ^ Fischlin, A., G.F. Midgley, J.T. Price, R. Leemans, B. Gopal, C. Turley,
M.D.A. Rounsevell, O.P. Dube, J. Tarazona, A.A. Velichko (2007). "Executive
Summary. In (book chapter): Ecosystems, their properties, goods and services. In:
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working
Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson,
Eds.)". Book version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. This version: IPCC
website. p. 213. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-
chapter4.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-26.
91. ^ Schneider, S.H., S. Semenov, A. Patwardhan, I. Burton, C.H.D. Magadza, M.
Oppenheimer, A.B. Pittock, A. Rahman, J.B. Smith, A. Suarez and F. Yamin (2007).
"19.3.4 Ecosystems and biodiversity. In (book chapter): Assessing Key Vulnerabilities
and the Risk from Climate Change. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof,
P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds.)". Book version: Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK. This version: IPCC website.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch19s19-3-4.html. Retrieved
2010-04-26.
92. ^ IPCC (2007) AR4 SYR Synthesis Report - 3.3.1 Impacts on systems and
sectors Book version: IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. This version: IPCC website. Retrieved
2010-10-05.
93. ^ Verbruggen, A. (ed.) (2007). Glossary J-P. In (book section): Annex I. In:
Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz, O.R.
Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds.)). Print version: Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, U.K., and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website.
ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/annex1sglossary-j-p.html.
94. ^ a b IPCC (2007). 4. Adaptation and mitigation options. In (book section):
Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of
Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.)).
Print version: IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. This version: IPCC website. ISBN 92-9169-
122-4. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms4.html. Retrieved 2010-
04-26.
95. ^ Robinson, Simon (2010-01-22). "How to reduce Carbon emmissions: Capture
and Store It?". Time.com.
http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1954176_1954175,00.html.
96. ^ Smit, B. and O. Pilifosova. Lead Authors: I. Burton, B. Challenger, S. Huq,
R.J.T. Klein, G. Yohe. Contributing Authors: N. Adger, T. Downing, E. Harvey, S. Kane,
M. Parry, M. Skinner, J. Smith, J. Wandel. Review Editors: A. Patwardhan and J.-F.
Soussana (2001). 18.2.3. Adaptation Types and Forms. In (book chapter): Adaptation to
Climate Change in the Context of Sustainable Development and Equity. In: Climate
Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II
to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.J.
McCarthy, O.F. Canziani, N.A. Leary, D.J. Dokken, K.S. White (eds.)). Print version:
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This
version: GRID-Arendal website. ISBN 0-521-80768-9.
http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/644.htm#1823. Retrieved 2010-01-10.
97. ^ Barker, T., I. Bashmakov, A. Alharthi, M. Amann, L. Cifuentes, J. Drexhage,
M. Duan, O. Edenhofer, B. Flannery, M. Grubb, M. Hoogwijk, F. I. Ibitoye, C. J. Jepma,
W.A. Pizer, K. Yamaji (2007). 11.2.2 Ocean fertilization and other geo-engineering
options. In (book chapter): Mitigation from a cross-sectoral perspective. In: Climate
Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R.
Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)). Print version: Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, U.K., and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website. ISBN 978-
0-521-88011-4. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch11s11-2-2.html.
98. ^ IPCC (2007). C. Mitigation in the short and medium term (until 2030). In
(book section): Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation.
Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R.
Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.,
and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website. ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/spmsspm-c.html. Retrieved 2010-
05-15.
99. ^ "Geoengineering the climate: science, governance and uncertainty". The Royal
Society. 01 September 2009. http://royalsociety.org/Geoengineering-the-climate/.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
100. ^ UNFCCC (n.d.). "Essential Background". UNFCCC website.
http://unfccc.int/essential_background/items/2877.php. Retrieved 2010-05-18.
101. ^ UNFCCC (n.d.). "Full text of the Convention, Article 2". UNFCCC website.
2010-05-18.
102. ^ UNFCCC (n.d.). "Full text of the Convention, start". UNFCCC website.
2010-05-18.
103. ^ a b Liverman, D.M. (2008). "Conventions of climate change: constructions of
danger and the dispossession of the atmosphere". Journal of Historical Geography 35:
12–14. doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2008.08.008. http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/~dliverma/CV/JHGE07-
17.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
104. ^ UNFCCC (19 November 2007). "Compilation and synthesis of fourth national
communications. Executive summary. Note by the secretariat. Document code:
FCCC/SBI/2007/INF.6". United Nations Office at Geneva, Switzerland. p. 11.
http://unfccc.int/documentation/documents/advanced_search/items/3594.php?
rec=j&priref=600004368#beg. Retrieved 2010-05-17.
105. ^ UNFCCC (25 October 2005). "Sixth compilation and synthesis of initial
national communications from Parties not included in Annex I to the Convention. Note
by the secretariat. Executive summary. Document code: FCCC/SBI/2005/18". United
Nations Office at Geneva, Switzerland. p. 6.
106. ^ Müller, Benito (February 2010) (PDF). Copenhagen 2009: Failure or final
wake-up call for our leaders? EV 49. Dr Benito Müller's web page on the Oxford
Institute for Energy Studies website. p. i. ISBN 978190755046.
http://www.oxfordenergy.org/pdfs/EV49.pdf. Retrieved 2010-05-18.
107. ^ UNFCCC (30 March 2010). "Decision 2/CP. 15 Copenhagen Accord. In:
Report of the Conference of the Parties on its fifteenth session, held in Copenhagen from
7 to 19 December 2009. Addendum. Part Two: Action taken by the Conference of the
Parties at its fifteenth session" (PDF). United Nations Office at Geneva, Switzerland. p.
5. http://unfccc.int/documentation/documents/advanced_search/items/3594.php?
108. ^ "Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on long-term
Cooperative Action under the Convention". PRESIDENCIA DE LA REPÚBLICA,
MÉXICO. 11 December 2010. p. 2.
http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_16/application/pdf/cop16_lca.pdf. Retrieved 12
January 2011.
109. ^ Rogner, H.-H., D. Zhou, R. Bradley. P. Crabbé, O. Edenhofer, B.Hare, L.
Kuijpers, M. Yamaguchi (2007). "Executive Summary. In (book chapter): Introduction.
In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz, O.R.
Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds))". Print version: Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Web version: IPCC
website. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch1s1-es.html. Retrieved
2010-05-05.
110. ^ Banuri, T., K. Göran-Mäler, M. Grubb, H.K. Jacobson and F. Yamin (1996)
(PDF). Equity and Social Considerations. In: Climate Change 1995: Economic and
Social Dimensions of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Second
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.P. Bruce, H.
Lee and E.F. Haites, (eds.)). This version: Printed by Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, U.K., and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. PDF version: IPCC website. p. 87.
doi:10.2277/0521568544. ISBN 978-0-521-56854-8.
http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sar/wg_III/ipcc_sar_wg_III_full_report.pdf.
111. ^ Banuri et al., 1996, p. 83
112. ^ a b c Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 94-95
113. ^ Grubb, M. (July–September 2003). "The Economics of the Kyoto Protocol".
World Economics 4 (3): 144.
http://www.econ.cam.ac.uk/rstaff/grubb/publications/J36.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-25.
114. ^ IEA (2005). "Energy Policies of IEA Countries — Australia- 2005 Review".
International Energy Agency (IEA), Head of Publications Service, 9 rue de la Fédération,
75739 Paris Cedex 15, France. p. 51.
http://www.iea.org/publications/free_new_Desc.asp?PUBS_ID=1565. Retrieved 2010-
04-29.
115. ^ Dessai, S. (2001). "The climate regime from The Hague to Marrakech: Saving
or sinking the Kyoto Protocol? Tyndall Centre Working Paper 12". Tyndall Centre
website. pp. 5–6. http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/content/climate-regime-hague-marrakech-
saving-or-sinking-kyoto-protocol. Retrieved 2010-05-05.
116. ^ UNFCCC (20 January 2009). "Report of the in-depth review of the fourth
national assessment communication of Australia". United Nations Office at Geneva,
Switzerland. p. 3.
117. ^ "Rudd takes Australia inside Kyoto". BBC. 3 December 2007.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7124236.stm. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
118. ^ Pelham, Brett (2009-04-22). "Awareness, Opinions About Global Warming
Vary Worldwide". Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/poll/117772/Awareness-Opinions-
Global-Warming-Vary-Worldwide.aspx. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
119. ^ "Summary of Findings". Little Consensus on Global Warming. Partisanship
Drives Opinion. Pew Research Center. 2006-07-12. http://people-
press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=280. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
120. ^ Crampton, Thomas (2007-01-04). "More in Europe worry about climate than in
U.S., poll shows". The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/04/health/04iht-poll.4102536.html?_r=1. Retrieved
2010-06-09.
121. ^ "Public attitudes towards climate change and the impact on transport (January
2011 report)". Department for Transport. 2011. p. 8.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/statistics/datatablespublications/trsnstatsatt/climatejan2011rep
ort. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
122. ^ Damian Carrington (31 January 2011). "Public belief in climate change
weathers storm, poll shows | Environment | guardian.co.uk". The Guardian.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/jan/31/public-belief-climate-change.
123. ^ "Fewer Americans See Solid Evidence of Global Warming". Pew Research
Center for the People & the Press. October 22, 2009. http://people-
press.org/report/556/global-warming. Retrieved February 26, 2011.
124. ^ Robin Lloyd (February 23, 2011). "Why Are Americans So Ill-Informed about
Climate Change?: Scientists and journalists debate why Americans still resist the
consensus among research organizations that humans are warming the globe". Scientific
American. Nature America, Inc.. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=why-
are-americans-so-ill. Retrieved February 26, 2011.
125. ^ Wallace, D. and J. Houghton (March 2005). "A guide to facts and fictions
about climate change". UK Royal Society website. pp. 3–4. http://royalsociety.org/Facts-
and-fictions-about-climate-change/. Retrieved 2010-05-05.
126. ^ Academia Brasileira de Ciéncias (Brazil), Royal Society of Canada, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Académie des Sciences (France), Deutsche Akademie der
Naturforscher Leopoldina (Germany), Indian National Science Academy, Accademia
Nazionale dei Lincei (Italy), Science Council of Japan, Academia Mexicana de Ciencias,
Russian Academy of Sciences, Academy of Science of South Africa, Royal Society
(United Kingdom), National Academy of Sciences (United States of America) (May
2009). "G8+5 Academies’ joint statement: Climate change and the transformation of
energy technologies for a low carbon future". US National Academies website.
http://www.nationalacademies.org/includes/G8+5energy-climate09.pdf. Retrieved 2010-
05-05.
127. ^ Weart, S. (July 2009). "The Public and Climate Change (cont. – since 1980).
Section: After 1988". American Institute of Physics website.
http://www.aip.org/history/climate/public2.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-05.
128. ^ SEPP (n.d.). "Frequently Asked Questions About Climate Change". Science &
Environmental Policy Project (SEPP) website. Archived from the original on 2008-05-
11. http://web.archive.org/web/20080511011611/http://www.sepp.org/FAQ/faq.html.
129. ^ Begley, Sharon (2007-08-13). "The Truth About Denial". Newsweek.
http://www.newsweek.com/id/32482. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
130. ^ Adams, David (2006-09-20). "Royal Society tells Exxon: stop funding climate
change denial". London: The Guardian.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2006/sep/20/oilandpetrol.business. Retrieved
2007-08-09.
131. ^ "Exxon cuts ties to global warming skeptics". MSNBC. 2007-01-12.
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16593606. Retrieved 2007-05-02.
132. ^ Sandell, Clayton (2007-01-03). "Report: Big Money Confusing Public on
Global Warming". ABC. http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/Business/story?
id=2767979&page=1. Retrieved 2007-04-27.
133. ^ "About DBCCA". Deutsche Bank: DB Climate Change Advisors. Frankfurt am
Main: Deutsche Bank AG. 2010-05-12. http://www.dbcca.com/dbcca/EN/about-us.jsp.
Retrieved 2010-11-05. "DB Climate Change Advisors is the brand name for the
institutional climate change investment division of Deutsche Asset Management, the
asset management arm of Deutsche Bank AG."
134. ^ "Investment Research". Deutsche Bank: DB Climate Change Advisors.
Frankfurt am Main: Deutsche Bank AG. 2010-11-02.
http://www.dbcca.com/dbcca/EN/investment_research.jsp. Retrieved 2010-11-05.
135. ^ Carr, Mary-Elena; Kate Brash, Robert F. Anderson (September 2010).
"Climate Change: Addressing the Major Skeptic Arguments" (PDF). DB Climate Change
Advisors: Deutsche Bank Group. p. 55.
http://www.dbcca.com/dbcca/EN/_media/DBCCAColumbiaSkepticPaper090710.pdf.
Retrieved 2010-11-05. "The planet is warming and it is likely to continue to warm as a
consequence of increased greenhouse gas emissions."
136. ^ U.S. Global Change Research Program (June 6, 2009). "New Report Provides
Authoritative Assessment of National, Regional Impacts of Global Climate Change"
(PDF). Press release. http://www.globalchange.gov/images/cir/pdf/Climate-Impacts-
PR_june-6-2009.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-27.
137. ^ Reuters (May 18, 2007). "Greenpeace: Exxon still funding climate skeptics".
USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/weather/climate/globalwarming/2007-05-18-
greenpeace-exxon_N.htm. Retrieved Jan 21, 2010.
138. ^ Ceres (May 13, 2004). "Global Warming Resolutions at U.S. Oil Companies
Bring Policy Commitments from Leaders, and Record High Votes at Laggards". Press
release. http://www.csrwire.com/press/press_release/23395-Global-Warming-
Resolutions-at-U-S-Oil-Companies-Bring-Policy-Commitments-from-Leaders-and-
Record-High-Votes-at-Laggards. Retrieved 2010-03-04.
139. ^ Stefan (28 July 2010). "Happy 35th birthday, global warming!". RealClimate.
http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2010/07/happy-35th-birthday-global-
warming/. Retrieved 10 August 2010. "[Broecker's article is] the first of over 10,000
papers for this search term according to the ISI database of journal articles"
140. ^ Johnson, Brad (3 August 2010). "Wally's World". Foreign Policy.
http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/08/03/wallys_world. Retrieved 10 August
2010.
141. ^ Wallace Broecker, "Climatic Change: Are We on the Brink of a Pronounced
Global Warming?" Science, vol. 189 (8 August 1975), 460-463.
142. ^ a b c d Erik Conway. "What's in a Name? Global Warming vs. Climate Change",
NASA, December 5, 2008
143. ^ National Academy of Science, Carbon Dioxide and Climate, Washington,
D.C., 1979, p. vii.
144. ^ U.S. Senate, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, "Greenhouse Effect
and Global Climate Change, part 2" 100th Cong., 1st sess., 23 June 1988, p. 44.
145. ^ IPCC (2007d). "Introduction. In (section): Synthesis Report. In (book): Climate
Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the
Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core
Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.))". Book version: IPCC, Geneva,
Switzerland. This version: IPCC website.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mainssyr-introduction.html.
Further reading
• Association of British Insurers (2005–06) (PDF). Financial Risks of Climate
Change.
http://www.climatewise.org.uk/storage/610/financial_risks_of_climate_change.pd
f.
• Ammann, Caspar; et al. (2007). "Solar influence on climate during the past
millennium: Results from transient simulations with the NCAR Climate
Simulation Model" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America 104 (10): 3713–3718.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0605064103. PMC 1810336. PMID 17360418.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/104/10/3713.pdf. "Simulations with only natural
forcing components included yield an early 20th century peak warming of
≈0.2 °C (≈1950 AD), which is reduced to about half by the end of the century
because of increased volcanism".
• Barnett, TP; Adam, JC; Lettenmaier, DP; Adam, J. C.; Lettenmaier, D. P. (2005-
11-17). "Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-
dominated regions" (abstract). Nature 438 (7066): 303–309.
doi:10.1038/nature04141. PMID 16292301.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7066/abs/nature04141.html.
• Behrenfeld, MJ; O'malley, RT; Siegel, DA; Mcclain, CR; Sarmiento, JL;
Feldman, GC; Milligan, AJ; Falkowski, PG et al.; et al. (2006-12-07). "Climate-
driven trends in contemporary ocean productivity" (PDF). Nature 444 (7120):
752–755. doi:10.1038/nature05317. PMID 17151666.
http://www.icess.ucsb.edu/~davey/MyPapers/Behrenfeld_etal_2006_Nature.pdf.
• Choi, Onelack; Fisher, Ann (May 2005). "The Impacts of Socioeconomic
Development and Climate Change on Severe Weather Catastrophe Losses: Mid-
Atlantic Region (MAR) and the U.S.". Climate Change 58 (1–2): 149–170.
doi:10.1023/A:1023459216609.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/m6308777613702q0/.
• Dyurgerov, Mark B.; Meier, Mark F. (2005) (PDF). Glaciers and the Changing
Earth System: a 2004 Snapshot. Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research
Occasional Paper #58. ISSN 0069-6145.
http://instaar.colorado.edu/other/download/OP58_dyurgerov_meier.pdf.
• Emanuel, K (2005-08-04). "Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over
the past 30 years." (PDF). Nature 436 (7051): 686–688. doi:10.1038/nature03906.
PMID 16056221.
ftp://texmex.mit.edu/pub/emanuel/PAPERS/NATURE03906.pdf.
• Hansen, James; et al. (2005-06-03). "Earth's Energy Imbalance: Confirmation and
Implications" (PDF). Science 308 (5727): 1431–1435.
doi:10.1126/science.1110252. PMID 15860591.
http://pangea.stanford.edu/research/Oceans/GES205/Hansen_Science_Earth's
%20Energy%20Balance.pdf.
• Hinrichs, Kai-Uwe; Hmelo, Laura R.; Sylva, Sean P. (2003-02-21). "Molecular
Fossil Record of Elevated Methane Levels in Late Pleistocene Coastal Waters".
Science 299 (5610): 1214–1217. doi:10.1126/science.1079601. PMID 12595688.
• Hirsch, Tim (2006-01-11). "Plants revealed as methane source". BBC.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4604332.stm.
• Hoyt, Douglas V.; Schatten, Kenneth H. (1993–11). "A discussion of plausible
solar irradiance variations, 1700–1992". Journal of Geophysical Research 98
(A11): 18,895–18,906. doi:10.1029/93JA01944. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-
bin/nph-bib_query?
bibcode=1993JGR....9818895H&db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&hi
gh=448f267ff303582.
• "Climate Change: Adapting to the inevitable" (PDF). Institution of Mechanical
Engineers. http://www.imeche.org/NR/rdonlyres/FA401F02-3193-4A19-826A-
3FEEFB89DEDE/0/ClimateChangeAdaptationReportIMechE.pdf. Retrieved
2009-03-07.[dead link]
• Karnaukhov, A. V. (2001). "Role of the Biosphere in the Formation of the Earth’s
Climate: The Greenhouse Catastrophe" (PDF). Biophysics 46 (6).
http://avturchin.narod.ru/Green.pdf.
• Kenneth, James P.; et al. (2003-02-14). Methane Hydrates in Quaternary Climate
Change: The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis. American Geophysical Union.
https://www.agu.org/cgi-bin/agubooks?book=ASSP0542960.
• Keppler, Frank; et al. (2006-01-18). "Global Warming – The Blame Is not with
the Plants". Max Planck Society.
http://www.mpg.de/english/illustrationsDocumentation/documentation/pressRelea
ses/2006/pressRelease200601131/index.html.
• Lean, Judith L.; Wang, Y.M.; Sheeley, N.R. (2002–12). "The effect of increasing
solar activity on the Sun's total and open magnetic flux during multiple cycles:
Implications for solar forcing of climate" (abstract). Geophysical Research
Letters 29 (24): 2224. doi:10.1029/2002GL015880.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002GeoRL..29x..77L.
• Lerner, K. Lee; Lerner, K. Lee; Wilmoth, Brenda (2006-07-26). Environmental
issues: essential primary sources. Thomson Gale. ISBN 1-4144-0625-8.
• Muscheler, Raimund, R; Joos, F; Müller, SA; Snowball, I; et al. (2005-07-28).
"Climate: How unusual is today's solar activity?" (PDF). Nature 436 (7012):
1084–1087. doi:10.1038/nature04045. PMID 16049429.
http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/ccr/raimund/publications/Muscheler_et_al_Nature2005.
pdf.
• Oerlemans, J. (2005-04-29). "Extracting a Climate Signal from 169 Glacier
Records" (PDF). Science 308 (5722): 675–677. doi:10.1126/science.1107046.
PMID 15746388. http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU05/04572/EGU05-J-
04572.pdf.
• Purse, BV; Mellor, PS; Rogers, DJ; Samuel, AR; Mertens, PP; Baylis, M; et al.
(February 2005). "Climate change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in
Europe" (abstract). Nature Reviews Microbiology 3 (2): 171–181.
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v3/n2/abs/nrmicro1090_fs.html.
• Revkin, Andrew C (2005-11-05). "Rise in Gases Unmatched by a History in
Ancient Ice". The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/25/science/earth/25core.html?
ei=5090&en=d5078e33050b2b0c&ex=1290574800&adxnnl=1&partner=rssuserla
nd&emc=rss.
• Ruddiman, William F. (2005-12-15). Earth's Climate Past and Future. New
York: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-7167-3741-8.
http://www.whfreeman.com/ruddiman/.
• Ruddiman, William F. (2005-08-01). Plows, Plagues, and Petroleum: How
Humans Took Control of Climate. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 0-691-12164-8.
• Solanki, SK; Usoskin, IG; Kromer, B; Schüssler, M; Beer, J; et al. (2004-10-23).
"Unusual activity of the Sun during recent decades compared to the previous
11,000 years." (PDF). Nature 431 (7012): 1084–1087. doi:10.1038/nature02995.
PMID 15510145. http://cc.oulu.fi/%7Eusoskin/personal/nature02995.pdf.
• Solanki, Sami K.; et al. (2005-07-28). "Climate: How unusual is today's solar
activity? (Reply)" (PDF). Nature 436: E4–E5. doi:10.1038/nature04046.
http://cc.oulu.fi/%7Eusoskin/personal/sola_nature05.pdf.
• Sowers, Todd (2006-02-10). "Late Quaternary Atmospheric CH4 Isotope Record
Suggests Marine Clathrates Are Stable". Science 311 (5762): 838–840.
doi:10.1126/science.1121235. PMID 16469923.
• Svensmark, Henrik; et al. (2007-02-08). "Experimental evidence for the role of
ions in particle nucleation under atmospheric conditions". Proceedings of the
Royal Society A (FirstCite Early Online Publishing) 463 (2078): 385–396.
doi:10.1098/rspa.2006.1773.(online version requires registration)
• Walter, KM; Zimov, SA; Chanton, JP; Verbyla, D; Chapin Fs, 3rd; et al. (2006-
09-07). "Methane bubbling from Siberian thaw lakes as a positive feedback to
climate warming". Nature 443 (7107): 71–75. doi:10.1038/nature05040.
PMID 16957728.
• Wang, Y.-M.; Lean, J.L.; Sheeley, N.R. (2005-05-20). "Modeling the sun's
magnetic field and irradiance since 1713" (PDF). Astrophysical Journal 625:
522–538. doi:10.1086/429689.
http://climatesci.colorado.edu/publications/pdf/Wang_2005.pdf.
• Royal Society (2005). "Joint science academies' statement: Global response to
climate change". http://royalsociety.org/Joint-science-academies-statement-
Global-response-to-climate-change/. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
External links
Book: Global warming

Wikipedia Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.
Find more about Global warming on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
Images and media from Commons
Learning resources from Wikiversity
News stories from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Research
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change — collection of IPCC reports

• NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies - Global change research
• United States Global Change Research Program - Global climate change research in the
United States
• Climate Change at the National Academies — repository for reports
• Nature Reports Climate Change — free-access web resource
• Met Office: Climate change — UK National Weather Service
• Global Science and Technology Sources on the Internet — extensive commented list of
internet resources
• Educational Global Climate Modelling (EdGCM) — research-quality climate change
simulator
• DISCOVER — satellite-based ocean and climate data since 1979 from NASA
• Global Warming Art — collection of figures and images
Educational
• What Is Global Warming? — by National Geographic

• Global Climate Change Indicators - from NOAA
• NOAA Climate Services - from NOAA
• Global Warming Frequently Asked Questions — from NOAA
• Understanding Climate Change – Frequently Asked Questions — from UCAR
• Global Climate Change: NASA's Eyes on the Earth — from NASA's JPL and Caltech
• OurWorld 2.0 — from the United Nations University
• Pew Center on Global Climate Change — business and politics
• Best Effort Global Warming Trajectories – Wolfram Demonstrations Project — by
Harvey Lam
• Koshland Science Museum – Global Warming Facts and Our Future — graphical
introduction from National Academy of Sciences
• The Discovery of Global Warming – A History — by Spencer R. Weart from The
American Institute of Physics
• Climate Change: Coral Reefs on the Edge — A video presentation by Prof. Ove Hoegh-
Guldberg, University of Auckland
• Climate Change Indicators in the United States Report by United States Environmental
Protection Agency, 80 pp.
• Global Warming
• Video on the effects of global warming on St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea
[hide]v · d · eClimate changes
[show] Temperatures
[show] Causes
Attribution of recent climate

change · Aviation · Biofuel ·
Carbon dioxide · Earth's
energy budget · Earth's
radiation balance · Fossil
Anthropogenic fuel · Global dimming ·
Global warming potential ·
Greenhouse effect ·
Greenhouse gases · Land use
and forestry · Radiative
forcing · Urban heat island
Albedo · Bond events ·

Cloud forcing · Feedbacks ·
Glaciation · Global cooling ·
Ocean variability (AMO ·
Natural
ENSO · IOD · PDO) ·
Orbital variations · Orbital
forcing · Solar variation ·
Volcanism
Models Global climate model
[show] History
[show] Opinion and controversy
[show] Politics
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC / FCCC) ·

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) · Climate change denial
[show] Potential effects and issues
Abrupt climate change ·

Climate change and
agriculture · Climate change
and ecosystems · Drought ·
Economics of global warming ·
Effects on marine mammals ·
Fisheries and climate change ·
General Glacier retreat · Mass
extinction · Ozone depletion ·
Ocean acidification · Plant
biodiversity · Poverty ·
Runaway climate change · Sea
level rise · Season creep ·
Shutdown of thermohaline
circulation
By country Australia · India · United States
[show] Mitigation
Clean Development Mechanism ·

Kyoto Protocol Joint Implementation · Bali
roadmap · Copenhagen Summit
G8 Climate Change Roundtable ·

European Climate Change
Governmental
Programme · United Kingdom
Climate Change Programme
Coal phase out · Emissions trading ·

Emissions reduction Carbon tax · Carbon offset · Carbon
credit
Efficient energy use · Renewable
Carbon-free energy energy · Nuclear energy · Carbon
capture and storage
Geoengineering · Carbon sink ·

Individual and political action on
Other
climate change · Climate change
mitigation scenarios
[show] Proposed adaptations
Damming glacial lakes ·

Drought tolerance · Irrigation
Strategies investment · Rainwater storage ·
Sustainable development ·
Weather control
Avoiding Dangerous Climate

Programmes Change · Land Allocation
Decision Support System

Global Warming

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Global Warming

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Global warming

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The scientific consensus is that anthropogenic global warming is occurring.[9][10][11][B]

Proposed responses to climate change include mitigation to reduce emissions, adaptation

Two millennia of mean surface temperatures according to different reconstructions, each

Naturally occurring greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 °C

The destruction of stratospheric ozone by chlorofluorocarbons is sometimes mentioned in

Aerosols and soot

Main article: Solar variation

Solar variation over thirty years.

Calculations of global warming prepared in or before 2001 from a range of climate

Attributed and expected effects

Global warming may be detected in natural, ecological or social systems as a change

Responses to global warming

Main article: Climate change mitigation

Main article: Adaptation to global warming

Other policy responses include adaptation to climate change. Adaptation to climate

Another policy response is engineering of the climate (geoengineering). This policy

The UNFCCC recognizes differences among countries in their responsibility to act on

Views on global warming

Per capita greenhouse gas emissions in 2000, including land-use change.

Total greenhouse gas emissions in 2000, including land-use change.

• Glossary of climate change

Book: Global warming

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change — collection of IPCC reports

• What Is Global Warming? — by National Geographic

Attribution of recent climate

Albedo · Bond events ·

Models Global climate model

[show] Opinion and controversy

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC / FCCC) ·

[show] Potential effects and issues

Abrupt climate change ·

By country Australia · India · United States

Clean Development Mechanism ·

G8 Climate Change Roundtable ·

Coal phase out · Emissions trading ·

Geoengineering · Carbon sink ·

[show] Proposed adaptations

Damming glacial lakes ·

Avoiding Dangerous Climate

You might also like