The Lion's Outlook - Sitagu Students' Research Journal - 2011

THE LION’S OUTLOOK
Sitagu Students’ Research Journal
Sitagu International Buddhist Academy
Mandalay, Sagaing, Yangon
MYANMAR
Vol. II
March 2011
Organizing Body: SitaguStar StudentSelection
Free Distribution
Any part of this publication may be republished and redistributed in any form or by any means
with the prior permission from authors as their moral rights have been asserted.
Published for Department of Research & Compilation,
Sitagu International Buddhist Academy,
Sagaing Hills, Sagaing, Myanmar.

The Sītagū Resolution
We resolve to make effort:
To beautify our lives in this world we live,
To promote our Sāsana ardently,
To make our country prosperous,
With the best of our ability, without arrogance.

Preface
This special issue of The Lion’s Outlook, Sitagu Students’ Research Journal is set to
release on 19th March 2011 (Full moon Day of Taboung, 1372) an occasion celebrating
Sitagu Adhipati Sayadaw’s 74th birthday. It contains a broad range of papers representing
awareness of the expending scope and importance of Buddha’s Dhamma in today’s
Adhamma environment. Papers are regarded as the priceless products of Sitagu International
Buddhist Academy since SIBA has been an enormous and continuing source of inspiration
for students, seeking the traditional Buddhist education system plus the fresh approach of
research principles of the formation of knowledge.
SitaguStar StudentSelection is a part of SIBA and it furthers SIBA’s objective of
excellence in research, scholarship and education by collecting and exhibiting the earnest
endeavors of sitagu students. The organizing body appreciates the outstanding contributions
made by sitagu students who are fully aware of their responsibility for research papers that
represent their own works. The organizing body believes that they strongly reflect the
important area of research in Buddhist Studies and point the way to future work in this field.
The organizing body thanks sitagu brothers, sisters and friends. Without their combined
support, the research contained in this journal would not have been possible.
19 March 2011 Organizing Body
SitaguStar StudentSelection
Mandalay, Sagaing, Yangon, MYANMAR

Contents
The Sītagū Resolution

Preface
Section-A
1. The Great Attributes of the Lord Buddha in Theravāda Buddhism 1

Ashin Kuṇḍala
2. Some Notions on Vinaya with Special References 17
Ashin Sutācārālaṅkāra
3. The Doctrine of Anatta, no-self, in Buddhist Spirituality 27
Ashin Sūriya
Section-B
1. A Comparative Study of the Ten Perfections 38

Ashin Kavidhaja
2. A Critical Study of Discourses 48
expounded by the Chief Disciples (Aggasāvaka) of the Buddha
Ashin Sāsana
3. The Life of Mahākassapa and His Contribution to Buddhism 53
(With special reference to Canonical Pāḷi Texts)
Ashin Indācariya
4. A Critical Study of Tranquility and Meditation 59
(With special reference to Theravāda Piṭaka Literature)
Ashin Paññāseṭṭha
Section-C
1. A Critical Study of Dosa and Mettā 66

(With Special Reference to Canonical Pāḷi Texts)
Ashin Paññobhāsa
2. A Study of Buddhism in Burma (3rd Century B.C. to 13th Century A.D.) 76
Ashin Seṭṭhila
3. Comparative Study of Main Buddhist Sects 84
Ashin Vaṇṇita
Section-D
1. Buddhism and the Global Peace 89

Ashin Kusala
2. Major Buddhist Sites in Andhra Pradesh, India 96
Ashin Kovida
3. The Concept of Liberation in Buddhism 99
Ashin Guṇissara
4. A Brief Overview of the Concept of Dhamma and Buddhist Perspectives 103
as depicted in Bairāṭ-Bhābrā Rock Edict of Asoka
Ashin Dhammācāra
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The Great Attributes of the Lord Buddha in Theravda Buddhism
Ashin Kundala
Research Scholar
Department of Pli & Buddhist Studies
Banaras Hindu University, Banaras, India.
1. Araham: The Accomplished Destroyer of Defilements
Being mindful of the Buddha’s attributes and reflecting on any one of the Buddha’s
attributes is called Buddhnussati. Cultivating or repeatedly contemplating the attributes is
called Bhvan. Buddhist people recite and reflect on the nine virtuous qualities of the
Buddha when they do devotional daily activities.
The Pli verse relates to the nine intrinsic attributes of the Buddha is depicted in the
many important texts of Tipitaka as follows:
‘Iti pi so Bhagav araham samm-sambuddho vijjcaranasampanno sugato lokavid+
anuttaro purisadammasrath, satth devamanussnam buddho Bhagav.’ 1
The Buddha is bestowed with the title of Araham in five senses. In the Buddhaghosa’s
magnus opus, the Visuddhimagga,2 through the grammatical perspective, the word araham is
etymologically divided into three words: (a) araham as appears in the passage of nine
qualities of the Buddha, (b) ara+ham and (c) a+raham.
1
. D I 49, III 76, M I 267, A I 168, Sn 103, 132; etc.
2
. Vism 198 f, VA I 112-115
2 The Lion’s Outlook, Sitagu Students’ Research Journal
According to the first category, the word araham takes place in two definitions: – the
Blessed One is accomplished (araham) (i) as he is worthy of requisites of robes,
(paccayd,nam arahatt) etc, and (ii) as he is remote or far away from defilements (rakatt).
The word ara+ham in the second analysis can be seen in two aspects – the Blessed
One is accomplished (iii) as he had eradicated completely his enemies of defilements
(kilesrayo maggena hatti) and (iv) as he had destroyed spokes (arnam maggena hatattpi).
And the last one, a+raham occurs in only one definition- the Blessed One is
accomplished (v) because of his absence of secret wrong doing (ppakarane rahbhva).3
2. Sammsambuddho: A Buddha Perfected by Himself
Samm smañca sabbadhammnam buddhatt pana sammsambuddho.
He is “fully self-awakened” because of his awakening to (or discovering of_ (budhatt)
all things rightly (samm) and by himself (smam).
In connection with his full mastery of the four noble truths in its three phases and
twelve aspects, the Buddha declares:
Abhiññeyyam abhiññtam = What is to be directly known has been directly known;
Bhvetabbañ ca bhvitam = What is to be cultivated has been cultivated;
pahtabbam pah,nam me = What is to be abandoned has been abandoned by me;
tasm buddho’smi brhman a = Therefore, Brahmin, am I awakened (Buddha).4
His knowledge is as much as what is to be known and what is to be known is as
much as his knowledge. The limit of what is to be known is his knowledge and the limit of
his knowledge is what is to be known. Thus, together or separately, all at once or gradually,
or according to [his] wishes, he has realized and awakened to all things rightly and by
3
. Vism 198. Similar passages are also found at VA I 112-115 ( the entire explanations are almost identical
with those in Vism except that VA does not mention the verse on pp. 198 and 201 of Vism); DA I 146; MA I
52, II 328; AA I 112, II 286-287; SnA II 441; ItA I 12; UdA 84, 267
4
. Sn 109
The Great Attribute of the Lord Buddha in Theravda Buddhism 3
himself. Because of that, he is fully awakened and is called the Blessed One. That is [the
meaning of] samm-sambuddha.5
3. Vijjcaranasampanno: Complete in Clear Knowledge and Compassionate Conduct
‘Vijj’ means knowledge or wisdom and ‘carana’ means conduct. ‘Sampanno’ means
endowed with. So the Buddha is endowed with knowledge and conduct.
The Buddha’s spiritual knowledge (vijj) refers to his spiritual attainments. The
Buddha’s knowledge or wisdom is usually known as “three knowledges” or “threefold
knowledges” (tevijja), as defined in the Bhayabherava Sutta.6 They are as follows:
(1) Retrocognition (pubbenivsnussatiñna), that is, the recollection of past lives:
(2) The divine eye (dibbacakkhuñna) or clairvoyance; and
(3) The knowledge of the destruction of the mental cankers (svakkhayañna), that
ends rebirth.
The Buddha’s eightfold knowledges (attha vijj) are stated in the Ambhttha Sutta as
follows:
(1) psychic powers (iddhividhañna);
(2) the divine ear (dibbasotañna);
(3) mind-reading (paracittavijnanañna) or telepathy;
(4) retrocognition (pubbenivsnussatiñna), that is, the recollection of past lives;
(5) the divine eye (dibbacakkhuñna) or clairvoyance; and
(6) the knowledge of the destruction of the mental cankers (savakkhayañna), that
ends rebirth;
(7) insight knowledge (vipassanñna); and
(8) the psychic power of the mind-made body (manomayiddhiñna)7
5
. ItA I 142
6
. M I 22-23
7
. D I 100
Carana is of fifteen kinds such as, ‘restraint by virtue’ (s,lasamvara), ‘guarding the doors of the
sense faculties’ (indriyesu guttadvrat), ‘moderation in eating’ (bhojane mattaññut)
‘vigilance’ (jgariynuyoga), ‘moral shame’(hir,), ‘moral dread’ (ottappa), ‘great learning’
(bhussacca), ‘wisdom’ (paññ), ‘confidence’ (saddh), ‘industriousness’ (v,riya)
‘mindfulness’ (sati), and ‘the four-fold jhna of the non-material sphere’ (ar+pajna).8
(4) Sugato: Supremely Good in Presence and in Destiny
The Atthakath texts define the term in a more or less similar manner. Buddhaghosa
says: ‘He is called well-gone (sugata), (i) Because of a manner of going that is good (sobhana-
gamanatt), (ii) because of being gone to an excellent place (sundaram thnam gatatt), (iii)
because of having gone rightly (sammgatatt), and (iv) because of enunciating rightly
(sammgadatt).’ 9
(a) Sobhana gamanatt Sugato
The word Sugato is a combination of prefix ‘su ‘and the word ‘gata ‘. Etymologically
the prefix ‘su ‘derives from the adjective word ‘Sobhana’. Therefore, ‘Su’ means being good,
purified, and blameless. The word gato means ‘gone’, i.e., a manner of going. [Gamanam hi
pi gatanti vuccati.]10 According to this definition, the manner of the Buddha’s going to
Nibbna is good (sobhana), purified (parisuddha), and blameless (anavajja).
Why? Because, by the Noble Path (Ariyamagga), the Buddha has gone to the Nibbna which
is safe without attaching the going of blissful plane (sugatigamana).11
(b) Sundaram thnam gatattpi Sugato
According to the definition of this second reason, the word ‘su’ in Sugata denotes the
meaning of ‘Sundara’ (excellent) which signifies the attributes of the Nibbna. Buddhaghosa
8
. M I 354
9
. Vism 203; VA I 116; See Ñnamoli, Bhikkhu,”The Path of Purification”, p. 198 Cf. also CSmp 85-86
where similar explanations are given.
10
. Vism I 196; VA I 116
11
. Ibid ( I 196; VA I 116)
further states the word Amata (deathless) as well, which is the attribute of Nibbna.
(Sundarañcesa thnam gato amatam nibbnanti)12 Gata means “gone”. Therefore, the
Buddha is called Sugato because he has gone to the excellent place which is the deathless
Nibbna.
(c) Samm gatatt Sugato13
In the Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa has stated the third reason of Sugata that “And
he has rightly (samm) gone (gata), without going back again to the defilements abandoned
by each path. For this is said: ‘He does not again turn, return, go back, to the ‘defilements
abandoned by the Stream-entry path, thus he is ‘sublime… he does not again turn, return,
go back, to the ‘defilements abandoned by the Arahant path, thus he is ‘sublime’ (old
commentary?). Or alternatively, he has rightly gone from the time of [ making his resolution]
at the feet of DSpaTkar up till the Enlightenment Session, by working for the welfare and
happiness of the whole world through the fulfillment of the thirty perfections and through
following the right way without deviation towards either of the two extremes, that is to say,
towards eternalism or annihilationism, towards indulgence in sense pleasures or self-
mortification – Thus he is sublime also because of having gone rightly”.
(d) Samm gadattpi sugato
The prefix ‘Su’ conveys the sense of ‘Well’ (Samm) and the suffix ‘gata’ the sense of
speak (gada).14 The rendering as “speak” hinges upon a slight mutation hard ‘t’ of gata into
the soft ‘d’ of gada. So ‘Sugata’ becomes “Well-Speak” or, by extension, one who makes
well speaks.
In this case, Min Guin Saydaw15 mentions that ‘Su’(Samm), well, gata, speaks
appropriately on appropriate occasions. Here gada is the root that is changed into gata.
12
. Vism I 196
13
. Vism I 196
14
. Vism I 196, NdA 38, VA I 116
15
. Min Gwin Saydaw, The Great Chronicle of Buddhas, Vols.V,p 14-15
The Buddha never speaks anything that is false or meaningless.
In the several canonical texts, six kinds of speech are mentioned as follows:
(i) There is the kind of speech which is not true, which is not beneficial and
not liked by the other party:
(ii) There is the kind of speech which is true but which is of no benefit to, and
not acceptable to the other party.
(iii) There is the kind of speech which is true, which is beneficial but is not
liked by the other party to hear it.
(iv) There is the kind of speech which is not true, which is not beneficial to the
other party, but is liked by him.
(v) There is the kind of speech which is true but is not beneficial to the other
party, and he likes to hear it.
(vi) There is the kind of speech which is true, which is beneficial to the other
party, and he likes to hear it.16
The Buddha speaks this kind of speech when the occasion is appropriate.
Out of the above six kinds of speech the Buddha speaks only the third and the sixth kinds
only.
Regarding the third kind above, if a statement is true and is beneficial to the other
party, although he does not like to hear it, the Buddha would say it because it would benefit
other people who hear it, and will be for the good of the world at large.
(5). Lokavid1 (The Knower of the World)
Buddhaghosa says that the Buddha is the knower of the world (lokavid+), because he
has known the world in all aspects (sabbath pi viditalokatt pana lokavid+).17 Loka means
the five aggregates that are clung to (Updnakkhand), in another sense, loka means the
. Vism I 196, VA I 117, M I 394, NdA 39

16
. Vism I 197, VA I 117

17
world of sentient beings (Sattaloka), the world of conditioned phenomena, (Sa<khraloka),
the world as the bases of various planes of existence (Oksaloka). Vid+ means the one who
has analytical knowledge and complete comprehension.
The Visuddhimagga explains lokavid+ in two ways: Under the first method, loka is
interpreted as the five aggregates that are clung to. These five are understood: (a) as being
woeful (dukkha), (b) as originating in craving (tanh), (c) as ceasing when Nibbna is realized,
and (d) that the Ariya Path is the true path leading to Nibbna, the cessation of the
aggregates.18 Thus lokavid+ means the Buddha that has complete knowledge about the five
aggregates that are clung to.
Under the second method, loka is taken to mean (I) the world of sentient beings
(sattaloka), (II) the world of conditioned phenomena (sa<khraloka) and (III) the world of the
plane (oksaloka).19 Loka means that which rises and falls, that undergoes rises and falls.
(6) Anuttaropurisadhammasratthi (Incomparable Tamer of Those to be Tamed)
The Buddha is also known as the peerless tamer and guide of the hearts of men. This
is related to the previous attribute. (i.e., Lokavid+) He has the ability to instruct and tame
other people because he knows people’s temperament, like a physician who can cure
someone effectively only when he knows what is wrong with him. Otherwise, not only the
patient may not recover, but he may die due to wrong treatment.
Human beings are treacherous, tricky and guileful. So, it is hard to tame them. One
day, when the Buddha was near the pond named Gaggar in the city of Samp, an elephant
trainer named Pessa arrived there. When he saw the quiet serene monks surrounding the
Buddha he thought, “I am able to tame elephants with ease because they show their minds
by their behavior. However, I have difficulty in controlling my saves and workers who do
one thing with their body, another with their speech, and their thought is still on another.
18
. Ibid.
19
. Ibid
But the Buddha can instruct human beings. It is truly wonderful how the Buddha knows the
progress and deterioration of beings.”20
(7) Satthdevamanussnam (Teacher of devas and humanity)
The Buddha is the teacher of devas and men because he teaches, and points out the
ways which produce to the benefits of the present, of the next life and of Nibbna by
wandering among villages, towns, and cities of Ganges plain without stopping his active
missionary up to the ripe age of eighty for forty-five years. He bestows his blessings on all of
the gods, men and animals who are capable of progress. (Ditthadammika-
samparyikaparamatthehi yathraham anussat, ti Satth).21
In addition, the Buddha is similar to a caravan leader (apica satth viyti satth,
bhagav satthavho)22 who leads his followers from the dangers of the desert to a safe land.
He leads all living beings from extremely fearful states, i.e. the cycle of rebirth, decay and
death which is the whirlpool of samsra to the peaceful path leading to Nibbna. That’s why,
the Buddha is worthy to be endowed with the title of ‘Satthdevamanussnam.’
(8) Buddho (Awakened and Awakener)
The Blessed One is one awakened (Buddha) to the knowledge that belongs to the
fruit of liberation, since everything that can be known has been discovered (Buddha) by him.
The Blessed One has awakened (bujjhi) to the four truths by himself, and has
awakened (bodhesi) others to them; thus for such reasons, and others, he is Buddha.
20
. M I 340. PyinnythSha, Ven, “The Triple Gem and The Way to Social Harmony”, p.15-16
21
. Vism 208, VA I 121
22
. Vism I 202, VA I 120,
“He awakens” (bujjhati) means that he has arisen from the slumber of the continuum
of the defilements, or that he has penetrated the four noble truths, or that he has realized
nibbna.23
The Four Noble Truths
i. The first Truth is about suffering. The Buddha pointed out that birth, aging, illness,
death, association with the unpleasant, and separation from loved ones are sufferings. Also,
not to get what one wanted is a suffering. In short, the five aggregates of clinging and craving
are sufferings.
ii. The second is the Truth of the deriving of suffering. It is that craving, a potent for
rebirth, is accompanied by pleasure and lust, and seeking satisfaction here and there,
namely; the craving for sensual pleasure, the craving for existence and the craving for non-
existence (with the belief that there is no existence at all after death).
iii. The third is the Truth of the cessation of suffering. It is the utter fading away and
cessation of that very craving.
iv. The fourth is the Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering or the
Noble Eightfold Path.
9. Bhagav: (The Blessed One)
Bhagav is a term of respect and veneration given to him as the Blessed One as the
highest of beings, one who is distinguished by his virtues.
(1) Bhgav ti bhagav, “he is bhagav because he partakes of his share of virtues”,
that is, his virtues are shared by none,24 or that he is a possessor of parts (bhgav)25 because
he has the Dhamma aggregates of moral virtue, mental concentration and wisdom.26
23
. DhsA 217; VibhA 310
24
. ItA I 7 f.
25
. Bhga (parts) + vant (possessor of).
26
. UA 24
(2) Bhata v ti bhagav, “he is bhagav because he is supported (by his virtues),” that is, he is
well supported by his perfections accumulated in numerous past lives, and his present
wisdom,27 or that he is a possessor of what is borne, because he has borne the perfections to
fulfillment.28
(3) Bhge van, ti bhagav, “he is bhag because he is bestowed (van,) with attainments
(bhhe),” that is, he is blessed with happiness in this life and world itself,29 or that he has
developed (van,) the various attainments.30
(4) Bhage van, ti bhagav, “he is bhagav because he has cultivated the wealth (bhaga) not
possessed by others,31 or that he has cultivated blessings (bhaga), mundane and
supramundane.32
(5) Bhattavæ ti bhagav, “he is bhagav because he has devotees (bhattav), because the
devoted (bhatta) show him devotion (bhtti) on account of his attainments.33
(6) Bhage vam, ti bhagav, “he is bhagav because he has rejected (vami, lit “vomited”) such
blessing (bhaga) as glory, lordship, fame, ect.34
(7) Bhge vam, ti bhaav, “he is bhagav because he has rejected (vami, lit “vomited”) such
parts (bhga) as the five aggregates, the sense-bases, the elements, ect.35
The Buddha’s Six Special Qualities
The Buddha is called the Bhagav because he is endowed with six exalted qualities
(unattainable by the disciples) namely: (i) Issariya (ii) Dhamma (iii) Yasa (iv) Sir, (v) Kmma
(vi) Payatta.
27
. Ita I 8
28
. UA 24
29
. ItA I 8 f
30
. UA 24
31
. ItA I 9
32
. UA 24
33
. ItA I 10; UA 24
34
.ItA I 11; UA 24
35
. ItA I 11f; UA 24
Buddhaghosa suggests these six special qualities in his Visuddhimagga36 and Vinaya-
atthakath37 as follows:
(i)Issariya: Supremacy
It means the innate power of the Buddha to bend things to his will. Issariya is of two
kinds, lokuttarcittissariya and lok,cittissariya, supramundane will power and mundane will
power.
In the commentarial texts38 eight mundane features of the Buddha’s will power are
generally cited. The eight are briefly described below:
(a) Anim: The Buddha can transform himself as small as small can be, even to an
atomic size. This was the power he employed in taming Brahm Baka,39 where assuming the
power of invisibility was the bet between them.
(b) Mahim: He can transform himself as big as big can be, even making himself taller
than Mount Sineru (to any conceivable size up to one that might cover up the entire world
system), and still appear proportionate and glorious. This was the power he employed to
impress the Lord of AsVr40 (who had previously thought he might have to look down on the
Buddha because of his own enormous size).
(c) Laghim: He can levitate at will and travel in the air due to this power which
causes lightness of the body comparable to his lightness (buoyancy) of the mind.
(d) Patti: He can travel to any far away place at will. Ordinary people lacking in this
power cannot travel bodily to far-off places as fast as their mind can travel. The Buddha can
travel even to the deva realms and brahma realms bodily in an instant.
(e) Pkamma: He can accomplish anything that he wishes. In the eight assemblies he
resolved to appear as one of their kind (i.e., among devas in deva realm he appears as a
36
. Vism I 104
37
. VA I 124
38
. Vism I 205, Vism¿ I 256, VA I 124
39
. M I 330
40
. DA I 258, MA III 421,
deva, etc.). In preaching the Doctrine to the inhabitants of the other world-systems he
assumes the form, the voice, etc., of one of the kings of those places.
(f) sit: Dominating the will of others. All the Buddha-routine is accomplished
through this power, all beings having to fulfill the wishes of the Buddha.
(g) Vasit: Mastery of psychic powers and absorptions. This is the power used to tame
very powerful and arrogant individuals such as Uruvela Nga,41 overpowering their own
powers in every respect such as emitting fire, vapour, etc.,
(h) Yatthakmvasyit: He has complete control over jhnic absorptions and in
displaying miracles being able to terminate them as he wills. It is this power which
accomplishes the Twin Miracle of fire and water strewing out of the various parts of his body
with fire glowing from the upper part of the body while water flowing from the lower part of
the body, and then suddenly even when the audience are watching in awe, making fire
glowing from the lower part of the body while water is flowing from the upper part of the
body, etc.,
The above eight powers of the will in mundane consciousness are included in
Iddhividha abhiññ knowledge by which supernormal powers are accomplished. The
Buddha stands unrivaled in this knowledge.
These eight mundane powers and the mastery in mundane will power and
Supramundane will power are called the first of the six exalted qualities, i.e., Issariya,
supremacy.
(ii)Dhamma: Knowledge of the Nine Supramundane Factors.
This glorious quality is the knowledge of the Buddha in his unique attainment of the
nine factors of the Supramundane Sphere, namely, the four Maggas, the four Phalas and
Nibbna, that destroy all defilements so completely that no faint suggestion of their presence
due to past habits remains. The meaning is obvious.
41
. Vin I 24-35
(iii)Yasa: fame and followership.
The glorious reputation surrounding the Buddha is no empty boast but true to its
every detail, and well deserved. In that sense the Buddha’s reputation is pure,
unadulterated, un-inflated. There are certain personages of wide repute, deserving of them
but their repute does not reach the three worlds (i.e., the human world, the deva world, the
Brahma world).
The reputation attributed to the Buddha is such that the achievers of non material
absorptions, (ArVpa Jhna) can remain in the non material Brahma world (ArVpa Brahm)
and contemplate on the nine supreme attributes of the Buddha. Since the Buddha’s fame
reaches even the non material Brahma world, it hardly needs saying that this fame spreads in
the Fine material sphere and the Sensuous Sphere.
(iv) Sir#: Splendour of physical perfection.
The Buddha’s glorious quality of physical perfection is such that all men, devas and
Brahmas can never satisfy themselves in gazing at his superb appearance. For he is endowed
with the thirty-two marks of the Great man42 as well as eighty lesser characteristics. Those
who come to see the Bhagav have to go away only because the proper time to stay before
the Bhagav’s presence, has run out but they feel uncontented with feasting their eyes on
the sheer majesty of the person of the Bhagav.
(v) Kma : Power of accomplishment.
The Buddha accomplished all he set out to accomplish and the steadfast purpose, the
steady effort underlying this power of accomplishment, is called kma. Since as Bodhisatta
Sumedh, he received the assurance of future Buddhahood from Buddha Dipa³kara, he had
set his mind on leading humanity to liberation:
“May I become enlightened and may I be able to lead the multitudes to
enlightenment”
42
. See, for the details of the Buddha’s Thirty two Great Marks, Lakkhanasuttam, D III 141-179,
Mahpadnasuttam D II 15-19, Brahmyusuttam, M II 136-137
(Buddho bodheyyam).
“May I gain liberation from the round of rebirth, and may I be able to lead the
multitudes to liberation (Mutto moceyyam).”
“May I cross over to the shore of safety and may I be able to ferry across the
multitudes to the shore of safety (Tinno treyyam).” 43
(vi)Payatta : Diligence.
Payatta means unrivalled diligence.44 His untiring zeal in keeping up the fivefold
Buddha routine earned him the love and esteem of the living world. The Right Effort
Sammvyama that entitles him to the warm regard of the whole living world is the glorious
quality of Payatta.
43
. CpA 282
44
. In order to contemplate the Buddha’s Fivefold Routine carried out untiringly every day (Buddhakicca)
see : DA I 45-47, SA I 243-246, AA I 64-67, JA V 334
Selected Bibliography
(I) Primary Sources
1. ATguttaranikya, ed. R.Morris and e. Hardy, vol., I, London, PTS, 1885-1900
2. ATguttara-tthakath (ManorathapVranS), ed. Max Walleser and Hermann Kopp, vols., II,
PTS, London, 1924-1956; Reprint, 1963-1979
3. Cariypitaka-atthakath, ed. D.L.Barua, PTS, London, 1979
4. . DSghanikya, ed. T.W.Rhys Davids and J.E.Carpenter, vol I., PTS, London, 1975
5. . DSghanikya, ed. J.E.Carpenter, vol III., PTS, London, 1976
6. . DSghanikya-atthakath (SumaTgalavilsinS), ed. T.W.Rhys Davids, J.Estlin Carpenter and
W.Stede, part I, PTS, London, 1968
7. Itivuttaka-atthakath, ed. M.M. Bose, vol I.; compiled by Hermann Kopp, 1 vol. (Indexes),
1977
8. Majjhimanikya, ed. V. Trenckner, Vol I., PTS, London, 1979
9. Majjhimanikya-atthakath (PapañcasVdanS), ed. J.H.Woods, D.Kosambi and I.B.Horner,
part, I, 1977
10. Majjhimanikya-atthakath (PapañcasVdanS), ed. J.H.Woods, D.Kosambi and I.B.Horner,
part II, I, 1977
11. Suttanipta, ed. Dines Andersen and Helmer smith, PTS, London, 1913.
12. Suttanipta-atthakath, (Paramattajotik), ed. Helmer Smith, vol. II, PTS, London, 1966
13. Udna-atthakath, ed, F.L. Woodward, PTS, London, 1977.
14. Vinaya-atthakath (Samantapsdik), ed. J.Takakusu, M.Nagai and K.Mizuno, vol., PTS,
London, 1975.
15. VibhaTga-atthakath (SammohavinodanS), ed. A.P.Buddhadatta, PTS, London, 1980.
16. Visuddhimagga, Sixth Samgha Council Edition, Yangon, Myanmar, 1991.
(II) Secondary Sources

1. Min Gwin Saydaw, The Great Chronicle of Buddhas, Vols.V,
2. Ñnamoli, Bhikkhu,”The Path of Purification”,
3. PyinnythSha, Ven, “The Triple Gem and The Way to Social Harmony”
ABBREVIATION
A. ATguttaranikya
AA ATguttara- atthakath (ManorathapVranS)
CpA Cariypitaka- atthakath
D DSghanikya,
DA DSghanikya- atthakath (SumaTgalavilsinS Atthakath)
ItA Itivuttaka- atthakath
M Maijjimanikya
MA Majjimanikya- atthakath (PapañcasVdanS)
Sn Suttanipta
SnA Suttanipta- atthakath
UdA Udna- atthakath
VA Vinaya - atthakath (Samantapsdik)
VibhA VibhaTga- atthakath
Vism Visuddhimagga
Some Notions on Vinaya with Special References
Ashin Sut
c
r
lak
ra
Research Scholar
Nalanda University, Bihar, India
Though the Buddha belonged to an aristocratic family, his life and work were those of
a democrat. He served the interests of the mass and was concerned with their happiness. He
traveled widely for forty-five years, preaching to them. To carry out his life’s mission, he
founded the Samgha, the Order of the Buddhist fraternity of the monks and nuns. The
constitution and working of this organization was on democratic lines. All the Disciplinary
Rules farmed for the conduct and guidance of the Buddhist monks and nuns are collected in
the Vinaya Pitaka. Vinaya Pitaka is regarded as the sheet anchor of the Holy Order. It deals
mainly with the rules and regulations of the Order of Bhikkhus and Bhikkhun*s. As you
know, for nearly twenty years after the Enlightenment of the Buddha, no definite rules
especially as a grave offence (Garuk.patti) which is irremediable or incurable (Atekicch.)
were laid down for control and discipline of the Sangha (Order). Subsequently as occasion
arose, the Buddha promulgated Vinaya rules for the future discipline of the Samgha.
Reasons for the promulgation of rules, their various implications, and specific Vinaya
ceremonies of the Samgha are fully described in the Vinaya Pitaka. The Vinaya Pitaka, the
first division of the Tipitaka, is the textual framework upon which the monastic community
(Samgha) is built. It includes not only the rules governing the life of every Theravada bhikkhu
(monk) and bhikkhun* (nun), but also a host of procedures and conventions of etiquette that
support harmonious relations, both among the monastics themselves, and between the
monastics and their lay supporters, upon whom they depend for all their material needs.
When the Buddha first established the Samgha, the community initially lived in harmony
without any codified rules of conduct. As the Samgha gradually grew in number and evolved
into a more complex society, occasions inevitably arose when a member would act in an
unskillful way. Whenever one of these cases was brought to the Buddha's attention, he
would lay down a rule establishing a suitable punishment for the offense, as a deterrent to
future misconduct. The Buddha’s standard reprimand was itself a powerful corrective: It is
not fit, foolish man, it is not becoming, it is not proper, it is unworthy of a recluse, it is not
lawful, it ought not to be done. How could you, foolish man, having gone forth under this
Dhamma and Discipline which are well-taught, [commit such and such offense]?... It is not,
foolish man, for the benefit of un-believers, nor for the increase in the number of believers,
but, foolish man, it is to the detriment of both unbelievers and believers, and it causes
wavering in some. (P.r.jika P.li of Vinaya Pitaka, P. 23 Myanmar version) (The Book of the
Discipline, Part I, by I.B. Horner (London: Pali Text Society, 1982), pp. 36-37). The Buddhist
Order of monks was organized wholly on a democratic basis or way. The nominated no
successor and wanted his followers to perform all monk’s acts or ecclesiastical acts and
duties according to his instruction. It was, of course, not possible for the Buddha to lay down
all the Vinaya rules in anticipation of what the unrighteous monks might do to evade or
misinterpret them. Hence, the Vinaya Pitaka as it stands today for the monks, is a growth of
centuries out of the basic rules formulated by the Buddha himself. But it appears that even
during the life time of the Buddha, there were people who would not accept his authority.
For example, His cousin, Devadatta, out of jealousy for the Buddha conspired with the king
Aj.tasattu and made several attempts on his life. He also tried to create schism or divisions in
Some Notions on Vinaya with Special References 19
the Buddhist Samgha by demanding stricter conditions of life for the Buddhist monks, such
as living throughout the year under the tree, forgoing or giving up meat and fish and refusing
all invitations from faithful adherents. Let me elaborate about it. Devadatta joined hands
with king Aj.tasattu and made a heinous attempt on the Buddha’s life by hiring a gang of
ruffians (very bad person) by using a stone, and an elephant. According to CGlavagga Vinaya
P.li (P. 359) of Myanmar version, Devadatta demanded that the Samgha should make the
following five rules compulsory for all monks, viz, that the monks were (1) to live long in the
forests, (2) to subsist on alms (3) to dress in robes made out of rags, (4) to dwell under a tree
e and never under a roof and (5) never to eat meat and fish or flesh. When his demand was
rejected by the Buddha, he formed newly monks from amongst the Vijjiputtaka monks of
Ves.li. There were also some monks like Ud.y*, Channa, six groups of Bhikkhus (i.e
Chabbaggiya) etc, who would take the earliest opportunity of transgressing the rules of
Vinaya. Besides, there is a perverse tendency among some monks to oppose Vinaya rules
laid down by the Buddha. Some like to live a life of ease and comfort and consequently look
askance at all restrictions on individual freedom. For example, in the eleventh chapter of
CGlavagga P.li of Vinaya Pitaka, (P. 480), Subhadda who renounced in old age, on hearing
of the death of the Buddha gave a sigh of relief saying that he would now no longer have to
abide by “ do this, do not do that. When the Buddha attained Mah.parinibb.na, he left no
one to take his place as the supreme authority. In fact, before he attained Mah.parinibb.na,
He told his personal attendant, Mnanda that Dhamma and Vinaya would be the supreme
authority in the future; it means "Whatever Dhamma and Vinaya I have pointed out and
formulated for you, that will be your Teacher when I am gone." —Mah.parinibb.na Sutta,
[D. p. 16]. During the his life time, the Buddha allowed things to be decide democratically
by the Samgha and after his death too, he did not want to restrict the freedom of the
Samgha by appointing his own successor. He wanted the Dhamma and Vinaya to be its
guides after his death and anything which was not authorized by the Dhamma and Vinaya
was to be rejected by the Samgha. When the first recital (SaQg*ti) of the Buddhist texts was
made under the presidency of Ven Mah.kassapa at R.jagaha by five hundred monks, there
were some monks like Subhadda or Pur.na according to Tibetan sources, Gavampati, who
did not approve that the words of Buddha are recorded and what they had heard from the
Buddha himself.
Strictly speaking, the last two chapters of CGlavagga P.li of Vinaya Pitaka, contain a
full description of the first two Buddhist Councils, held at Sattapanniguh. (cave) in R.jagaha
and V.lik.r.ma of Ves.l*. The main object of the first and two Councils was to make an
authoritative compilation of the Buddha’s words or sayings. Common interest arising from
personal attachment to certain persons or groups of person or created by various causes,
such as association, studies, geographical regions as well as honest differences of opinion that
gathered strength in course of time, probably led to formation of different sects or school at
least 18 in number.
The Buddha’s sayings were maintained by different Buddhist sects according to their
tradition. In Therav.da tradition the words of the Buddha and their commentaries were
handed down orally from teachers to disciples or from generation to generation in its pristine
purity without changing any words of the Buddha. When the first Buddhist Council was
held, at the Samgha assembly, the elders (Theras) like Mah.kassapa, decide to maintain the
original Doctrine including Vinaya rules of Buddha by accepting three golden criteria rules.
(1) Samgha must not enact or add rules which the Buddha does not promulgate, (2) Samgha
must not remove the rules which the Buddha promulgated and (3) Samgha must well
maintain and practice original rules whatever the Buddha promulgate. (PaQcasatikhandaka of
Culavagga P.li, Vinaya Pitaka, Myanmar version p. 485) But in the Mah.parinibb.na Sutta of
D.N, the Buddha apprehended that his sayings might suffer or face distortion. A century is a
long time, and about a hundred years after his passing, the Buddhist different sects arose
among the monks about the actual words of the Buddha and their interpretations, especially
about minor Vinaya rules. We can find out the dissension among the Sangha after the
Buddha’s death, the first dissension was created by Vijjan Bhikkhus of Ves.l*. It was stated in
the twelfth chapter of CGlavagga of Vinaya and Ceylonese Chronicles that the second was
held at Ves.l* a century after the Buddha’s Parinibb.na, to discuss the breach of the ten rules
of disciplines (Dasa vatthu) or ten controversial points of the Vinaya or ten unlawful
modifications (Dasa Adhamma Vatthu) by Vijjan monks. The main purpose of second
council was to solve the deviations with reference to Vinaya rules made by Vijj*puttaka
monks of Ves.l*. After the establishment of the Order for twenty years, there was neither
injunction nor rule concerning the P.r.jika and Samgh.disesa offences. The numbers of
Samgha of the early days were all Ariyas; the least advanced of them was a Stream-winner
(one who had attained the first Magga and Phala) (P.r.jika P.li of Vinaya Pitaka P. 11
Myanmar version). Therefore, there was no need to prescribing the rules relating to the grave
offences (garuk.patti).
In the Verañja Kandha of P.r.jika P.li, Ven S.riputta inquired the Buddha whether
there were former Buddhas who did not promulgate Vinaya rules. Then the Buddha said
that three former Buddhas called Vipass*, Sikh* and VessabhG, did not enact the Vinaya rules.
Only the other three previous Buddha called Kakusandha, Konagamana and Kassapa
enacted Vinaya rules. Since the former Buddhas called Vipass*, Sikh* and VessabhG did not
enact the Vinaya rules, their S.san. disappeared very soon. Since the other three previous
Buddha called Kakusandha, Konagamana and Kassapa enacted Vinaya rules, their S.san.
lasted for long. (P.r.jika P.li P.10).
In this regard, Ven S.riputta, requested the Buddha to enact Vinaya rules. However,
the Buddha rejected his request. The Buddha said that I know the time for enacting Vinaya
rules. This is show that there were no Vinaya rules in Gotama Buddha S.san. for some time.
But, as years went by, Samgha grew in strength. Some twenty years after founding of the
Order, it becomes necessary to enact Vinaya rules relating to the grave offences. According
to Verañja Kandha of P.r.jika P.li, the Buddha decided to enact Vinaya rules when S.san.
become corrupt due to four reasons: (1) RattaññG mahatta= when the monks live longer,
they become senior in S.san., they become corrupt and they arrogantly thank that the
S.san. is theirs; (2) L.bhagga mahatta= when monks get more and more material benefits,
they become corrupt; (3) Vepulla mahatta= when the Sanghas increase the numbers more
and more in strength, they become corrupt and (4) Bahusacca mahatta= sometimes
education makes the monks corrupted, the educated and learned monks look down the
other monks. The Buddha says that he takes these four factors into consideration before he
prescribes the Vinaya rules. (P.r.jika P.li P. 11 Myanmar version).
Vinaya rules for the Bhikkhu and Bhikkhun* embody authoritative injunctions of the
Buddha on modes of conduct and restraints on both physical and verbal actions. They deal
with transgressions of discipline, and with various categories of restraints and admonitions in
accordance with the nature of the offences.
Seven kinds of Transgression or Offences (patti)
The rules of discipline first laid down by the Buddha are called MGlapaññatti- the first
root of regulation; those supplemented later are known as Anupaññatti-conforming
regulation; together, they are known as Sikkh.padas- rules of discipline. The act of
transgressing these rules of discipline is called Mpatti, which means reaching, or committing.
Thereby, Bhikkhus incur a penalty by the guilty Bhikkhu.
The offences, for which penalties are laid down, may be classified under the seven
categories depending on their nature. They are as follows:
(1) P.r.jika- Defeat
(2) Samgh.disesa- Formal meeting
(3) Thullaccaya- Great fault
(4) P.cittiya- Expiation

(5) P.tidesaniya- Confession
(6) Dukkata- Wrong doing and
(7) Dubbh.sita- Wrong speech. (Pariv.ra P.li, pp. 261-262, P.r.jikanda
atthakath. Vol (1) p. 132, Myanmar version, Guide to Tipitaka compiled by U Ko Lay, P.
21).
An offence in the first category of offences, P.r.jika is classified as a grave offence
(Garuk.patti) which is irremediable or incurable (Atekicch.) and entails the falling off the
offender from the Bhikkhu-hood. An offence in the second category Samgh.disesa is also
classified as a grave offence but it is remediable (Satekicch.). The offender must follow the
procedural rules and meeting. He is put on a probationary period of penance during which
he has to undertake certain difficult practices such as Pariv.sa-(spending some days
according his hidden offences of Samg.disesa offence) and M.natta- pleasing to the Samgha
for his offence and thereafter he is rehabilitated by the Samgha assembly.
The reaming or the rest five categories, consist of the light offences (Lahuk.patti)
which are remediable and incurable the penalty of having to confess the transgression to
another Bhikkhu. After carrying out the prescribed penalty, the Bhikkhu transgressor
becomes cleansed of the offence.
Above mentioned, we already studied when and how the disciplinary rules were laid
down the by the Buddha. When Bhikkhu Sudinna, a native of Kalandaka village near Ves.l*,
committed the offence of having sexual intercourse with his ex-wife, the first P.r.jika (Grave
offence) rule came to be promulgated. It was necessary to lay down to deter Bhikkhus form
indulging in sexual intercourse. The Buddha followed the precedent set by his previous
Buddhas. Using his supernormal power, he reflected on what Vinaya rules the previous
Buddhas would lay down under the certain given conditions. Then, He adopted similar
regulation to meet the situation that had arisen in his present time. (Guide to Tipitaka
compiled by U Ko Lay, P. 22).

When we critically study P.li Tipitka it was quite obvious that Vinaya is the only
property of the Buddha. For example, there were many discourses (Suttas) taught by
S.vakas, disciples of the Buddha. The position of Abhidhamma is also the same, e.g; the
Kath.vutthupakarana of Abhidhamma Pitaka was taught by the Ven Moggaliputta Tissa. But
there is no a single Vinaya rule which is attributed to any disciples. Terav.da tradition stated
that Pariv.ra P.li was written by Ven U P.li. In fact, this text is the collection of P.r.jika,
P.cittiya, Mah.vagga and CGlavagga P.li. Therefore, these four books are accepted by all
Buddhist schools. Pariv.ra P.li is rejected some Buddhist schools. Therefore, Vinaya is
wholly the property of the Buddha. That is why the Therav.da Tradition bestows more
authority on Vinaya than on Sutta or Abhidhamma. The authority of changing Vinaya rules
was vested only by the Buddha. Therefore, Vinaya was in the hand of the Buddha.
Sometimes the Buddha listens to the public opinion before and after implementation
of Vinaya rules. For example, the rules for rainy season were imposed by the Buddha due to
request of Public. They want monks to stay in their temple during the rainy season. The
Buddha allowed monks to stay in their temple during the rainy season. So some Vinaya rules
are enacted in democratic way and flexible for monks and nuns.
In the Therav.da tradition, I think that Vinaya and Abhidhamma are considered more
important than Sutta. But historically Sutta comes first. As we know, Dhammacakka-
pavattana Sutta, the Wheel of the Law, which included the Four Noble Truths and the Noble
Eightfold Path in it, first uttered by the Buddha at the deer Park in Sarnah still revolves.
Therav.da Tradition bestows more authority on Vinaya than Sutta.
The supremacy or authority of is very well maintained in Thrav.da tradition.
Therefore, it was said that “everything that the Buddha has said is incorporated in Vinaya
and Vinaya is very the origin of the words of Buddha”. Vinayo gaditam sabbam, Vinaya
mGlanti passati. (Everything is included in Vinaya; everything emanates from the Vinaya).In
fact, historically it was that everything is included in Dhamma and everything emanates from
the Dhamma. However, the Vinaya is an indispensable facet and foundation of all the
Buddha's teachings, inseparable from the Dhamma, and worthy of study by all followers lay
and ordained, alike. Lay practitioners will find in the Vinaya Pitaka many valuable lessons
concerning human nature, guidance on how to establish and maintain a harmonious
community or organization, and many profound teachings of the Dhamma itself. But its
greatest value, perhaps, lies in its power to inspire the layperson to consider the
extraordinary possibilities presented by a life of true renunciation; a life lived fully in tune
with the Dhamma.
At the first Council, Dhamma and Vinaya are mentioned as two units in the proposal
of Ven Mah.kassapa. (Dhammañca vinayañca saQg.yiss.ma. (CGlavagga P.li P. 482
Myanmar version). At that council, Vinaya was first recited without giving any reason,
however in the Atthakath.s, the commentators came forward theory that Vinaya is very life
of the S.san., when Vinaya exists S.sana exists for long time. (Vinayo n.ma
Buddhas.sanassa .yu, Vinaye thite s.sanam thitam). (P.rajika atthakath. vol 1, P. 11
Myanmar version). That is why; Ven Kassapa decided to recite Vinaya firstly taking this fact
into consideration.
The last notable point is that Vinaya rules were promulgated by the Buddha for ten
reasons or purposes for the Bhikkhu and Bhikkhun*. They are as follows:
(1) for the goodness of monks (Samgha suthut.ya)
(2) for the comfort of monks (Samgha ph.sut.ya)
(3) for the condemnation or control of indiscipline individuals (DummaQkGnam
puggal.nam niggah.ya)
(4) for the well being of the well behaviour monks (Pesal.nam bhikkhGnam
ph.suvih.r.ya)
(5) for the restraint of the present defilements (Dithadhammik.nam .sav.nam samvar.ya)
(6) for the getting rid of the defilements of the future (Sampar.yik.nam .sav.nam
samvar.ya)
(7) for the faith to be generated in the unfaithful ( Appasann.nam pas.d.ya)
(8) for the increase of the faith in the faithful (Pasann.nam bhiyyobh.v.ya)
(9) for the establishment of the Dhamma (Saddhamma thitiy.)
(10) for the encouragement of Vinaya (Vinay.nuggah.ya). (P.r.jika P.li P. 24, Pariv.ra P.li
P. 2, U P.li Sutta of Dasaka Nip.ta in AQguttara Nik.ya, Vol 3 p. 311).
In conclusion, Dhamma (practice) Vinaya (precept, morality or S*la) should go side by
side together. Without S*la, practice is impossible. So, when a monk fulfils fourfold purified
virtue (Catup.risuddhi S*la) viz, (1) (P.timokkhasamvara s*la- virtue according to P.timokkha)
(2) Indariyasamvaras*la- virtue regarding to restraint, (3) Paccayasanissitas*la- virtue
connected with the use of the requisites and (4) Mj*vajp.risuddhis.la- virtue consisting in
purity of livelihood, he can proceed towards his main objective of realizing of Nibb.na.
Note- All Myanmar versions are used in Chattha-sanghayana version books printed by
Department of Religious affair, Government of Myanmar. Except otherwise mentioned, the
Pali texts used in this article are the publications of the Pali Text Society, London.
The Doctrine of Anatta, no-self, in Buddhist Spirituality
Ashin Sriya
M.A.
Department of Philosophy
Assumption University, Bangkok, Thailand
1) Section one
A. Introduction
Anatta Lakkhana Sutta, the discourse on the characteristic of No-soul, was taught by
the Buddha after his enlightenment to the five ascetics. The doctrine of Anatta is very crucial
in Buddhism as no realization of the truth can occur without the knowledge of Anatta. All
religions except Buddhism accept the existence of soul theory. Buddhism is the only major
world religion that denies the existence of a metaphysical entity known as self or soul called
Atta. In the light of the Buddha teaching, human being is only composed of five aggregates;
furthermore we have only mind and matter briefly.
The power of insight meditation and many other ways can be used to test whether
there is actual permanence and immortal soul or not. Here the concept self or soul theory is
just so called concept according to Buddhism and so it might be in the province of
conventional truth (sammuti-sacca) but not in the ultimate truth or reality (paramattha sacca).
Actual experience during meditation is that we can discern nothing, no soul, no self,
except the aggregates. These five aggregates are things that we refer to as a person, a being,
a man or a woman and so on. No doer, no director, no experience or no essence can be
found. Permanent soul cannot be discovered in the mind and matter.
Nevertheless, it is not possible to know Anatta, non-soul by mere belief, learning and
knowledge gained through hearing. It can be known only by knowledge gained through
one’s insight achieved by practical way called meditation. So in the light of Buddhist
literatures, Atta, soul, self or ego are not materiality, feeling, perception, mental formation,
consciousness and Nibbhana.
Atta does not also take root in the Dhammas. These five aggregate and Nibbhana
Dhamma never remain in this Atta or soul. There is no Atta in the ultimate sense because
there is nothing in the world but five aggregate and Nibbhana. The concept and facts about
Anatta are presented in the following sections.
B. The Definition of Anatta
Anatta is P2li word which is grammatically composed of two words “an” and “atta”
(a+atta), negative prefix “an or na” means not or nothing and atta means self, being, ego,
personality or soul. So the word Anatta is most literally translated as no-soul (U S l!nanda,
1999, p.7).
According to the Buddhist Dictionary Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines Anatta is
defined as “not-self”, non-ego, egolessness, impersonality which is the last of the tree
characteristics of existence (ti-lakkhana) (Ven. Ñ!natiloka, 1988, p.33).
In the light of Manuals of Buddhism Atta means “self, ego, personality, and soul-
essence”; Anatta means “non-ego, not-self, absence of soul-essence”. He explains the Anatta
by giving three interpretations as follows:
1. “As!rakatthena anatta- on account of being without essence or substance it is called
Anatta.
The Doctrine of Annata, no-self in Buddhist Spirituality 29
2. As2mikatthena anatta- on account of not having any owner or overlord it is called
Anatta.
3. Avasavattanatthena anatta- on account of its not yielding or producing to another’s
will or wish it is called Anatta”. (Ledisayadaw, 2004, p.157)
2) Section two
A. The understanding of Anatta by two kinds of conventional truth.
To understand the true meaning of Anatta, we should look at carefully two kinds of
truth, namely,
1. “Conventional truth (samuti-sacca) and
2. Ultimate truth (paramattha-caccca)”.
(Ashin Thitthila, 1996, p.114-5-6/ U Ko lay, 1984, p.148).
Conventional truth
Conventional truth is something that we use everyday different names and different
things which refer to particular object or person to communicate each other. For instance we
use “self” “soul” “I”, “you”, “being”, “individual”, “man” and “woman” “animal” etc., these
expressions are only conventional truth (Walpola, 1967, p.55). Actually, they do not really
exist in an ultimate sense even though their expressions are true and seem to exist in
conceptual thought. In fact, they are just concept (paññatti) which is used to designate a
particular names or things (n2ma and attha).
For example, a house! You think it is a house as real existing but if you pull down
something from that house one by one until into smallest particle, the house will disappear
(Dr. Mehn, 1995, p.27-8). In the way, let’s take an example of man! If you take each part of
a man such as head hairs, body hairs, nails, teeth, skin, flesh and so on, you cannot find out
a man at all. So we can talk about the idea of man and the other things in terms of
conventional truth, not ultimate truth. They are so useful that to understand each other and
also to realize ultimate truth through them. We cannot avoid using them. So either these
expressions or speeches without intention of lying are termed Sammuti Sacca or
conventional truth.
Ultimate truth
Buddhist Abhidhamma briefly explains the ultimate truth or reality in four categories
namely, consciousness, mental concomitant, material property and Nibb2na. (N!rada, 1973,
p.31) The last one Nibb2na is unconditioned state which is free from attachment while the
first three are conditioned states.
There are 89 types of consciousness or mind explained in detail in the Buddhist
Abhidhamma. They all are associated with mental concomitants which is called Cetasika that
includes 52 kinds in number. Briefly mind or consciousness and its mental concomitant arise
together at the same moment, pass away together at the same time, have an equal object
and have an equal basis so they cannot be separated at all. (N!rada, 1975, p.97) REpa
which is called matter or body is basically two kinds namely, the four great Essentials and
material qualities derived from them that have 28 kinds in number. (N!rada, 1975, p.324)
Different mind or consciousness and different matters or bodies have different their
intrinsic nature and characteristic so they never change their own particular nature to the
other nature. That’s why, they are called ultimate reality or truth but they all are conditioned
things (Ashin Janak!bhivamsa, 1999, p.1-2). In term of aggregate called Khandha, all physical
and mental phenomena of a man sum up into five groups or aggregates.
The fact that we call a person or a being is the only five aggregates: namely, the
aggregate of materiality consisting of 28 material qualities, the aggregate of the feeling
consisting pleasant feeling in mind, painful feeling in mind, pleasant feeling in body, painful
feeling in body and indifferent or neutral feeling, the aggregate of the perceptions comprising
perceptions of from, sound, odor, taste, bodily impression and mental impression, the
aggregate of the mental formations consisting of 50 mental concomitants other than feeling
and perception and the aggregate of consciousness consisting of all 89 types of
consciousness (Dr. Mehn,1995, p.286-8-9).
In fact, a person can have only mind and material body. These five aggregates are
called ultimate truth because they are real. Apart from them there is no existence of a man,
a woman, a being, an animal, “I” “self” “Ego” and “Soul” etc. Actually whatever we call
them giving different names and different languages among different people, it is mere our
metal projections or mental constructions to refer to and to communicate something. It is
only the conventional sense, not the ultimate sense.
Ven. Bhikkhu N2rada Thera said that Buddhists do not believe in an unchanging
entity, in an actor apart from action, in a perceiver apart from perception, in a conscious
subject behind consciousness (Ven. N!rada, 2006, p.234). Another author, George D. Bond,
said that the understanding of Anatta is not identical with one another which mean ordinary
level, practicing level and noble level. They have different meaning on Anatta (George D,
1989, p.186). The text includes many passages using self language but it is used as only for
reflexive sense, it should not be transplanted as the definite article. So the Buddha also
teaches about Dhamma using both conventional term and ultimate term.
3) Section three
A. The three characteristics of Anicca, Dukkha, and Anatta
So called man is composed of five aggregate or Mind and matter which are subject to
the law of change even though they are ultimate truth or reality. They have two
characteristics as follow;
1. An individual characteristic (sabhva lakkhana)
2. A common characteristic (smañña lakkhana)

Their own particular or individual characteristic is called Sabhva lakkhana. It means
that they never change from their own characteristics or intrinsic nature to another
characteristics or nature. They cannot be divided into other things. Nobody can change their
own nature to be disorder. They always bear their own nature. But they have common
characteristic called Samañña lakkhana because they arise and disappear without exception
depending on causes. So they are common to all nature of Anicca, impermanent, Dukkha,
suffering, and Anatta, non-self (Sayadaw U Pandita, 1995, p.66-72).
According to Buddhist Abhidhamma, any consciousness includes in three phases or
moments which are arising, static or development, and disappearing (N!rada, 1982, p.21).
During a flash of lightning, more than billions of mind-moment can occur. So there is series
of consciousness like a stream without any breaking or interruption. Every moment, there is
birth and very moment there is death without permanence. Every moment, there is arising
and passing away so this is called impermanence (Anicca). Whatever is impermanent is
suffering (Dukkha). There is no self internally or externally.
These five aggregates or mind and matter are under the influence of the nature of
these three things, so there is neither controller nor owner behind them. These three
characteristics are very important for those who practice inside meditation (vipassana).
B. Investigation about the characteristic of non-soul, Anatta
The characteristic of no-self or no-soul is hidden by the perception that things are
compact and solid (U S l!ndada, 1999, p.35-36) People observe themselves and things as
solid or unchanging substance behind the changing phenomenal world. Nobody wants to
hear and understands the true nature of no-self or soul. It is because self-belief has been
rooting in man deeply. The Buddha’s teaching is against man’s selfish desire on life. When
we actually analyze this material and mental body in term of five aggregates in order to find
out permanence self or soul, we see that it is nothing to do with them.

Moreover these five aggregates are subject to change, produce to pain through rising
and falling physically and mentally. That is why, we should not assume that this is mine; this
is I; this is soul (U S l!nanda, 1999, p.46). Even when breaking through the false perception
that we are compact through inside meditation process, we will have more clear vision that
there is nothing self or soul. This teaching of Anatta doctrine is realistic and empirical.
Even though there is nothing unchangeable and eternal, we attach to ourselves and
expect to find out something immortal soul within us. It sounds like children who want to
take a rainbow. Children think that a rainbow is something real, but grown up people
understand that it is merely an illusion caused by certain rays of light and drops of water. The
color we see is only the series of waves without having any reality than the rainbow of itself
(Dr. K. Sri, 2002, p.169).
Dealing with no-self or soul, the Buddha states that “all dhammas are without self”
(sabbe dhamm anatt). Here Dhamma includes not only conditioned states but also
unconditioned state called Nibb2na. It means that self is nothing to do with conditioned
things which are called five aggregates and with unconditioned thing which is called even
Nibb2na, ultimate truth or reality (Walpola, 1965, p.75-8). So no self or no Atman can be
found both internal five aggregates and external them or apart from them.
C. Empirical experience of Anatta
Some people misunderstand that consciousness is soul or self. Consciousness or mind,
according to Buddhist Abhidhamma, is just taking aware of an object (Walpola, 1965, p-23-
4-5/ Ashin Janaka, 1999, p.2-3). It is sure that consciousness never occurs without any
object, so there must be some necessary conditions to appear consciousness. In
Abhidhamma, deep sleeping time is called passive cognitive process while awaking stage is
called active cognitive process. These two minds or consciousnesses are operating side by
side.
During deep sleeping time, there is no arising seeing mind, hearing mind, tasting mind,
smelling mind and touching mind. During awaking time, depending on conditions, they arise
one after another. It is not possible to arise two minds at the same time or moment. To arise
even seeing consciousness there must be four necessary present conditions which are eye
sensitivity, visible object, light and attention (Bhikkhu Bodhi, 1999, p.151-2)
If one does not have good eye sensitivity, no consciousness can arise. And also without
light, or without attention on object, no consciousness can occur. Similarly, only when their
respective and necessary present conditions must be completed, can the other
consciousnesses or minds appear as well. The series of consciousness are so fast that they
cannot be seen by the naked eyes. Then they do not always exist since they appear and
disappear depending on internal and external necessary conditions.
During meditation time, impermanence of mind and thought is clearer than just normal
time. The one practicing Vipassana meditation directly sees how he or she is experiencing
and how the mind or consciousness is working from moment to moment at the very same
time. When he observes his mind and body with wise attention and mindfulness, he
comprehends only thinking and the mind notes it. One thought comes and goes on. After
one thought has gone, the other thought comes and goes on and on. So “I” or “self” or
“soul” cannot be seen.
He understands that consciousness is not self as some people think and then
everything is happening according to the law of mind or consciousness. Nobody controls
over it on account of lack of authority. Anyone has no power to make impermanence things
permanent no matter how one has desire for thing to be permanent. This realizing of true
nature of mind and body is through Vipassana meditation process. Thus, the understanding
of the nature of no-self or no-soul is through the understanding of Vipassana meditation
practice.
4) Section four
Conclusion of Anatta
The understanding of the true nature of Anatta by way of conventional truth and
ultimate truth explained in the Abhidhamma can help us to have right view and
understanding and also help us to progress meditation process. It also teaches how we have
to get rid of all wrong perceptions. If we don’t see the things objectively as they really are,
we interpret the five aggregates called mind and matter as an individual “I” or “atta”, “self”
and so on. In fact, what we call “I” or “atta” does not exist in the ultimate sense; it is only in
the conventional sense. What really exist in man are consciousness, Citta, its mental
concomitant, Cetasika, and material property, REpa.
In the Noble Eightfold Path, the first one is the right understanding. It is the key to
search for the truth. My explanation of Anatta by way of conventional truth and ultimate
truth recognized in Abhidhamma is intended for this right understanding, especially for
having inside wisdom leading to the path of purification.
The Buddha taught Dhamma in different ways and different methods using either
conventional terms or ultimate term, his aim is to understand and to realize the truth or
reality for listeners. He taught many teachings to get the eyes of wisdom and to attain
enlightenment through Vipassana meditation practice. Before actual practicing meditation,
we must first learn his teaching correctly and practice his teaching in which the Buddha
shows the Path.
By practicing noble path of teaching will bring us to realize the true nature of Anatta
and the nature of all things. Therefore the correct vision of Anatta is that we should not take
hold of any view but see all things objectively as they are, not appear to be. What we call “I”
or “being” “self” is only a combination of physical and mental aggregates which is open to all
impermanence, suffering, without self. This understanding and practicing is how a true
Buddhist leads his life according to the doctrine of Anatta taught by the Buddha and how to
apply his spirituality and the Buddha’s teaching to his life.
Bibliography------
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Doctrine, Kanday/Sri Lanka, Buddist Publication Society.
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Buddha-Dhamma), Yangon/Myanmar, Mother Ayeyarwaddy.
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House.
4) George D. Gond, Nov/1983, Self or No-self in Theravada Buddhism, Vol. 23, No. 2,
pp. 186-189, The University of Chicago Press.
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Maung Maung.
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A Comparative Study of the Ten Perfections
Dr. Ashin Kavidhaja

Lecturer
Sagaing Hills, Sagaing, Myanmar
Introduction
Prams (perfections) is the most essential one, for those people, who desire to be
the Buddha, Pacceka Buddha (solitary Buddha), Aggasvaka (chief disciples), Mahsvaka
(great disciples) and Pakatisvaka (ordinary disciples), and who wish peaceful world, who
wish to be great and grand and liberated from Samsra (the round of rebirths). For the
liberation from the round of rebirths (Samsra), which is the second factor for the
accomplishment of Prams, is to make effort to keep out the 'ego-clinging' (atta) from
every deed. The effort to keep out the 'ego-clinging' (atta) from every deed is to
exterminate craving (tanh), which is Samudaya Sacca, the Noble truth of the cause of
Dukkha. If, in every action, the 'ego-clinging' (atta) is exterminated to a small extent, the
Pram is accomplished to that extent; if the 'ego-clinging' is exterminated to a large
extent; the Prams is accomplished to a large extent. If the 'ego-clinging' is exterminated
completely, the Prams is accomplished entirely. Nibbna, in fact, is the name of
extermination of craving (ego-clinging). The more he can eradicate craving, the more he
can become near to Nibbna.
That is why, to be liberated from the round of rebirths, one has to eradicate
craving. Eradicating craving in every action is the fulfillment of Prams, and fulfillment of
Prams is the task of the Noble Ones.

A Comparative Study of Ten Perfections 39
Prams mean deeds those who have done for the welfare of the world without
any regard to personal gain or interest, or those who have done for liberation from the
round of rebirth. In striving for the welfare of the world, there is immeasurable energy or
power.
Paññya na bhave thnam, dayya na same thiti1.
In striving for the welfare of the world, there is no energy or power as great
as karun (compassion); there is no energy or power as great as paññ
(knowledge).
In fact, Prams includes karun (compassion) as well as paññ (knowledge). That
is the reason why the noble ones can exercise karun and pay no attention to self-
interest, work for the welfare of the world. They also can aim at the attainment of
Nibbna which is the liberation from the round of rebirths, by eradicating craving and
greed with paññ. The Noble Ones who have both karun and paññ and who have
fulfilled Prams accomplish Lokuttara deeds (for attainment of maggas and phalas) while
working for the good of the world. The Noble Ones perform the ten kinds of basic tasks
for the welfare of the world in daily life. They are also called ten kinds of Prams
(perfections). They are shown as follows:
(1) Dna is translated as almsgiving or generosity. It means giving away, making a gift or
offering or sharing something with someone. Sacrifice also is included in Dna because
the Bodhisatva ultimately sacrifices himself in Dna pram. In every task, some kind of
sacrifice is usually called for.
2. Sla is controlling of the three bodily misdeeds and the four verbal misdeeds
(Vrittasla)2; and cultivating virtuous habits (Crittasla). The latter means pay respect
(Apacyana) to the Buddha, Dhamma, Samgha, and to parents, teachers, and those who
1
The Buddha, Peerless Benefactor of Humanity, Page-71, U Shwe Aung, Tran., U Hla Maung, Yaung,
Myanmar, 1995.
2
PS.1.p-44 (S:lanti-cetan; s:lam, cetathikam s:lam, samvaro s:lam, av:tikkamo s:lam)
senior in age, status, or morality; or helping anyone with a meritorious deed as if it were
one’s own undertaking (Veyyvecca). If one does the task with pure volition and pays
attention to respect regard with person (apacyana, veyyvecca), and keeps from physical
and verbal actions (Vritta sla), it is the fulfilling of the perfection of morality (Critta sla),
S:la P;ram:.
3. Nekkhamma means to give up or to renounce the worldly pleasures. In other words, it
means retirement into solitary life, in search of the highest truth and peace. If one
accomplishes the task without any hope or longing whatever for material affluence, high
offices or honour, leadership, respect by others, fame or other privileges, but does the
task accepting it as worthy and it is the fulfilling of the perfection of Renunciation,
Nikkhemma P;ram:.
4. Paññ means wisdom, right understanding. It is not mere wisdom or knowledge, but it
is the wisdom which leads to the complete realization of truths. If one does the task, not
regarding it as the highest advantage for oneself, but regarding it as of the highest
advantage to the world, using physical and mental capabilities to the utmost, studying its
causes and effects, it is the fulfilling of the perfection of wisdom, Paññ P;ram:.
5. Vriya literally means virility, perseverance, effort, energy and it supports to
phenomenon that is associated with it. If one does the task with unremitting zeal and
energy for the wellbeing of the world, it is the fulfilling of the perfection of diligence,
V:riya P;ram:.
6. Khant literally means patience, endurance or forbearance. It is the endurance of
suffering caused by others, or the forbearance of others' wrong. If one does the task
undaunted by the difficulties and obstacles encountered from the world, it is the fulfilling
of the perfection of forbearance, Khant: P;ram:.
7. Sacca means truthfulness or keeping one’s promise. Here Sacca does not mean simply
telling the truth but fulfilling one’s engagement or keeping one’s word, assurance or
promise even at the point of death. If one dose the task believing to deserve and without
betraying this belief physically, verbally and mentally, faithfully goes on with the task in
accordance with this belief, it is the fulfilling of the perfection of truth, Sacca P;ram:.
8. Adhitthna literally means determination, resolution or fixedness of purpose. It can be
regarded as a foundation for all the perfection, because without a firm determination one
cannot fulfill the other pramitas. If one does the task, though he has to change the
manner, in which it is being done to be in keeping with the changing times and
conditions, he does not let any deviation from the original aim. It is the fulfilling of the
perfection of resolution, Adhitth;na P;ram:.
9. Metta is translated as loving-kindness; it means friendliness, goodwill, benevolence and
the wish for other beings and happiness of all of living beings without any discrimination.
If one does the task with genuine loving-kindness upon the surrounding world, the
loving-kindness which can enable one to renounce one's life, wealth and riches for the
sake of the world, it is the fulfilling of the perfection of loving-kindness, Metta P;ram:.
10. Upekkh is translated as equanimity, impartiality or keeping a well-balance mind
without attachment and detachment or favor and disfavor. If one does the task, with
composure, unperturbed or unmoved by praise or threats but keeping his mind
steadfastly on the work in hand, it is the fulfilling of the perfection of equanimity,
Upekkh; P;ram:.
Everyone should fulfill these perfections in present time because the world is
facing problems and is in difficulty. The Buddha also said in Ratthapla Sutta3 that (1) the
instable world is brought to an end, (Upanyyati loko addhuvo) (2) the world has no
refuge, no guard (Atno loko anabhissaro) (3) the world is not owned by anybody, so one
must go on leaving everything, (Assako loko, sabbam pahya gamanyam) (4) the world is
in deficiency and is unsatisfied, and a slave to craving (-no loko atitto tanhdso).
Perfections (Prams) of the Buddha are to be peace and security and to stay in stability in
daily life. Those who wish to be peace and security and to stay happily, carry them
through in this very life. Therefore, A Comparative Study of the Ten Perfections has been
completely done.
3
Majjhimapann;sap;li, page-2-256.
The Chapter Scheme
The thesis is arranged in five chapters.
Chapter-First deals with ‘The Introduction to Buddhist Literature and Pram
(Perfections)’.
In this chapter, I have explained Theravda Tipitaka literature, the different ten
perfections between Theravda and Mahyna, the meaning of Pram in detail, action
of Pram, main characteristic of Pram which are (1) its aim is to have compassion on
others and (2) to liberate from the round of rebirths, level of perfections which are ten in
ordinary perfections, ten in higher perfections, and ten in supreme perfections and the
Prams of Buddha, Paccekabuddha and Buddha's disciples.
In this chapter, I have specifically mentioned the Prams from the Theravda
point of view. Although ten Prams (Pramit) are accepted in Buddhist literature, some
texts like Mahvastu (iii, 226), Lalitavistara etc., mention only the six Pramits
(perfections). They are as follows: 1. Dna pramit: 2. Sla pramit: 3. Ksnti (kshanti)
pramit: 4. Vriya pramit: 5. Dhyna pramit: 6. Prajñ (Paññ pli) pramit:
However, according to Dasabh4mikasutra and Mahvyuttpatt in Mahyna
tradition the ten Pramits (perfections) are expressed out of them four are different from
the Theravda tradition. They are Upya Kausalya Pramits (Perfection of Skillfulness),
Pranidhna Pramit (Perfection of Compassion and Prayer), Bala Pramit (Perfection of
Strength) and Jñna Pramit (Perfection of Knowledge).
Perfection of Skillfulness (Upya Kausalya Pramit) is some kinds of knowledge
and the Buddha used the expedient or partial method in his teaching until near the end
of his days, when he elaborated it to the revelation of reality, or the preaching of his final
and complete truth.
Perfection of Compassion and Prayer (Pranidhna Pramit) is conduciveness to
peace and order in the individual and social life. They believed that the man of prayer
will be at peace with himself and with the whole world. Prayer is the only means of
bringing about orderliness and peace and repose in our daily acts according to
Mahyna.
Perfection of Strength (Bala Pramit) is the moral, mental and physical power of
the super human being, that is, Bodhisattva. The Bala is essential for him to discharge the
social obligations and missionary activities. They are: faith (sraddh, saddh pli), energy
(vrya), mindfulness (smrti, sati pli), concentration (samdhi) and wisdom (prajñ). In
some texts, merit (puñya), wisdom (prajñ) knowledge (jñna), ksnti (mental peace) and
vrya (energy) are described.
Perfection of Knowledge (Jñna Pramit) is the essential clarity and definite
sensibility of a mind that no longer clings to reify concepts of any kind. It is direct and
sustained awareness of the truth, for a Boddhisattva. These four Pramits (perfections)
were appended in later Mahyna texts.
Perfection of Meditation (Dhyna Pramit) is inner peace and calmness even for
those who are staying in household life. According to Pli Tipitaka, this perfection can
bring to Jhna state or insight knowledge (Maggas and Phalas) for those who are excitedly
willing to practice this taught by the Buddha. However, this (Prams) pramits is special
for recluses, though not prohibited for householders. This perfection also is expressed in
this chapter.
Chapter-Second, deals with Dnapram, Slapram and Nekkhammapram.
In this chapter, meaning of them, their characteristic, how to practice them in this
very life, their types and important observation upon them and their results were
mentioned.
In Dnapram, it is seen that one who offers to something should be carefully
and at appropriate time, with his hand, with reverence and esteem, with kindness and
happiness, the granting of safety or security which is quality of a donator. And one who
offers to something which is qualified offering should be property earned in accordance
with honest, moral and also avoid to these de-meritorious forms of offering: gift of
intoxicants 'majja-dna’, holding of festivals ‘samajja-dna’, provision of prostitutes for
sexual enjoyment ‘Itthi-dna’, dispatch of bulls into a herd of cows for mating ‘Usabha-
dna’ and drawing and offering of pictures that can lead stimulation of sex or sex-arousal
'Cittakamma-dna’.
In Slapram, it is discussed that virtue is twofold as avoidance (vritta) and
performance (critta). One should keep away himself from killing and injuring others,
(pntipta), accepting what is not given (adinndna), unchastely (kmesumicchcra),
false speech (musvda), slander (pisunavca), harsh speech (pharusavc), idle chatter
(samphapplpa), covetousness (abhijjh), ill-will (bypda), wrong view (micchditthi),
these are called Vrittasla.
In Nekkhammapram, it was discussed that one who wishes to fulfill should try to
give up these thoughts, they are: sensuous thought, hateful thought, and cruel thought.
Everywhere is not available to practice in order to get free from these thoughts. Therefore
some stay in the forest, some stay in the secluded place and there is no influence to him
from these thoughts when he concentrates and contemplates tranquility and the process
of mind and matter. In state of these evil thought, he gets only thought of renunciation,
thought of hate-lessness, and thought of non-violence. He then can entirely fulfill this
perfection.
Chapter-third deals with Paññpram, Vriyapram and Khantpram.
In Paññpram, one who is interested in this perfection should comprehend
analysis of the sphere of learning of supra-mundane and mundane: the first one is
learning the Tipitaka and teaching it to others, that means the five aggregates, the twelve
sense bases, and the eighteen elements and so on. The second one is establishing more
and more sphere of knowledge for instructing himself and then he instructs others by
teaching the harmless sciences of astrology, incantations, recitation of verses, medicine,
science, or the arts and so on. If so, he then fully accomplishes this perfection.
In Vriyapram, the main foundation of energy is the emotion of dread (samvega)
is described. Dread that arises as religious emotion through reflection on cause and effect
is known as Ñna Samvega. It is the kind of fear of Samsra felt by the virtuous or
something associated with wisdom. When one sees or knows the dangers of samsra, or
educational development or commercial development, through wisdom, he will
constantly work with his effort up to his pinnacle destination. He can accomplish this
perfection without any doubt.
In Khantpram, one who wishes to perform this perfection should overcome
problems both of internal and external. The former one comes from in his mind such as
greed, hatred, delusion and so on. The later one comes from outdoor of natural
phenomena such as warm or cold weather, rain and wind or strong animals like lions,
tigers, elephants or tiny creatures like mosquitoes, spiders, dust mites etc. If he triumphs
over both of problems, he can perfectly practice this perfection.
Chapter fourth deals with Saccapram, Adhitthnapram, Mettapram and
Upekkhpram.
In Saccapram, one who wants to practice this perfection should maintain in
three aspects as speaking truthfully at all times for sake of avoiding evil speech, not
breaking promises and speaking the truth for the sake of one’s own as well as other’s
welfare. If one breaks some of them, he fails to perform this perfection. Bodhisatta
actually was never defeating this and made trust to the world. Therefore, one should trust
to others by practicing this.
In Addhitthnapram, one who is willing to complete some perfection must have
exact resolution in his mind. Then he continually can accomplish some offering or some
morality e.g. five precepts or staying in forest (reducing craving or anger etc) or instruction
wisdom or constructing energy or keeping well from internal and external problem or
avoiding from falsehood or radiation and practicing to beings or equanimity of his mind.
In Mettapram, Metta (loving-kindness) is threefold viz. physical verbal and
mental philanthropic activities for the welfare of others. If they minutely practice this,
they would quickly get concentration which is very easy to attain some insight
knowledge4 and at least they can defeat the fire, poison or weapons and there is no harm
to them from any dangerous instrument.
In Upekkhpram, Upekkh is an equal attitude towards both desirable and
undesirable beings and things. It is very difficult to stand for beings because most people
blame others for their silence and they blame those who talk much and those in
moderation. Therefore one should keep balance in his mind which is between blame or
flatter from those of people. If he carries out this, he can stay wariness and stay in
stability. It is necessary if one is to attain the highest Jh;na states5.
CONCLUTION
Chapter fifth deals with all perfections (prams). Some people in the world are
greedy, sticky and they don't want to share with others, they are afraid of those who are
begging something and asking for help. Some are collecting instruments and preparing
weapons and are harming, shooting and bursting others. Some are attached to the
property and they have no way to liberation from bondage. Some are being deluded they
don't have eyes of wisdom and they don't understand how to analyze bad or good,
benefit or un-benefit, liberation or no liberation. Some are idle, inactive to work for
welfare of others and they are not interested in cooperating in the social work. Some are
basically craving and hating and they don't have forbearance to control their mind. Some
are lying, deceitful and cunning and there is no trust for them. Some are missing
destination or having wrong destination; they don't want to confirm definite point. Some
work, speak and think only for one's own family or association, they are not for all beings
and they are narrow minded and deceitful in behavior. Some love and attach themselves
to those who are grateful, respectful and helpful towards them. They become angry and
hate towards those who are disrespectful and troublesome. They basically are lacking in
perfections (Prams). That is why; the world requires peace and security from them.
4
Dhammapada atthakath;, 2, 373, (Mettvihr yo bhikkhu pasanto buddhassane, adhigacche
padam santam sa6khr4pa samam sukham.)
5
The perfection of equinity, Page-40, translated by Saya U Chit Tin, Published by Sayagyi U Ba Khin
Memorial Trust, U.K., 1987.
Therefore, some similar and dissimilar perfections (Prams) between Theravda
and Mahyna point of view are described in the present thesis. However both the views
are beneficial and valuable in this very life for those who practice these perfections. Every
perfection gives illumination those people who are lacking these perfections and to bring
to an end those who are perpetrating their evil actions. Actually these perfections guide
the ignorant and finally these perfections lead to the way of Nibbna that is entirely
peace and happiness.

A Critical Study of Discourses
Expounded by the Chief Disciples (Aggasvaka) of the Buddha
Dr. Ashin Ssana

Lecturer
Sagaing Hills,Sagaing, Myanmar
Buddha’s teachings are contained in three Pitakas, such as Vinaya-Pitaka, Suttanta-
Pitaka and Abhidhamma-Pitaka. I have taken into account only those Suttas of the Suttanta-
Pitaka which are expounded by the chief disciples (S%riputta and Moggall%na) of the Buddha
(Aggas%vakabh%sita-suttas) for my research work. The research work (thesis) consists of
mainly three divisions like introduction, body (chapters) and conclusion.
The Introduction conceives the matters about Aggas%vakas and their works. It also
presents a brief account of the Suttas delivered by them. Agga means chief and s%vaka
means disciple who followed and practiced the Buddha’s teachings and bh%sita means the
Suttas expounded by the chief disciples of the Buddha. Thus, Aggas%vakabh%sitasutta means
the Suttas, which are expounded by the chief disciples of the Buddha.
Three types of S%vakas are found in the Pitaka literature. They are: Aggas%vaka,
Mah%s%vaka and Pakatis%vaka.
I. Aggas%vaka (Chief Disciple)

A Critical Study of Discourses expounded by the Chief Disciples of the Buddha 49
Aggas%vaka means the most exalted disciple of the Buddha. The Buddha had two
Aggas%vakas. The one was next only to the Buddha in respect of intellectual powers and the
other one was too next only to the Buddha in respect of spiritual powers.
II. Mah%s%vaka (Great Disciple)
Mah%s%vaka means the great disciple of the Buddha. He is an Arahata, who excels in
intelligence, spiritual powers and many other things. The Buddha had eighty Mah%s%vakas1.
III. Pakatis%vaka (Ordinary Disciple)
Pakatis%vaka means an ordinary disciple of the Buddha. He is an ordinary Arahata,
who had annihilated all the mental defilements. The number of such Arahata was countless.
According to the division of these kinds of disciple, the Suttas are also expounded in
three forms, namely: Aggas%vakabh%sitasutta, Mah%s%vakabh%sitasutta and Pakatis%vaka-
bh%sitasutta. Aggas%vakabh%sitasutta means the Suttas expounded by the Chief disciples of
the Buddha like Ven. S%riputta and Ven. Mah%moggall%na. Mah%s%vakabh%sitasutta means
the Suttas expounded by the Great disciples of the Buddha like Mah%kassapathera and
Koddhññamah%thera, Vappamah%thera etc. Pakatis%vakabh%sitasutta signifies those Suttas
which were expounded by the ordinary disciples of the Buddha like Subh5tithera and so on.
I would like to present only an abstract of Aggas%vakabh%sitasuttas from Suttanta Pitaka in
this dissertation. S%riputta and Moggall%na are considered as Aggas%vakas, the chief disciples
of the Buddha. Their life-sketch, from the birth to parinibb%na has also been given
highlighting their qualities.
Generally, it is understood that all Suttas or Dhamma are expounded only by the
Buddha. But there are also several Suttas which are expounded by S%vakas themselves and
are incorporated in the Tipitaka, because after deliverance of discourses by S%riputta and
1
. Dp.A. 1.388. (Anuruddhathera vatthu) – Asitimah%s%vakaparivuto pañcahi bhikkhusatehi saddhim viharati.
And see also – Abhi.A. 3-67, Di.A. 2-275, Di.A.3-124,Dp.A. 1.341, Mahani.A. 274 and Vi.A. 3-52
Moggall%na, they were approved by the Buddha. It means that the Buddha himself
confirmed the Suttas expounded by S%vakas as if he had himself expounded them. It is just
like the Prime minister signed the letter of suggestions written by secretary.
After attaining Arahatahood by Ven. S%riputta and Ven. Mah% Moggall%na, in the
evening shadows lengthened, the Buddha called his disciples to assemble and to bestow
upon the two Elders with the rank of Chief Disciples.
Half a year before the demise of the Awakened One, the death separated the two
friends in the last phase of life. S%riputta passed away on the full-moon day in the month of
Kattik% (October/ November) in his parental house of his native village, i.e. far away from
Moggall%na’s place, though they had been so close to each other for a long time.
During their long life time from Arahataship to death, they preached many discourses
on different places, which are preserved in the Sutta-Pitaka. There are many Aggas%vaka-
bh%sitasuttas. Of these, the discourses expounded by Ven. S%riputta are over one hundred
and the discourses expounded by Ven. Mah% Moggall%na are over twenty. I have searched
out and collected them from original P%li texts and their commentaries. Thereafter I arranged
them accordingly.
Information based on the texts belonging to Therav%da School has been collected
and arranged them under the title. The literary method is proposed to analyze matters in the
theoretical framework dealing with the nature and thoughts related to various societies and
religious concepts. A detailed study has been made in the chapters of the work taking into
account the consideration of many other aspects like moral values which help in spreading
goodwill and social harmony in the society and that also help in the removal of defilements
and purification of consciousness.
The whole research work is divided into five chapters excluding Introduction, which
are as follow:
A Critical Study of Discourses expounded by the Chief Disciples of the Buddha 51
Chapter one: A detail account of the life of the chief disciples of Lord Buddha has
been given on the basis of the canonical texts, commentaries and sub-commentaries under
the sub-headings as follow:
- From birth to the attainment of the arahatship
- Friendship
- The last debt paid by S%riputta to his mother
- Last days of Moggall%na
- The Death of Mah%moggall%na
Chapter two contains a discussion of discourses expounded by the chief disciple,
Venerable S%riputta. It is very significant to note that where, why and how the chief disciple,
S%riputta expounded these discourses. I have search out the discourses expounded by him.
Of those, some Suttas are mentioned here for example. They are as follow:
1. Sampas%daniyasutta (DIghanik%ya, P%thikavagga)
2. SaJgItisutta (DIghanik%ya, P%thikavagga)
3. Dasuttarasutta (DIghanik%ya, P%thikavagga)
4. AnaJganasutta (Majjhimanik%ya,M5lapariy%yavagga)
5. Samm%ditthisutta(Majjhimanik%ya,M5lapariy%yavagga)
6. Dhanañj%nIsutta (Majjhimanik%ya, Brahmanavagga)
7. Mah%hatthipadopamasutta(Majjhimanik%ya, Opammavagga)
8. Bh5mijasutta (Samyuttanik%ya, Dasabalavagga)
9. Nalakal%vIsutta (Samyuttanik%ya, Mah%vagga) etc.
10. Parih%nisutta (AJguttanik%ya)
Chapter three: A good deal of discussion of discourses expounded by the chief
disciple, Venerable Moggall%na has been made here. It is very significant to note that where,
why and how the chief disciple, Moggall%na expounded the discourses. Each and every Sutta
has been discussed critically with a view to show the purpose of deliverance of the Sutta.
Some Suttas are as follow:
1. Anum%nasutta (Majjhimanik%ya)
2. Avassutapariy%yasutta (Samyuttanik%ya)
3. Pathamajh%napañh%sutta (Samyuttanik%ya)
4. Dutiyajh%napa%h%sutta (Samyuttanik%ya)
5. Tatiyajh%napañh%sutta (Samyuttanik%ya)
6. Catutthajh%napañh%sutta (Samyuttanik%ya)
7. Mkiñcaññ%yatanasutta (Samyuttanik%ya)
8. Nevasaññ%n%saññ%yatanasutta (Samyuttanik%ya)
9. Animittapañh%sutta (Samyuttanik%ya)
10. By%karanasutta (AJguttanik%ya) etc.
Chapter four: Venerable S%riputta and Moggall%na were the chief monks in respect of
wisdom and miracle respectively. A wonderful and cheerful act of their wisdom and miracle
has been dealt on the basis of the original sources in this chapter.
Chapter five: It presents the theme of the thesis along with the observations on the
content of the Suttas. Moreover, it also contains some more suggestions, observations and
notes. How the discourses of chief disciples should be understood and followed the theory
and practice has also been discussed here.

The Life of Mahkassapa and His Contribution to Buddhism
(With special reference to Canonical Pli Texts)
Ashin Ind cariya

Research Scholar
Department of Center of Advanced Study in Sanskrit
University of Pune, Pune, India
Introduction
The life of the Thera Mah kassapa is a rare life story characterized by many unusual
events. However, these events have not been produced without their appropriate causes. I
have attempted to describe those causes as clearly as possible. The Thera Mah kassapa is
included in the number of As timah s vaka (eighty great disciples). His life is full of
wonderful things. For example, the way he ordained in monkhood and his entire life is
different from other monks. He was welcomed by the Buddha himself. The Buddha offered
his robe to him. On the other hand, he is the greatest one among the practitioner of
Dhuta)ga. The Buddha conferred the title Etadagga for this particular practice. Moreover,
Thera Mah kassapa presided the first council after Buddha’s Parinibb na.
When we carefully observe general rules of Buddha’s Vinaya, most of the Vinaya
rules were laid down mainly due to four requisites i.e. alms, robes, shelters and medical. The
carnal purpose of laying down Vinaya is to make the people those who do not devote to the
Samgha and to increase peoples’ aspiration that has already devoted to the Samgha. On the
other hand, some rules appeared due to the critique of the people. On this part one may say
that the aim of Vinaya is to prevent improper behaviour of the Samgha.

However, the way how the Thera Mah kassapa dealt with four requisites is different
in comparison to the others in the Samgha. He stands as an ideal monk inspiring monks of
various generations. Regarding the way of his practicing four requisites the Buddha himself
admonished the Samgha to keep the Thera Mah kassapa as their best example to a follow.
Furthermore, for example in communicating with devotees, in the case of preaching,
the Buddha encouraged the Samgha to conduct, taking the Thera as their best creation,
according to the Thera Mah kasapa’s own way. Once the Buddha requested the Thera
Mah kassapa with the following words: “O Mah kassapa, you are even older than I. For that
very reason, this Pamsuk9la c vara of yours, made of coarse cloth and patched up over and
over again through the years, is not at all comfortable or convenient for you. Therefore I
would like to advise you to give up this tedious practice of yours of confining yourself to
wearing only Pamsuk9la c vara, and start using more comfortable robes offered by devotees.
Likewise I would urge you to relax your other rigorous austerity practices (dhuta)ga) and
commence living in the Jetavana monastery along with me1”.
However, the Thera refused to do so quoting the following reasons “O most
compassionate Lord, I have engaged in this mode of living over a long period of time with
two sublime reasons in mind. Firstly, I derive immense pleasure and infinite satisfaction, by
being able to consistently practice these seemingly arduous conducts of austerity. Secondly,
the love and compassion that I have towards the rest of the world, in the thought that they
are likely to derive immense benefit, if a later generation of aspirants too would emulate this
type of simple living, through an appreciation of the limitless happiness and satisfaction that I
have derived there from”. The Buddha praised upon his replied.
The life and the attitude of the Thera are full of unusual things not only during the
time of the Buddha; but also after the Buddha’s Parinibb na. For instance, he asked the king
Aj tasattu to collect the relics of the Buddha, selection of the Samgha and choosing a proper
1
Kassapa Samyutta, C varasutta
The Life of Mah kassapa and His Contribution to Buddhism 55
place for the first council, in arranging of the Samgh yan he did everything according to the
Samgha wishes. This is worthy to follow for the generations of the Samgha, and also his
capability to foresee the future amounts to appreciation.
Chapter Scheme
Keeping his extraordinary life Buddhist monk as well as his contribution to Buddhism,
references from canonical P li texts are collected and the passages have been analyzed
critically, an English translation of the passage had provided. Theirs is arranged in five
chapters as follows.
Chapter (1) Kassapas in Pli Literature
Although there are various Kassapas in P li literature in the first chapter, I have
discussed only the most distinguished life of Kassapas such as Kum rakassapa,
Uruverakassapa and two brothers of Kassapa, i.e., Gay kassapa and Nad kassapa. While
discussing Kum rakasspa’s life I have tried to describe both previous and present life of the
Thera and the main reason which caused him to attain Arahaship, his mediation object is
Vammika sutta, also I have mentioned in great detail of P y sisutta which the Thera himself
preached. Regarding to the P y si Sutta I do not fail to draw potential conclusion though
there are two different commentarial interpretations of A)guttaranik ya Atthakath and
Vim navattu Atthakath .
On the other hand, while describing brother of Uruvera Kassapa I have mentioned
their past and present life in accordance with the P i texts. Here, I have concentrated care
on that describes how they have obtained Arhathood.
Chapter (2) The life of Thera Mahkassapa

In this chapter the discussion is divided into two. In the first part, I have described the
Thera Mah kasspa from the time of Padumuttara Buddha with various past life of the Thera
and fulfilled his perfection in various ways. When I discussed the present life of the Thera I
have mentioned his life from the first year of Buddha’s missionary work as brief as possible.
In doing so, I have mentioned the period till the Buddha arrived to R jagaha surrounded by
one thousand and their followers.
While the Buddha resided in R jagaha there are multiple of men from different casts
especially from rich family entered to the Sāsanā. The Thera Mah kassapa was one of them.
Although, at that time, most of monks were Ehi bhikkhu type, only the Thera Mah kassapa
was ordained by receiving admonishment of Ovadapatiggan9pasammapad . He is the first
ever monk who became a monk with Ov dapatiggahan9pasammapad type in this S san .
Finally, I mentioned that he is the best practitioner of dhuta)ga and the way how he gets
Etadagga award.
Chapter (3) thirteen kinds of Dhuta(gas
Describing the life of Thera Mah kassapa without Dhuta)ga is like a colourful flower
without scent. The reason is that the Thera Mah kassapa is one of the best Thera in
practicing Dhuta)gh. His life simply passed with practicing Dhuta)ga. Therefore in this
chapter I have examined thirteen kinds of Dhuta)ga found in P li literature, with the
following parameters:
a. Mentioned the reason of permition of Dhuta)ga,
b. Described the different division of thirteen Dhuta)gas,
c. Classified each Dhuta)ga as, H na, Mijjima and Pan ta,
d. The benefit of Dhuta)ga and
e. The decay of Dhuta)ga.

The Life of Mah kassapa and His Contribution to Buddhism 57
Furthermore, description of bhikkhu eligible for the practice dhuta)ga is included.
Norms followed by such a bhikkhu are also described. At the same time, I have described
the classified Dhuta)gas which can be practiced by Bhikkhus, Bhikkhun s, and S maneras
etc.
Among the thirteen kinds of Dhuta)gas, eight are most important. Out of their eight
Pindap ta, Ek sanika, and khalupacch bhattika can be practiced easily if one practice
Sapad c rika. Also if we practice Abbok sika at the same time, no need to practice
Rukkham9la and Yath santatika Dhuta)ga2. There is one interesting fact to note that
Dhuta)gas is not including in the Vinaya rules. It means that Dhuta)ga is not compulsory for
a monk. However, Buddha always praises those who had practiced Dhuta)gas.
Chapter (4) First Samgha Council and the Last day of Mahkassapa
This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part deal with the discussion of the
meaning of Sa)gh yan (council), and the reasons of committing the first Sa)gh yan , the
way how the Samghas were selected in the first council, and Knanda and first Sa)gh yan . 3
In this chapter I have discussed admirable role played by Thera Mah kassapa in the
first council. I have described here how he selects the candidates place etc. The important
factor is that he made the decision in a democratic way i.e. with the majority vote of the
Samgha who were participated in this council.
I have also given thought to the discussion of the terms Dhamma and Vinaya.
According to the traditionalist Abhidhamma include in the Dhamma.
2
Visuddhimagga Atthakath page-79, Buddha Ssana press Yangon in Myanmar.
Abbhok sikangam rakkhantassa kim atthi rukkham9likangayath santhatikangesu rakkhitabbam n ma.
3
Vinaya Mahvagga Atthakath Buddha Ssan press Yangan in Myanmar.
Tattya hi bhikkh9 sand gamanam viya manyam no “Bah9 asekkhapatisambhid patte bhikkh9
thapetv Knandam sekkhpadisambhid pattam thero ucchin ”ti upavadeyum. tam par9pav dam parivajjnto
“Knandam vin samg ti na sakk katum, bhikk9nam yova anumatiy gahess m ”ti na ucci.
To commit Samgh yan without Knanda is impossible and with him either is blamable since he stills an
ordinarily monk while other were Arahant at the assembly of the Samgh yan .
The matter of Khudd nukhuddaka is also discussed in this chapter. P li literature
mentioned Thera Knanda himself did not consider that as he commited any offences
however for the unity of the Samgha and for the convenience of the Samgaha he confessed
before the Samgaha. Concerning to the attitude of the Thera Mah kassapa to Council he
proposed the following rules:
a. Not to make any edition of what the Buddha has taught,
b. Not to add anything to the doctrine what has been taught by the Buddha, and
c. To follow the rules taught by the Buddha.
Besides, the controversy regarding the first council is discussed in the perspective of
various opinions. Parinibb na of the Thera Mah kassapa is not discussed detail in Therav da
P li literature. It is discussed in the present thesis discourses the event with the help of search
accounts presented in the P li texts as well as in the Mah y na texts. I have also taken note
of the Myanmar story of “Along taw Kassapa”.
Conclusion
This chapter presents my general observations on the theme, besides a brief account
of the entire work.

A Critical Study of Tranquility and Meditation
(With Special Reference to Theravda Pitaka Literature)
Ashin Paññ
settha
Research Scholar
People in the world today are becoming interested in the meditation because it can
directly touch people's heart with a state of happiness and peacefulness. The state of
happiness cannot be gained by hearing or learning but by one's own experience on practice
of meditation.
Before Enlightenment of the Buddha, people tried to get a real state of happiness in
different ways. Though they were many, in the first sermon of Dhammacakka-pavattana, the
Buddha reduced them into two:
(1)_ seeking in the sensual pleasures (kmasukhalliknuyoga) - such as desirable objects of
sight, sound, smell, taste, tangibility whatever they want, and
(2)__seeking in the self-mortification of torturing themselves (attakilamathnuyoga).
When the Buddha appeared in the world, He recommended that to get the real state of
happiness is to practise 'Meditation' (kammatthna). The word kammatthna means 'the
practice of meditation'. There are two forms of practice of meditation, namely: Samatha-
kammatthna (Tranquility) and Vipassana-kammatthna (Meditation).

“Samatha-kammatthna” means tranquilizing all hindrances or disturbances of the
mind by putting the mind on a single object of meditation. And Vipassana-Meditation
(Vipassana-kammatthna) means penetrating all phenomena of mind (nma) and matter
(r%pa) in their realistic nature of impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self
(anatta). By practising these two forms of meditation, one can experience and realize one’s
own happiness. The individual happiness leads to a society as a whole in a state of
happiness. This practice of meditation can give to anyone to bear on good or bad of life and
to solve problems of life. Therefore, everyone should practice this 'Meditation'.
The ways which can give real happiness were expounded by the Buddha. They were
recorded in Pli by the disciples of the Buddha. Though they are known among the disciples
of Monks and Nuns, but not known to the common people. The practice of Meditation
results in producing a state of perfect mental health, equilibrium and tranquility, and
cleansing the mind of impurities and disturbances, such as lustful desires, hatred, ill-will,
laziness, worries, and restlessness, skeptical doubts, and cultivating such noble qualities as
concentration, awareness, intelligence, will, energy, the analytical faculty, confidence, joy,
tranquility, leading finally to the attainment of highest wisdom which sees the nature of
things as they are.
On the background of this introduction, an attempt is made to study these two-fold
methods of meditation, with the objective of realization of the Ultimate truth-the Nirvana. A
few researches are already conducted on this topic of which a critical review is also made to
show the justification of this work. The work is based on all available pli literature. I have
not attempted to make any comparison with any other systems like the Brahmanism or
Jainism where similar thoughts are found. The present is an honest presentation of the
concept of Tranquility and Meditation as found in p9li texts. The work is organized in the
following heads.
A Critical Study of Tranquility and Meditation 61
In the first chapter we have given an Introduction to Pli Tipitaka Literatures. Here
the emergence of Pli Tipitaka has been discussed. These Pitakas were well maintained and
guarded in its pristine purity by the pious learned great elder disciples of the Buddha (like
Thera Mahkassapa,Upli, )nand, etc.) from the first sa*gha council to third sa*gha
council. That is why; these Tipitakas are named as Theravda-Tipitaka.
This chapter also explains the essence of Pli Tipitaka Literature, within the scope of
the four Noble Truths; such as the Noble Truth of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Origin of
Suffering, the Noble Truth of Cessation of Suffering, and the Noble Truth of the Path that
leading to the Cessation of Suffering. The noble truth is composed of eight principles,
namely, right understanding, right thinking, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right
effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
Chapter-Two deals with ‘the concept of Tranquility’ (Samatha). In this chapter, the
division of samatha is made into two; such as Practicing on Kasina and Practicing on
Impurities, (Kasina) consists of ten kinds. They are- (1) Pathav> kasina (Earth-kasina) (2) @po
kasina (Water-kasina) (3) Tejo kasina (Fire-kasina) (4) V9yo kasina (Air- kasina) (5) N>la kasina
(Blue- kasina) (6) P>ta kasina (Yellow-kasina) (7) Lohita kasina (Red-kasina) (8) Od9ta kasina
(White- kasina) (9) @k9sa kasina (Limited-Space kasina) and (10) @loka kasina (Light- kasina)
And Impurities (asubha) also consist of ten kinds. They are- (1) Uddhum9taka (swollen
corpse) (2) Vin>laka (discolored corpse) (3) Vipubbaka (festering corpse) (4) Vicchiddaka
(fissured corpse) (5) Vikkh9yitaka (mangled corpse) (6) Vikkhittaka (dismembered corpse) (7)
Hatavikkhittaka (cut and dismembered corpse) (8) Lohitaka (bleeding corpse) (9) Pulavaka
(corpse infested with worms) and (10) Atthika (skeleton). All these are discussed here, which
are the prerequisite of Buddhist way of meditation.
Chapter-Three deals with the ‘introduction to Anussati’ (recollection). In this chapter
Anussatis are discussed the ten. They are (1) Buddh9nussati, (2) Dhamm9nussati, (3)
Samgh9nussati, (4) S>l9nussati, (5) C9g9nussati, (6) Devat9nussati, (7) Maranassati, (8)
K9yagat9sati, (9) @n9p9nassati, and (10) Upasam9nussati. And Brahmavih9ra is divided into
fourfold. They are (1) Mett9, (2) Karun9, (3) Mudit9, and (4) Upekkh9. @h9repatikMlasaññ9,
Catudh9tuvavatth9na. Four immaterial states, namely, (1) The Base of infinite space (2) The
Base of Infinite Consciousness (3) The Base of Nothingness (4) The base of neither-
perception-nor-non-perception are also described.
This chapter also explains the meaning of Anussati, the practicing methods of them,
the practicing methods of Brahmavih9ra, @h9repatikMlasaññ9, Catudh9tuvavatth9na, Four
immaterial states and their advantages are also explained.
Chapter-Four deals with ‘meditation’ and four foundations of mindfulness. They are
(1) Contemplation of the body (kynupassn). (2) Contemplation of feeling
(vedannupassan). (3) Contemplation of consciousness (cittnupassan). (4) Contemplation
of the Dhamma (dhammnupassan).
This chapter explains fourteen topics of Contemplation of the body (kynupassan).
The first one is mindfulness of breathing. Practitioners focus their mind on the object of
meditation. Here, the object of meditation will be the breath. So, their mind must be
focused in the incoming and outgoing breath.
The second one is the posture of the body: Walking, standing, sitting, and lying
down. Practitioners are to use all four postures in mindfulness meditation.
The third one is mindfulness with clear comprehension. In going forward and in going
back, the meditator applies clear comprehension. In looking straight on and in looking away
from the front, he applies clear comprehension.
The fourth one is reflection on the repulsiveness of the body. There are thirty-two
body parts. Meditators are instructed to contemplate on the repulsiveness of these thirty-two
parts. And again, the meditator reflects on this body, upward from the sole of his feet,
downward from the tip of his hair, enclosed by the skin and full of diverse impurities, thus:
“There are in this body.

The fifth one is reflection on the material elements. The meditator reflects upon this
very body just as it is placed or disposed, with regard to its primary elements: there are in
this body the earth element, the water element, the fire element, and the air element.
The sixth one is the nine cemetery contemplations. The Nine Cemetery
Contemplations are designed to cultivate the concept of repulsiveness of the body. This is
used to develop detachment from the body. Someone is attached to his body and to the
bodies of others. As long as there is any attachment, there will be suffering. In order to get
rid of suffering, one should have no attachment to his body and the bodies of others. The
cemetery contemplations will help the meditators to remove these attachments.
The first contemplation is on a “festering body.”
(1) A meditator sees a body swollen and festering, discarded on the cemetery after
death. He compares his body with that, thinking: “Truly my body too is of the same nature,
it will become like that and will not go beyond that nature.”
(2) When a meditator sees a body eaten hungrily by crows, by hawks, by vultures,
etc. being consumed by various kinds of worms, he compares his body with that, thinking:
“Truly my body too is of the same nature, it will become like that and will not go beyond
that nature,” etc.
The contemplation of feelings. There are many kinds of feelings- pleasant, unpleasant, or
neutral. Feelings here must be understood to be mental. When somebody has pain, he feels
the pain and that mental feeling is called, in P9li, vedan9. Meditators who contemplate or
note the pleasantness, unpleasantness, or neutrality of feelings are said to be practicing the
Contemplation on Feelings.
The contemplation of consciousness. Citt9nupassan9 can be practiced at the place where
consciousness arises. Should the arising of Citta occur while walking, meditation on it must
be done while walking. Should the arising of consciousness occur while eating, drinking,
meditation must be done then and there accordingly. If it occurs while sitting, the meditation
must be done then and there too.
And the contemplation of the Dhammas. This section discusses the “five hindrances” the
“five aggregates of clinging,” With regard to the hindrances, the Buddha said,
(1) Sense-desire
When sense-desire arises within him, the meditator knows, “There is sense-desire
within me,” or when sense-desire disappears within him, he knows, “There is no sense-
desire within me.
(2)Ill will
When ill will arises within him, the meditator knows, “There is ill will within me,” or
when ill will disappears within him, he knows, “There is no ill will within me.”
(3)Sloth and Torpor
When sloth and torpor occur in him, the meditator knows, “There are sloth and
torpor in me,” or when sloth and torpor dissolve in him, he knows, “There are no sloth and
torpor in me.”
(4) Restlessness and Remorse
When restlessness and remorse arise in him, the meditator knows, “There are
restlessness and remorse in me,” or when restlessness and remorse vanish in him, he knows,
“There are no restlessness and remorse in me.”
(5) Doubt
When doubt is present in him, the meditator knows, “There is doubt in me,” or when doubt
is absent in him, he knows, “There is no doubt in me.”
There are five aggregates: (1) the aggregate of matter (r%pa); (2) the aggregate of feeling
(vedan); (3) the aggregate of perception (saññ); (4) the aggregate of mental formations
(sa*khra); and (5) the aggregate of consciousness (viññna). The whole world is composed
of these five aggregates. This includes all physical and mental phenomena. All these five
aggregates are discussed in this chapter.
In the fifth Chapter we have given our observation in the form of conclusion. The
findings of each chapter are also presented here.
The work carries a detailed bibliography of both primary and secondary sources. It
also contains two indexes (1) index of words and (2) index of authors.
A Critical Study of Dosa and Mett
(With Special Reference to Canonical Pli Texts)
Ashin Paññobhsa
Research Scholar
Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit
Introduction
It is proposed to study critically two very important concepts—namely ‘Dosa’ and
‘Mett’-- Contradictory and related –One is the cause of problem and the other as if a step
towards their solution. The former is to be avoided in all circumstances, where as the later is
to be cultivated at all levels.
Dosa is powerful destructive vice. It is great destroyer in the world. Dosa is mental
state which often instigates crime. Hatred proliferates hatred. One’s hatred engenders hatred
in another. An angry face cannot soften another’s heart. “Hatred never ceases through
hatred” says the Buddha.
Through hatred, we cannot construct “peace.” Through hatred, we cannot live happy
lives. Through hatred, we cannot make friends. Through hatred, we cannot unite a society.
Dosa (hatred) is harmful to peace. . Dosa is not only violent but also soils the mind. It is
A Critical Study of Dosa and Mett 67
harmful to society. It is harmful to spiritual progress. This harmful Dosa (hatred) must be
expelled from us. How do we expel that extremely harmful hared from us?
Mett so called Adosa is non-ferocity or non-savageness. It is direct opposite of Dosa.
The Buddha taught us: “Mett must be developed in order to expel Dosa (hatred)”
Mett is mental state that is non-hatred or loving-kindness. Mett is defined as spirit
of a true friend. Mett is for the welfare and happiness of living beings.
Mett is compared to a mother’s love toward her child. The Buddha says: “Just as a
mother protects her only child even at the risk of her life, even so one should cultivate
boundless loving-kindness towards all living-beings. The mother loves her own child. Mett
however, loves all.
How does one make Mett grow in one’s heart?
First of all, one must think thus: As one loves ones own self. Similarly one must loves
others. To make Mett grow in your heart, you should always think of the others lovable
qualities. One should not try to find out the faults of others. Upon the other’s lovable
qualities make one’s Mett grow. Through finding faults, one cannot grow Mett in one’s
heart. Tolerance and forgiveness fortify Mett against hatred.
One must keep one’ Mett alive in one’s heart. Try to love all at anytime, anywhere.
Show always one’s Mett towards others through one’s physical actions. Show your Mett
towards others through verbal actions. Render good for evil. Render help to those in need.
If Mett prevails in one’s heart, there is no place for hatred. The concentration Mett
paves the way to achieve insight knowledge. The insight knowledge leads to enlightenment.
Through the enlightenment one can attain Nibbna, the supreme happiness.
A lot has been told, narrated and discussed on these two concepts in Buddhist
literature. The present thesis will highlight on the natures of the two opposite mental states
Dosa and Mett of human beings.

68 The Lion’s Outlook, Siagu Students’ Research Journal
1. Objectives of Study:
1) To know the mental states.
2) To realize the nature of mind in human being.
3) To explain the Buddha’s meditation to give peace of mind for human being.
4) To know the nature of Dosa (hatred).
5) To know mainly the nature of Mett, (loving-kindness.)
2. Survey of Researches done:
These two mental states Dosa and Mett are universal parallel in beings. The concept
of hatred and loving-kindness are the qualities of being are realized by all the great thinkers
and philosophers in all the ages, in all the systems of Indian and world philosophy.
Although many scholars, such as Bhikkhu KhantBplo, the author of Buddhism,
Ahimsa and tolerance, Dhammarakkhita Thera, the author of Mettbhvan, Ven.Mahasi
Sayadaw, the author of Brahmavihra dhamma, and Ashin Janakbhivamsa, the author of
Abhidhamma in Daily life have studied mind and matter or the philosophy of Buddhism,
there is a great a need to survey the two mental states, Dosa and Mett.
Destructive and constructive power of those two mental states Dosa and Mett have
not been done yet in detail by way of a critical study specially referring to quotations, stories,
examples and comparison etc, from various points of views in the five Nikyas namely,
DhBghanikya, Majjimanikya, Samyuttanikya, AFguttara-nikya and Khuddakanikya and
their commentaries, sub-commentaries. To the best of our knowledge, there is no resent on
the topic exclusively explaining and elaborating these two concepts from all accepts. Hence,
it is prepared to make a critical and an analytical study the two very significant topics.
3. Scope and Methodology:

This research concentrates on the two mental states of human-being i.e. Dosa and
Mett will explain them with help of original Theravda Buddhist Pli text. The research
mainly based on the Pli Buddhist Cannon. The analysis will primarily be critical and
comparative. The discussion on these two concepts whenever they occur will be.
4. Contribution of Study:
The proposed work will show how the two mental states are very interesting
categories in human society. The analytical study will help us to understand the two mental
states fully and to know how to get rid of one state, Dosa and how to cultivate the other one,
Mett to reach the peace of human society.
To be more specific, the present work will concentrate on:
--To show that all wars and inflictions all over the world the facts and present days
founded on the one of mental state, Dosa (hatred) of human being.
--To show the other one of mental state, Mett as very important to get ever lasting
peace of human society.
--To collect the concept which are revealed by the many scholars about Mett.
--To clarity the two mental states of human being.
The main object of the chosen topic is to understand the destructive mind and
mental state and to get rid of them and to cultivate the opposite one so that all human being
will get the everlasting peace.
The thesis is organized and planned on follows:
Chapter.0. Introduction; Problems, Nature & Scope of the work
Chapter. I. Fundamental Nature of Mind in the Theravda Buddhist Abhidhamm

1.1. Concept of Mind in the Theravda Buddhism
1.2. Definition of the term Citta (Mind)
1.3. Analysis of Function of Mind and How the Mind works
1.4. The Nature of Mind and How the Mind ought to be controlled
1.5. How the Mind is purified and unpurified
Chapter. II (Dosa - hatred)
2.1. The meaning of Dosa.
2.2. Negative consequences of Dosa.
2.3. Three Stages of Dosa.
2.4. Four associates with Dosa.
2.5. Controlling of four associates.
Chapter III (Mett – loving-kindness)
3.1. The meaning of Mett
3.2. Three aspects of Mett
3.3. Practicing on Mett
3.4. Positive consequences of Mett
Chapter IV (Brahmavihra - noble living)
4.1. The analytical statement of Noble Living
4.2. Living with Mett&
4.3. Living with Karun&
4.4. Living with Mudit&
4.5. Living with Upekkh&
Chapter V
It will explain comparisons of ‘Dosa and Mett’ with similar concepts and other
mental states and reaching higher states and final goal by way of eradicating Dosa and its
companions and cultivating the four Brahmavih&ra.
The conclusion, we have presented our finding in the form of observations. The
summery of each chapter is reassimilated here. Along with the critical reflections on the two
essential qualifying of human being, it brings to establish and enlist the relation between
these two concepts.

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A Study of Buddhism in Burma (3rd Century BC to 13th century A.D)
Ashin Setthila
Research Scholar
Department Of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology
Banaras Hindu University, Banaras, India
Buddhism in Burma (or Myanmar) is predominantly of the Theravada tradition or the
southern school. About 89% of Burmese practice Buddhism. It is the most religious Buddhist
country in terms of proportion of monks in the population and proportion of income spent
on religion. Adherents are most likely found among the dominant ethnic Burma (or
Burmans), Shan, Rakhine (Arakanese), Mon, Karen, and Chinese who are well integrated
into Burmese society. Among ethnic Burma, Theravada Buddhism is practiced often in
conjunction with Nat (in Burmese, Deva in Pāḷi, Spirit in English) worship. Monks,
collectively known as the Saṃgha are venerated members of Burmese society.
The importance of Buddhism in the history of Burma is evident from a landscape
dominated by pagodas which is why the country is often called "the land of pagodas." The
Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon is steeped in myth and legend, and represents the people's
faith who has worshipped there for generations. Every village in Burma has a pagoda and a
monastery, the traditional places for worship and education.
The Buddha
The Buddha, whose personal name was Siddhattha (Siddhartha in Sanskrit), and
family name Gotama, lived in North India in the 6th Century B.C. His father, Suddhodana,
A Study of Buddhism in Burma (3rd Century B.C. to 13th century A.D.) 77
was the ruler of the kingdom of the Sakyas (in modern Nepal). His mother was queen May6.
According to the custom of the time, he was married quite young, at the age of sixteen, to a
beautiful and devoted young princess named Yasodhar6. The young prince lived in his
palace with every luxury at his command. But all of a sudden, confronted with the reality of
life and the suffering of mankind, he decided to find the solution – the way out of this
universal suffering. At the age of 29, soon after the birth of his only child, R6hul6, he left his
kingdom and became an ascetic in search of this solution.
For six years the ascetic Gotama wandered about the valley of the Gangas, meeting
famous religious teachers, studying and following their systems and methods, and submitting
himself to rigorous ascetic practices. They did not satisfy him. So he abandoned all
traditional religious and their methods and went his own way. It was thus that one evening,
seated under a tree (since then known as the Bodhi- Bo-tree, ‘the Tree of Wisdom’), on the
bank of the river Neranjara at Buddha-Gaya (near Gaya in modern Bihar), at the age of 35,
Gotama attained Enlightenment, after which he was known as the Buddha, ‘The Enlightened
One’.
After his Enlightenment, Gotama the Buddha delivered his first sermon to a group of
five ascetics, his old colleagues, in the Deer Park at Isipatana (in modern Sarnath) near
Benares. From that day, for 45 years, he taught all classes of men and women- kings and
peasants, Brahmins and outcasts, bankers and beggars, holy men and robbers- without
making the slightest distinction between them. He recognized no differences of caste or
social groupings, and the way he preached was open to all men and women who were
ready to understand and to follow it.
At the age of 80, the Buddha passed away at Kusinara (in modern Uttar Pradesh in
India).
Today Buddhism is found in Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam,
Tibet, China, Japan, Mongolia, Korea, Formosa, in some parts of India, Pakistan and Nepal,
and also in the Soviet Union. The Buddhist population of the world is over 500 million.
The title of my thesis is A Study of Buddhism in Burma (3rd Centuary BC to 13th
Centuary A.D.).
It is mainly divided into seven chapters. Out of seven Chapters, the first chapter is
“Introduction” and it is subdivided into five titles.
In the first title, briefly I mention the “Geography of Burma” with brief presentation of
climate of Burma and then the second title is arranged in the subject of the “History of
Burma”.
In this regard, I orderly present the situations of historical succession, from by the
mid- 900s BC to 1989 AD, as to how, early migration of three tribes (the tribe of Mon,
Tibeto-Burma speaking Pyu, and Tibeto-Burman speaking Burmans or the Bamar) to
Ayeyarwady Valley, warfare among tribes regarding invasion to the land, etc.
The third title is “What is Buddhism”. In this title, I emphasize on the Four Noble
Truth and the Noble Eightfold Path not only because these two teachings are vital essences
of Buddhism and but also because these enable to point out the path or way the final
liberation or happiness for those who want to come to the end of suffering.
The fourth one is “A summary of what I have done” (i.e., this title), and the title of
Research Methodology and Sources comes into the final arrangement of the chapter (I). In
that case, I present completely how and why I attempt my research work.
The second chapter is “The Spread of Buddhism in Burma”. In this chapter, I pointed
out the background religious history regarding the introducing of Buddhism to Burma
(Myanmar): the first one is the history of Tapussa and Ballika, two merchants from
Ukkalæ(Yangon in lower Burma), who met the Buddha at the foot of the Rajayatana Tree in
the seven week after His Enlightenment, the second one is the story of Sona and Uttara who
also introduced Buddhism to the Suvarnabhumi (Thaton) around 228 BC, the final one is of
Anawrahta who brought about Buddhism from the Thaton to Bagan (central Burma)in 11th
Century A.D. etc.
The third chapter is the “Buddhist Literature in Burma” which consists of the
explanations regarding what the Buddhist Literature was firstly brought into Burma by Sona
and Uttara (Asoka’s Missionaries to Burma) in 3rd Century B C, and, what it was carried by
Anawrahta from Thaton to Pagan in 11th Century A.D. Then, I covered this chapter with how
Buddhist literatures were compiled by the subsequent Buddhist scholars during this period.
The fourth chapter is “Buddhist Monuments in Burma”. In this chapter, I presented
three types of monuments which located in the town of Pagan, Nyaung-oo, Myinkaba,
Thiripyitsaya, Minnanthu and Pwasaw: the monuments of Pagoda (Stupa), the monuments
of Temple, and the monuments of Image.
The fifth chapter is the “Buddhist Sculptural Remains in Burma” and under this
chapter; I mentioned the stone and bronze images of the Buddha with several gestures
(mudra) which are representing to the many religious significances, such as, the preaching of
the First Sermon in the Deer Park. Apart from the image of the Buddha, I depicted the
pagoda or temple which also has other Reminders of the Buddha. Among these are the
terracotta plaques found in some pagoda and temples. They had a didactic as well as a
decorative function and take the place of the reliefs which are found in such temples as the
Borobudur.
The sixth chapter is “Various Buddhist Schools in Burma”. It was attempted to
mention about the Buddhist schism which occurred during the reign of the king
Narapatisithu in 12th Century A.D.
The seventh chapter is “Conclusion” which was covered with the salient and
remarkable accounts to all respective chapters.

Research Methodology and Sources:
Research Methodology: In the modern age research has acquired a special place. Last
twenty years, methodology awareness is increasing day by day. The traditional and modern
method is always used to find out issues and analyze them on the basis of available standard
primary and secondary sources, documents, literature books, articles and newspapers. All
the chapters will be based on historical and social line and often inter linked with the
interdisciplinary analytical methods to meet a detailed plan of how the goals of research will
achieved.
Sources: The account of Buddhism in Burma and its literature are found in Pāḷi and
Sanskrit texts and also in the literatures of China, Tibet, Myanmar, India, Sri Lanka, etc.
Myanmar literatures are the most reliable and oldest sources for the account of Buddhism in
Burma and its significant books. According to the Myanmar literatures and Pali sources, the
entire work of history of the Buddha was rehearsed and unanimously accepted and then
complied at the Buddhism in Burma.
The sources are divided into two parts: primary and secondary sources. Original Pāḷi
text such as Buddhavaṃsa will be consulted as the primary sources. As the secondary
sources, various significant books such as translation of Pāḷi and other history books written
by modern scholars will be used in this work. Especially, the reference of original sources
used in this work will follow by Myanmar literature Edition.
Reference
1. G.E. Harvey, History of Burma (London 1925; reprint 1967) pp. 5, 6.
2. Translated by B.C. Law, The History of the Buddha's Religion (London 1952), pp. 40
ff.
3. Bhikkhu is the term applied to a fully ordained member of the Buddha's Order.
4. Identified as Okkalapa near Yangon. Some believe it to be modern Orissa (Utkala) on
the east coast of India.
5. Shway Yoe, The Burman (reprint: Scotland 1989), pp. 179f.
6. Punnovada Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya I,267ff.; Theragatha, v. 70, Theragatha Atthakatha
I,156ff.
7. See entry 'Puñña' in G.P. Malalasekera, A Dictionary of Pāḷi Proper Names (PTS 1937-
38).
8. The Sasanavaṃsa says the Buddha stayed for seven weeks and converted eighty-four
thousand beings to the Dhamma.
9. Ashin Dhammacara, Kyaungdawya zedidaw thamain (Yangon 1978), pp. 28, 29.
10. Harvey, History of Burma, p. 268.
11. The Mahavaṃsa (reprint: London: PTS, 1980), p. 82.
12. Smith, Asoka's alleged mission to Pegu (Indian Antiquary, xxxiv, 1905), pp. 185-86.
13. Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, I, p. 32.
14. Cf. L.P. Briggs, Dvaravati, the most ancient kingdom of Siam (JAOS, 65, 1945), p. 98.
15. Parker, Burma with special reference to the relations with China (Rangoon 1893), p.
12.
16. For a detailed treatment of Mahayana Buddhism in Pagan, see G.H. Luce, Old Burma
Early Pagan (New York, 1969), I, p. 184ff.
17. Cf. Maha-ummagga-jataka, No.546, The Jātakas (reprint: PTS, 1973), p. 156.
18. Cf. Wickremasinghe, Epigraphica Zeylan., I, pp. 242-55.
19. Culavamsa, ch.60, vv. 4-8.
20. Luce, Old Burma Early Pagan, I, p. 79
21. Cf. D.K. Barua, Buddha Gaya Temple, Its History (Buddha Gaya, 1981), pp. 59, 62,
63, 163, 176, 195, 244-247.
22. Cf. Than Tun, Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma (Arran, 1988), pp. 85ff.
23. Cf. Luce, Old Burma Early Pagan, I, p. 74.
24. Cf. Than Tun, op. cit.
25. G.E. Harvey, History of Burma, p. 70.
26. History of the Buddha's Religion, p. 74.
27. Pāḷi Literature of Burma (reprint: London, 1966), p. 14
28. K.R. Norman, Pāḷi Literature (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1983), p. 164.
29. Ven. A.P. Buddhadatta, in his Corrections to Geiger's Mahavaṃsa and Other Papers,
offers an argument that there were in fact two Chapatas and that the one called
Saddhammajotipāla, who wrote on the Abhidhamma, probably dates from the late
fifteenth century. The Sasanavaṃsa mentions a contemporary second Chapata who
was a shameless bhikkhu.
Bibliography
Original Sources
Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma.
Partly translated by U Pe Maung Tin and G.H. Luce. Oxford University Press 1923.
Pagan, Chronique du Palais de Christal.
By Cerre, P.H. and F. Thomas. Editions Findakly. France 1987.
Sasanavaṃsa.
Translated by B.C. Law: The History of the Buddha's Religion.London 1952.
Recueil des Inscription du Siam.
Part II. G. Coedes.
Mahavaṃsa.
Translated by Wilhelm Geiger. London: PTS, 1912. Reprint 1980.
Culavamsa.
Translated by Wilhelm Geiger. London: PTS, 1929. Reprint 1973.

Dipavaṃsa.
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Barua, Beni Madhab., Asoka and His Inscriptions. Reprint: Calcutta 1968.
Barua, D.K., Buddha Gaya Temple: Its History. Buddha Gaya 1981.
Bechert, Heinz., Buddhismus, Staat und Gesellschaft. 3 vols. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz,
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Bode, Mabel Haynes.,The Pāḷi Literature of Burma. Reprint: London 1966.
Collis, Maurice., The Land of the Great Image. Reprint: Bristol 1946.
Eliot, (Sir) Charles N. E., Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch. 3 vols. London
1921. Reprint 1957. See especially Vol. III, "Buddhism Outside India."
Edwardes, Michael., A Life of the Buddha. London 1959.
Fytche, A., Burma, Past and Present. 2 vols. London 1878.
Halliday, R.S., The Talaings. Rangoon 1917.
Law, Bimala Churn., A History of Pāḷi Literature. 2 vols. Reprint: Delhi 1983.
Luce, Gordon H., Old Burma, Early Pagan. 3 vols. New York 1969-70.
Maung Htin Aung., Burmese Monk's Tales. New York and London 1966.
Maung Htin Aung., The Stricken Peacock. The Hague 1965.
Niharranjan, Ray., Theravada Buddhism in Burma. University of Calcutta 1946
Norman, K.R., Pali Literature. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1983.
Phayre, A.P., History of Burma. London. 1883-84. Reprint 1967.
Than Tun., Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma. Arran 1988.
Thomas, E.J., The Life of the Buddha As History and Legend. London 1949.
Shway Yoe (G. Scott)., The Burman. Reprint: Scotland 1989.
Stargardt, Janice., The Ancient Pyu of Burma. Vol. I. Cambridge 1990.

Comparative Study of Main Buddhist Sects
Ashin Vannita
M.A.
Department of Mahyna Buddhist Studies
Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna, India
For Buddhists, I assume that we should understand about the Buddhist sects or
schools, when, how they broke up it, and then the salient features of these schools.
Therefore I try to collect and present it. It is sure that is not complete. I intend and hope to
occupy a little knowledge for readers.
The different forms of Buddhism can be understood by becoming familiar with the
two major schools that arose out of the Buddha’s basic teachings.
The two major schools of Buddhism, Theravada and Mahayana, are to be understood
as different expressions of the same teachings of the Buddha. In fact, they agree upon and
practice the core teachings of the Buddha. While there was a schism after the first Sagha
council, it was largely over the monastic rules and academic points such as whether an
enlightened person could lapse or not.
Theravda (The teachings of the Elder)
In the Buddhist countries of southern Asia, there never arose any serious differences
on the fundamentals of Buddhism. All these countries, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand,
Comparative Study of Buddhist Sects 85
have accepted the principles of the Theravada school. The earliest available teaching of the
Buddha are to be found in P*li literature and belongs to the school of the Therav*dins, who
may e called the most orthodox school of Buddhism. This school admits the human
characteristics of the Buddha, and is characterized by a psychological understanding of
human nature and emphasizes a meditative approach to transformation of consciousness.
The teaching of the Buddha according to this school is very plain. He asks us to “abstain
from all kinds of evil, to accumulate all that is good and to purify our mind” (Sabbap*passa
akaranam, kusalasupa sampad*, Sacitta pariyodapanam). These can be accomplished by the
three trainings: the development of ethic (s4la), concentration (Sam*dhi), insight-wisdom
(paññ*).
When an individual understands the true nature of things, she/ he find nothing
substantial in the world. Though this understanding, there is nether indulgence in the
pleasures of senses or self- mortification, following the middle path by name Right View,
Right thought, Right speech, Right action, Right occupation, Right effort, Right mindfulness,
Right concentration. She/he realizes that all worldly suffering is caused by craving and that it
is possible to bring suffering to an end by following the Noble Eight Fold Path. The life of the
Arahat is the ideal of the followers of this school.
Mahyna (The Great Vehicle)
The M*h*yana is more of an umbrella body for great kinds of schools. The Tantra
school well represented to the Pure Land sect in Tibet and Nepal. Their essential teaching is
that Salvation can be attained only through absolute trust in the saving power of Amitabha,
longing to be reborn in his paradise through his grace. These are found in china, Korea and
Japan. Zen Buddhism is meditation schools in China and Japan. According to these schools,
to look inward and not to look outward is the only way to achieve enlightenment, which to
the human mind is ultimately the same as Buddhahood. They adapted the existing monastic
rules and thus revolutionized the Buddhist order of Monks. Moreover, they made alterations
in the arrangements and interpretation of the Sutta (discourse), the vinaya (Rule) texts. And
they rejected certain portions of the canon which had been accepted in the first Council.
According to it, the Buddha is lokottara (supramundane) and is connected only externally
with the worldly life. This conception of the Buddha contributed much to the growth of the
Mahayana philosophy.
Mahayana Buddhism is divided into two systems of thought: the Madhy*mika and
the Yogac*ra School. The Madhy*mikas were so called on account of the emphasis they laid
on the middle view. Here the middle path stands for the non acceptance of the two views
concerning existence and nonexistence, eternity and non eternity, self and non-self. Briefly,
it advocates neither the theory of reality nor that of the unreality of the world, but merely of
relativity.
The Yogac*ra School is another important branch of the Mahayana. It was so called
because it emphasized the practice of yoga as the most effective method for the attainment
of the highest truth. All the ten stages of spiritual progress of Bodhisattvahood have to be
passed through before Bodhi can be attained. Therefore the ideal of the Mahayana school is
that of the Bodhisattva, a person who delays his or her own enlightenment in order to
compassionately assist all other beings and ultimately attains to the highest Bodhi.
Here we can study the differences between Therav*da and Mah*y*na Buddhism
briefly with table.
Topic Theravada Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism

1. The Buddha Only the Gotama Buddha (and past Besides Sakyamuni Buddha,
Buddha are accepted. and other Buddhas like
Amitabha and Medicine are
accepted.
2. Bodhisattvas Only Maitraya Bodhisattva is Avalokitesvara, Manjusri,
accepted. Ksitigarbha, and Samantha-
badra, Besides maitraya are
accepted.
Comparative Study of Buddhist Sects 87
3. Buddhist (Tipitaka), Vinaya Pitaka of 5 books, Books of some Theravada

Scriptures Sutta of 5 collections (many suttas), Tipitaka plus many other suttas
and Abhidhamm* Pitaka of 7. (e.g lotus sutta, sadhamma
punnarika.etc.
4. Original P*li Sanskrit
language
5. Location Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tibet, China, Taiwan, Japan,
Laos, Cambodia, Parts of Southeast Korea, Mongolia, Parts of
Asia. Southeast Asia.
6. Goal of Arahat Buddhahood via, Bodhisattva-
Training path
7. 3-Buddha Very limited emphasis; mainly on Emphasized, including the
bodies nirmana-k*ya and dhamma-k*ya. samboga-k*ya or reward/
(Trik*ya) enjoyment body.
8. Language of Tripitaka is only in P*li. Teaching in Scripture translated into local
Transmission P*li. Supplemented by local language.
language.
9. Buddha’s Historical disciples described in Many bodhisattvas that are not
Disciples Scriptures. historical figures.
10. Rituals Very few, not emphasized. Many. Very emphasized.
11. Concept of There is total reliance on oneself to Besides self liberation, It is
Bodhicitta eradicate defilements. important for Mahayana
followers to help other
sentient beings.
12. Use of Some equivalent in the use of Heavily practiced in the
Mantras Parittas. Vajiray*na school of
Mahayana Buddhism other
school also have included
mantras in their daily liturgy
13. Vegetarianism This aspect is not necessary. Very well observed in all
Mahay*na school, Tibetans
due to the geographical
circumstance. However, this
aspect is not compulsory.
The Therav*da schools; observe in the following:
Sarvastevadin Vibhajjav*da (240 BCE; during Asoka) Therav*da (240 BCE)

Therav*da subschools:
.Mahisasaka (after 232 BCE)
.Dharmaguptaka (after 232 BCE)
.Kasyapiya (after 232 BCE)
.Vatsiputriya (under Asoka) later name Sammitiya
.Dharmottariya
.Bhadrayaniya
.Sannagarika
.Mulasarvastivada (3 or 4 centuries)
.Sautranteka (Between 50 BCE and c. 100CE)
Mahasanghika or Mahayana split into 9 sects:
.Ekavyaharaka (under the Asoka)
.Lokottaravadin
.Kaukkutika (during Asoka)
.Bahassrutiya (late 3 century BCE)
.Prajnaptivada (late 3 century BCE)
.Caitika mid-first century BCE
.Aparasaila
.Uttarasaila
References
Universal value in the Buddhist tradition written by Dr. MV Ram Kumar Ratnam.
Buddhism and Global Peace
Ashin Kusala
M.A.
Introduction
I am very glad to see all of you who wish a global peace. Here we have a chance to
meet new friends, new place and to hear from others and to share with others about the
education for the global peace. I think such international seminar is necessary, useful and
very meaningful.
Gujarat in history
The Gujarat is very important place in Buddhist history because according to some
P!li scholars the P!li language was the dialect of Gujarat. It has close connection to the
Asoka-inscription of Girnar. Girnar is in today’s Gujarat.1 It is mentioned in the P!li literature
that after the third Buddhist Samgha council one of nine missionaries a group leaded by Ven.
Yonaka Dhammarakkhita went to Aparanta state.2 This Aparanta state is also in Gujarat. As
the resolution of the third Samgha council Ven Mahinda, son of King Asoka went to the
1
Hazra, Kanal lal. P!li language and literature (Vol .1). 1998
2
Buddhaghosa, maha. Parajikandaatthakatha(Vol.1).
Srilanka for sharing the education of the Buddhism for global peace from Gujarat.3 That's
why the Gujarat is one of important place in the Buddhist history. Now we all came together
here to search a way for peace in the world. This is great a coincidence similar to the
situation about two thousand years ago.
My paper
The title of my paper is “Buddhism and global peace”. In this paper I want to share
the basic idea of the global peace from the Buddhist perspective. Even though my paper is
very short and give few information but I hope it can introduce clearly the Buddhist
perspective with regard to the global peace.
Five Actions
The Buddha mentions the five precepts or actions to be followed for peaceful life in
the world. They are as following;
1. Pan!tipat! veramani = abstain from killing living beings.
2. Adinn!dan! veramani = abstain from stealing what that not given.
3. Kamesumicchac!r! veramani = abstain from sexual misconduct.
4. Mus!vad! veramani = abstain from telling lies.
5. Surameraya majjapamadath!n! veramani = abstain from intoxicating drinks and
drugs that cause heellessness.4
1. Pan!tipata veramani= abstain from killing living beings.
The killing is very cruel thing and it hurts a lot. Nobody say that it is good action. All
agree with that it is totally bad action. And it surely does not make any peaceful situation in
our life and society also. That's why the Buddha explains that it should be abstained. Animal
3
Buddhaghosa, maha. Par!jikandaatthakath! (Vol.1).
4
Buddhaghosa, maha. Suttanipataatthakath! (Vol.1).
Buddhism and Global Peace 91
beings are decorations of the world. Without animal our world is not beautiful. But now
some animals face problem which is totally going to lose in the world because the people are
killing them. Human being attachment to the killing case more and more. That’s why they
not only kill animals but they also kill each others. Nowadays our world is not beautiful by
the cruel of human. That's why the Buddha explains 2500 years ago that not to do any killing
action because it does not never a peaceful life and world.
2. Adinn!dan! veramani= abstain from stealing what that not given.
Every religion accepts that the stealing case is also bad action. The rob and burgle and
take things from others by lying are including here because they are all wrong way. In any
society every problem is started from theft case. One country tries to attack for ruling over
other country. That is also big steal case. We can see the problem of the most war is
beginning of a stealing. Any stealing case can not make any peace situation in our society or
world.
3. Kamesumicch!c!r! veramani= abstain from sexual misconduct.
The kamesumicch!c!ra is two words, Kamesu and micc!c!ra. It is means that wrong
doing in the sexual case. The sexual case makes so many troubles of the society in every
where. That's why we should follow the proper society regulation which is
Kamesumicch!c!r! veramani. Here the suitable sexual rule is mainly for husband and wife. If
husband or wife makes relationship with other persons, it is called wrong doing in sexual
case. In some place some make the relationship between the male and female freely
according to their tradition without any rule. The sex-tradition spread in the world. As it’s
result, AIDS disease come to the human world. That’s why the Buddha being sees this
problem, reminds to all not to do can any sexual misconduct.

4. Musavada veramani= abstain from telling lies.
False speech make to the unbelief among one other. If one usually uses the lying talk
he is looked down by others as an unbelievable person in the society. He who often is false
speech can not be successful any work. The Buddha explains thus “the person who usually
uses the lying talk does not fear any evil deed.” That mean that the person who telling lies
easy to do any bad actions. The person who uses false speech is very dangerous in our
society.
Nowadays we can see this situation thus the belief loses between a society, society
and country and country because of telling lies each others. That’s why we should talk truth
that oppose to the false speech. The Buddha explain that the four kinds of bad speech; the
telling lies (Mus!vada), Slandering (pisunav!c!), harsh speech (pharusav!c!), frivolous talk
(sampapphal!pa). We should abstain from the four kind of bad speech and we should speak
each other the good speech which is truth, polite, unity, benefit.5
5. Sur!meraya majjapam!da Th!na veramani= abstain from intoxicating drinks and
drugs that cause heellessness.
Intoxicating drink make a trouble in our life. We can see some drinker like mad
person who do not know any things as the right and wrong. Some go down from all good
situation which is education, job and friend etc. alcohol support any evil things to do easily.
We can say thus alcohol is base on any bad action which is a killing, stealing, sexual
misconduct and telling lies. That’s why we should abstain from any alcohol.
Reality Thing
The five precepts or five kind of action is a nature law or university truth. That means
its truth is not belong to the religion, couture, civilization, country, peoples, place and time,
5
DhammasaIgani. VibhaIgaha
knowing and unknowing. If we follow it we can get effect which is peaceful life. If we not
follow it we can not get any peaceful situation. These are base on the consideration. Without
consideration we can not follow the five actions. That’s why the Buddha explains in
Dahmmapada that “attanam upamam katv! panam na hantabbam= by the consideration
oneself, one should not hit others.”6 We do kindness on the all beings by the compare with
us as they are the same with self. If one person hit me or take my money or touch to my
family or talk lying me, at the time I feel do not satisfy that person. Like wise, if I do the bad
action on the other people, they also do not like me. That’s why here we should stay away
from the all bad action by consideration.
The Reasoning of Problem
The all action which make a problem in the world is base on three things that is
Lobha=greed, craving, Dosa=hatred, aversion and Moha= delusion, ignorance because
they make always unsighted to peoples even thought scholar. That's why the Buddha
explains that “lobho attham na j!nati, doso attham na j!nati, Moho attham na j!nati”=
craving, hatred and delusion does not know any the reason of right and wrong deed.7 Some
people do theft, sexual misconduct, wrong view, and covetousness etc because of craving.
The case of killing, harsh speech and ill will are spring from the hatred. Ignorance create that
all because of it is behind the craving and hatred. We do any bad action by the craving and
hatred because we do not know that it is good and bad or right and wrong sense hide by the
ignorance. That’s why we try to control or take away things.
Depend on what
Nowadays the three things are more and more on the increase in the world. That’s
why the whole world is full with so many problems in every where. Every day we can see a
6
Buddhaghosa, maha. Dhammapadaatthakath!.(Vol.1).
7
thera, Anuruddha. AbhiddhammatthasaIgaha.
grievance and lamentation of the world. Basically our all action is connection with the whole
world like a microwave. That’s why now our world is getting hot similar to us who are hot
with craving, hatred and ignorance. Our earth often shake like a gymnast, air hit the whole
world like a fighter, water take all like a porter. Our condition is also the same with the
natural world. We are interested more and more the jumping sports like football, tennis,
dance because of ground is not quiet with earth-quake. That's why we can change any
situation as the good to bad and bad to good because we have so many human powers.8
How to do for that
Human being is so many powerful in the world more than other beings because they
can make everything. As you know human have created the whole world by the education,
food, dress, house, car, etc. unfortunately the only human will break all things, even the
whole world which they are living. That’s why we can say thus everything is depend on the
human beings, not other. Our all action is always connection with everything in the world.
Our good action is connection with good situation and bad is bad. How to do for the global
peace? This is question. Answer is that we should be control our all bad actions.
Peaceful Way
If we want to get the peaceful life we have to reduce or remove our all emotion of
the strong desire, aversion or hatred and ignorance. We have to change our old idea of
craven, hatred and ignorance etc by non-desire =Alobha, non hatred=Adosa, non-delustion
=Amoha. By the non- craven we can do easily any social work, share to other food, dress,
medicine etc. by the non-hatred we can do easily to take car each other kindly. By the non-
delusion we can do easily to share to the others with education, right or wrong, good and
8
AIguttaranikaya catukkanip!ta.
bad. And then we should do taking a meditation which can make absolutely mind clean,
leading to the peacseful life.9
Conclusion
In order to establish a peace in the whole world we have to start it with our own
example. Individually we have to take care of our action and control any bad action by the
substituting with good action. To reduce the craving which is the basis of bad action, we
should practice the insight meditation of the Buddha. Let’s try to make the global peace.
May all being be free from suffering.
References
1. Hazra, Kanal lal. P!li language and literature (Vol .1). 1998
2. Buddhaghosa, mah!. P!r!jikandaatthakath! (Vol.1).
3. Buddhaghosa, mah!. Suttanip!taatthakath! (Vol.1).
4. DhammasaIgani. VibhaIgha
5. Buddhaghosa, mah!. Dhammapadaatthakath!.(Vol.1).
6. thera, Anuruddha. AbhiddhammatthasaIgaha.
7. AIguttara Nik!ya, Catukkanip!ta.
9
thera, Anuruddha. AbhiddhammatthasaIgaha.
Major Buddhist Sites in Andhra Pradesh, India
Ashin Kovida
M.A.
Department of Mahāyāna Buddhist Studies
Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna, India
Buddhism in Andhra Pradesh, India flourished for over 2000 years as one of the
religions, right from 5th century B.C. to 14 century A.D. as confirmed by archaeologists.
There were thousands of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis from all classes and positions. They
were supported by princes and peoples alike. A. P state in India produced great
philosophers and saints, Acharya Nagarjuna, a great founder of Sunyatavada doctrine
(Emptiness), Achariya Buddhagosha who wrote Visuddhimagga (the path of purification),
a great Theravada teacher, from Morandakhitaka (Kotanemalipuri) village in the present
day Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh. This great situation, system, religion, and
stimulated the creation of some of the best specimen of art and architecture produce in
India. There are fifty two Buddhist sites in Andhra. Among them some of the great
famous Buddhist sites are Nagarjunakonda, Amravati and Hyderabad.
Nagarjunakonda
Nagarjunakondan or the hill of Nagarjuna, is an island, located on the River
Krishna, 65 Km from Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh, India. It was one of the great
Buddhist learning centers. Several monasteries unearthed here. There are many stupas
depicted from the life of Buddha. Along with the remains of more than 70 structures, an
array of antiquities in various media and a good number of reliquaries containing the
relics of Lord Buddha and other Buddhist Acharyas, were recovered from the
The Lion’s Outlook, Sitagu Students’ Research Journal 97
excavations. A few relic caskets with a corporal relic of the Buddha are in the safe
custody of the Museum and shown to the visitors

visito on request and permission.
Hyderabad
derabad is one of the major cities of Andhra Pradesh, southern part of India. It
Hyderabad
is connected with all major cities in India by

b air, rail and road. It also has directed
d air
connections with Singapore, Bangkok, Dubai, Sri Lanka and more than added.
The State Archaeological Museum, Public Gardens, Hyderabad,, has a holy relic of
the Buddha in its possession and displayed in a miniature stupa model in a separate hall.
Especially Monolith Buddha statue is very famous and the largest one in the world. It is
situated in the middle of Husssainsagar Lake. An enjoyable boat ride takes you to statue
of the Buddha, standing 18 meters tall and weighing 320 tons.

98 Major Buddhist Sites in Andhra Pradesh, India
The Buddha taught Dhamma, suffering, cause of suffering, the cessation of
suffering and the way leading to the cessation of suffering, to end suffering for all beings.
The Buddha explained Dhamma, morality, concentration and wisdom to understand and
to get happiness towards Nibbāna. Therefore throughout history many statues of Buddha
were made to express gratitude to the world the teacher of Buddha. Most of Buddhism
constructed and kept this tradition a huge Buddha statue has been installed in the capital
city of Andhra Pradesh.

The Concept of Liberation in Buddhism
Ashin Gunissara
M.A.
Postgraduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies
University of Kelaniya, Colombo, Sri Lanka
The founder of Buddhism is Gotama the Buddha. He was the crown prince of
King Sudodana of Kapilavatthu of the 6th century BC. According to the Ariyapariyesana
Sutta (The Noble Search) of the Majjhima Nik'ya1, the prince renounced the world in
order to find the solution to man’s sufferings in life. In Buddhism, suffering is known as
‘dukkha’, a term that has more philosophical, physical, psychological and social
implications than any English word can convey. Therefore, freedom form dukkha in
Buddhism has its multifaceted meanings.
There are various schools of Buddhism emerged throughout the history. However,
the living schools are only few. Most of the schools have either lost or assimilated into the
existing schools. Basically, there are 3 main living schools: Mahayana, Theravada and
Tantrayana. Within Mahayana and Tantrayana, there are many sub-schools but none in
Theravada. Though there are many schools of Buddhism, the basic philosophy and
practices are the same. All schools aim at the ultimate freedom from dukkha.
(1) Liberation—the Freedom from Dukkha
In Buddhism, there are many terms to denote the meaning of liberation in English.
1
Majjhima Nik'ya vol 1. pp. 160-175.
Two important words are vimutti (freedom from dukkha) and nibb!na (cessation of
dukkha). Buddhism teaches that the main cause of dukkha is tanh' (craving). This tanha
has avijjh' (ignorance) as its foundation. Therefore, freedom or cessation of dukkha is
actually the freedom from or the cessation of craving and ignorance. These are the
negative expressions of liberation. The positive of it is the attainment of wisdom (prajbya)
or the realization of the highest Truth (paramattha sacc').
In order to understand the complex meaning of liberation in Buddhism, one
needs to look at the complex meaning of the word ‘dukkha’. In Samyatta Nik'ya, it is
said that the categories of dukkha are uncountable. However, from the basic 8 categories
of dukkha given in most texts, one can glance at the basic meaning of it. The 8 categories
of dukkha are: birth, old-age, sickness, death, separation from the loved, association with
the hated, not getting what one wants and, the grasping of the conditionings of the body-
and-mind. Thus dukkha covers physical, psychological as well as social conflicts.
Therefore, liberation in Buddhism denotes the liberation from physical, psychological as
well as social problems.2
Buddhism believes that this whole universe is conditioned and is continuing
changing. Therefore, there is no permanent bliss in any form of existence including lives
in heaven. In order to attain permanent bliss, one has to go beyond this conditioned
existence into unconditioned stage. And this is the Ultimate Liberation that can achieve
only by the wise who has purified his mind and who has attained the Wisdom.
(2) Way of Liberation—Noble Eightfold Paths
Buddhism emphasizes that in order to liberate from all forms of dukkha, one
should first liberate oneself from false beliefs and wrong living. The most direct and
immediate step one can take to liberate oneself as well as others is to do away with
personal craving and ignorance. In order to do this the Buddha prescribed the Noble
Eight-fold Paths i.e., right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right
2
For more detailed information, refer to Buddhist Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Ancient India
The Concept of Liberation in Buddhism 101
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. Basically, these 8 paths
can be categorized as intellectual training (right understanding), ethical training (right
thought, right speech, right action and right livelihood) and psychological training (right
effort, right mindfulness and right concentration). All these have to be cultivated
simultaneously3.
In Buddhism, rite, ritual and prayers are not considered the methods to liberation.
Buddhism emphasizes personal determination and efforts. The Dhammapada says ‘By
oneself, indeed, is evil done; by oneself is one defiled. By oneself is evil left undone, by
oneself, indeed, is one purified. Purity and impurity depend on oneself. No one purifies
another”.4 Therefore, Buddhism declares that “oneself, indeed, is one’s savior.”5
(3) Spiritual and Social Liberation—Mahayana Buddhism
Although the meaning of liberation in it fullest sense involved spiritual as well as
social liberation as we have noted above, but it is a fact that Buddha was limited by the
environment in which he lived. Although he has liberated the low caste and the women
by admitting them into his Order and given them equal status, yet the movement of
social liberation was not able to benefit the people until the rise of Mah'y'na Buddhism.
Therefore, Mahayana Buddhism can be regarded as a movement that balances the
spiritual and social liberation of the Buddhists.
In Buddhist history, monasticism has once become a rigid form of religious system
having the monopoly of religious rights. Although Buddhism advocates the getting rid of
the selfish notion of ‘self’, Buddhist monks has once neglected their religious duties in the
society. To encounter this, a revolutionary movement occurred during the Christian era
which gives rise to Mah'y'na Buddhism. Mahayanists are the Buddhists who practice 10
Perfections (Paramita) in order to attained Buddhahood. These 10 Perfections are
altruistic in nature. Today, countries where Mahayana Buddhism predominated, spiritual
liberation and social liberation have become the major tasks of Buddhist organizations.
3
The Buddha’s way to Human Liberation—A Socio-historical Approach pp. 411-416.
4
Dhammapada Verse 165
5
One such recent example is a Mahayanist monk, Thich Nhat Hanh who founded the
Order of Interbeing in 1966 in Vietnam with the motivation to transform or liberate the
society6. In Sri Lanka, the interpretation of Buddhist teachings by the Sarvodaya
Srammadana Movement is in fact Mah'y'nic oriented7. In India, Ambekarism, a new
form of Buddhist liberation movement that liberates hundreds and thousands of Dalits
from rigid Hindu caste system, shows another excellent aspect of social liberation in
Buddhism8.
6
Life In Freedom—Liberation Theoloties From Asia.pp.125-129
7
Life In Freedom—liberation Theologies From Asia pp.109-116; The Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka—
Religious Tradition, Reinterpretation and Response p.248
8
Report in a Sri Lanka English Newspaper, The Islam dated 7th and 8th of October, 2001.
A Brief Overview of the Concept of Dhamma and Buddhist Perspectives
As Depicted in Bairt-Bhbr Rock Edict of Asoka
Ashin Dhamm
c
ra
Research Scholar
Philosophy Department
Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
1. Introduction
The concept of Dhamma still prevails in its pristine purity on the land of truth even
after the first decade of 21st Century. It stands up on the foundation of righteousness and
makes up the way of peacefulness. The fundamental value of the concept of Dhamma is not
only for individual but common to all. The civilization of human thought and conduct is
linked up to the concept of Dhamma that is highly compatible and harmonious with the
humans and their environment. The concept of Dhamma comes up with the human nature
and it is the natural birthright of every human race. The nature of Dhamma does not deviate
from its course of righteousness and it has no adverse effect even though it is relatively
transformed into various forms of characteristic according to the aspects and dimensions of
human venture. As early as the 3rd Century B.C., trends of Dhamma have been massively
prosperous in the land of Jambudīpa1 and can be traced in the edicts inscribed by Asoka,
Mauryan Emperor with the title of Devanam Piya.2 There is no doubt that Asoka’s Dhamma
Policy relatively originated from Dhamma Philosophy attributed to Asoka. Out of all of
1
MRE. I.
2
RE; MRE; PE; MPE.
104 The Lion’s Outlook, Sitagu Students Research Journal
Asoka’s edicts, Bairat-Bhabra Rock Edict is well-known for revealing his belief, impression,
wisdom and vision. The words inscribed in Bair/t-Bh/br/ Rock Edict indicate Asoka’s
perspective on Dhamma and this Edict is only one of Asoka’s royal declaration in which each
and every word is deeply related to a genuine concern about Buddhism. It is believed that
the contribution of Asoka benefits the endurance of the concept of Dhamma. The new
decade of the 21st Century is ready to write down the upcoming concepts of human
civilization on the highly advanced e-tablet. Moreover, it is possible to dig up the ancient
concepts from the 3rd Century B.C. and present them in a digital form with the flow of
globalization.
2. Dhamma in Buddhist Perspectives
2.1. Samgha Abhivdana
In Bair/t-Bh/br/ Rock Edict Asoka opens his address to Samgha with the respectful
greeting. In Pitaka literature there are four characteristics of greeting: Respectful greeting,
reception, salutation and appropriate service.3 Asoka understands how to approach the most
respected persons and he follows the way of proper conduct. The respect to the venerable in
the very beginning of the Buddhist activities is the most beneficial.
Abhiv/danas3lissa, niccam vuddh/pac/yino.
Catt/ro Dhamm/ vuddhanti, /yuvanno sukkham balam.4
For those who always pay respect to the elder
Long life, fame, happiness and strength will be increased.
3
Evarpam paramanipaccak!ram karoti yadidam abhiv!danam paccutth!nam a$jal%kammam
s!m%cikammam (A.I.499).
4
Dh.28.
A Brief Overview of the Concept of Dhamma and Buddhist Perspectives 105
2.2. Appbdhatta and Phsuvihalatta
The traditional Buddhist formula of greeting which can be found in various places in
P/li Pitaka consists of five terms: App/b/dha, App/ta?ka, Lahutth/na, Bala, Ph/suvih/ra.5
The first one is used for asking about minor health problem, the second about major health
problem, the third about smooth movement, the fourth about strength and the fifth one
about peaceful living.6 In Bair/t-Bh/br/ Rock Edict Asoka used two terms: App/b/dha and
Ph/suvih/ra to fulfill the royal standard of etiquette as a king.
2.3. Buddha, Dhamma and Samgha
The declaration of respect to the Tiratana: Buddha, Dhamma and Samgha is a sign of
a devote Buddhist. Asoka showed his respect and faith in the Triple Gems in Bair/t-Bh/br/
Rock Edict. He used two terms: “G/rava and Pas/da” rather than the term “Saranagamana”7
which directly refers to the traditional statement of the genuine Buddhist. By choosing the
respectful terms, Asoka as a royal figure of the kingdom made an example for the people. In
fact, the result of showing respect and faith in Tiratana is excellent as ever.
Satthugaru dhammagaru, samghe ca tibbag/ravo.
Abhabbo parih/n/ya, nibb/nasseva santike.8
There is no way to lose from Nibb/na
By mean of the strong respect to the Buddha, Dhamma and Samgha.
2.4. Subhsita
Dhammadesan/, doctrine of Dhamma is excellence in the beginning as it initiates
with S3la, excellence in the middle as it centers with Sam/dhi and excellence in the end as it
5
D.I.188; II.62; M.II.277; A.II.409; Ud.94; Mil.13; Vin.IV.266.
6
S%sarog!di!b!d!bh!vena kicci app!bh!dham, dukkhaj%vik!bh!vena app!ta$kam, tamtam-kiccakarane
utth!na sukhat!ya kicci lahutth!nam, tadanurpabalayogato kicci balam, sukhavih!ra-sabbh!vena kicci
ph!suviharo (DT.I.296).
7
Es!ham, bhante, bhagavantam saranam gacch!mi, dhammañca, bhikkhusamghañca (Vin.III.23).
8
A.II.481.
concludes with Paññ/.9 One of six attributes of Dhamma is “Sv/kkh/to bhagavat/
dhammo”10 which means Dhamma is well taught by the Buddha. In Bair/t-Bh/br/ Rock
Edict Asoka stated that whatever has been said by the Buddha, all have been well said.
There is a possibility that most of Buddhavacana was in shape at the time of Asoka.
Therefore, he had a good chance to select some of Buddhavacana like Uttara Thera who
said whatsoever be well spoken, all that is the word of the Exalted One and what we and the
other say is wholly based on it.11
2.5. Saddhamcilathitika
In Bair/t-Bh/br/ Rock Edict Asoka expressed his well-wish for the Noble Dhamma,
having realized that the endurance of Saddhama leads to the happiness of the world and the
disappearance of the Saddhama causes the misery of the world. For the endurance of
Brahmacariya the Buddha in his last minutes urged the Samgha to study and practice
Bodhipakkhiyadhamma: Satipatth/na, Sammapadh/na, Iddhip/da, Indriya, Bala, Bojjha?ga,
Ariyamagga.12 The Buddha also advised to recite together the Dhamma without missing any
words and definitions and to avoid the unnecessary argument about the Dhamma.13 So did
S/riputta Thera, the chief disciple of the Buddha.14 The main aim is Addhaniya and
Ciratthitika of Brahmacariya. Asoka quoted the term “Saddhama.” On the other hand, the
9
So dhammam deseti !dhikaly!nam mijjhekaly!nam pariyos!nakaly!nam (D.I.58; II.39; III.63; M.I.236;
II.7; III.11; S.I.107; II.338; III.307; A.I.128; 465; II.25, 335; III.171, 421).
10
D.II.80; III.4; M.I.45, II.323; S.I.87; II.298; IV.464; V.298; A.I.147; II.186; III.206.
11
Yamkiñci subh!sitam sabbam tam tassa bhagavato vacanam arahoto samm!sambuddhassa. Tato
up!d!yup!d!ya mayam caññe ca bhan!ma (A.III.14).
12
Tasm!tiha, bhikkhave, ye te may! abhiññ! desit!, te vo s!dhukam uggahetv! !sevitabb! bh!vitabb!
bahul%k!tabb!, yathayidam brahmacariym addhaniyam assa ciratthitikam (D.II.100).
13
Tasm!tiha, cunda, ye vo may! abhiññ! desit!, tattha sabbeheva sa$gamma sam!gamma atthena attham
byañjanena byañjanam sa$g!yitabbam na vivaditabbam, yathayidam brahmacariym addhaniyam assa
ciratthitikam (D.III.105).
14
Ayam kho pan!vuso amh!kam bhagavat! dhammo sv!kkh!to suppavedito niyy!niko upamasamvattaniko
samm!sambuddhappavedito. Tattha sabbeheva sa$g!yitabbam na vivaditabbam, yathayidam brahmacariym
addhaniyam assa ciratthitikam (D.III.177)
Buddha and S/riputta Thera used Brahmacariya. Saddhama refers to S/sana.15 Brahmacariya
also means S/sanabramacariya.16 Therefore, Asoka’s desire for the endurance of Saddhama
perfectly matches the guideline of the Buddha and S/riputta Thera.
2.6. Suneyu and Upadhalayeyu
In ancient time the learning system was entirely based on the oral cultural which is a
part of Pariyatti. Pariyatti plays the most important role in the case of the endurance of
Saddhama or Buddhas/sana. Asoka realized the value of Pariyatti and recommended
Samgha Order and laity to regularly listen to and concentrate upon Dhammapariy/ya. In this
case Asoka, Dev/nam Piya mentioned two words: “Suneyu and Upadh/layeyN.” It is found
as a coincidence in Pitaka Literature that Sakka, Dev/nam Inda, also sincerely requested
Uttara Thera to carry out the study of Dhammapariy/ya.17 The Buddha also pointed out the
way to learn Dhammapariy/ya, using three terms: “Uggan/hi, Pariy/pun/hi and Dh/rehi.”18
Listening carefully to Dhamma, reciting carefully Dhamma, memorizing carefully Dhamma,
analyzing carefully the meaning of Dhamma and practicing carefully Dhamma are a part of
Pariyatti which leads to the endurance of Saddhama. It is believed that practice of Dhamma
and avoidance of Adhamma lead to the happiness of all beings. This is the expression of true
values.
2.7. Bhikkhu, Bhikkhun0, Upasaka and Upsik
The community established by the Buddha consists of the four groups of the
disciples: Bhikkhu, Bhikkhuni, Upasaka and Up/sik/.19 Out of four, the first two groups are
inner nucleus of Buddhist Order and the last two groups are outer nucleus. Members of all
15
Saddhamass!ti sudhammassa s!sanass!ti attho (AA.I.65).
16
Yathayidam brahmacariyanti yath! idam sakalam s!sanabrahmacariyam (DA.III.95).
17
A.III.14.
18
S.I.303; II.301.
19
Manusesu catasso paris!-- bhikkh, bhikkhun%yo, up!sak!, up!sik!yo (A.III.14).
groups have responsibility to practice Dhamma, maintain Dhamma and propagate Dhamma.
In Bair/t-Bh/br/ Rock Edict Asoka directly called all groups to perform what he
recommended.
2.8. Bhante
The term “Bhante” was used six times in Bair/t-Bh/br/ Rock Edict in which Aoska
professed respect and faith in Tiratana, asserted that all that the Blessed Buddha spoke were
well spoken, hoped to ensure that Dhamma would last for a long time, revealed seven
Dhammapariy/ya, recommended the study of these texts to the Buddhist Community, and
confirmed his statement. In fact, it is one of the most widely used terms in Pitaka20 as a polite
address to the elder in the dialogue.
2.9. Dhammapariyya
The inscriptions of Asoka have their bearing on Dhamma in general and on
Dhammapariy/ya in particular. As regards the latter, it was strongly recommended in Bair/t-
Bh/br/ Rock Edict that monks, nuns and laity are required to study and comprehend the
seven Dhammapariy/yas:
(1) Vinayasamukasa, The excellent treatise on Moral Discipline
(2) Aliyavasa, the Abode of the Noble or the Lineage of the Noble
(3) An/gata-bhaya, the Future Danger
(4) Muni-g/th/, Poems of the Sage
(5) Moneya-sNta, Sutta of Moral Perfection
(6) Upatisa-pasina, the Question of Upatissa
(7) L/ghulo-v/da, Admonition to R/hula.
20
This word hits the counter up to 8677 in P!li Pitaka alone.
As the best of all, Asoka suggested these seven Dhammapariy/yas which contain the
fundamental concepts of the Buddha’s doctrines and the selective process tends to attach
the moral value in learning and practicing a single one or the whole. This process begins with
moral virtue, but also entails the other aspects of the Buddhist path: meditative development
and the cultivation of insight. From the Buddhist perspective, Asoka’s main motive for
recommendation of Dhammapariy/yas is Saddhama Citthitika, ‘the prolonged endurance of
Noble Dhamma’ as it serves the welfare of all beings.

ABBREVIATIONS
A. The A?guttara Nik/ya
D. The D3gha Nik/ya
Dh. The Dhammapada
M. The Mijjima Nik/ya
Mil. The Milindapañh/.
MPE. Minor Pillar Edict of Asoka
MRE. Minor Rock Edict of Asoka
PE. Major Pillar Edict of Asoka
RE. Major Rock Edict of Asoka
S. The Samyutta Nik/ya
Vin. The Vinaya Pitaka
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Textual Pḷi Sources and English Translations
The Vinaya Pitaka
Vol. III, IV in P/li; Tr. I. B. Horner, The Book of the Discipline, 6 vols. London: Pali
Text Society, 1938-1966.
The D3gha Nik/ya
Vol. I, II, III in P/li; Tr. T.W. & C.A.F. Rhys Davids, The Dialogues of the Buddha, 2
vols. reprinted, Delhi: Low Price Publications, 2001.
The Majjima Nik/ya

Vol. I, II, III in P/li; Tr. I. B. Horner, The Middle Length Sayings, 3 vols. 1st Indian
Edition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 2004.
The Samyutta Nik/ya
Vol. I, II, III, IV, V in P/li; Tr. C.A.F. Rhys Davids, vol. I & II; F.L. Woodward, vols. III,
IV & V, The Kindred Sayings, 1st Indian Edition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
Private Limited, 2005.
The A?guttara Nik/ya
Vol. I, II, III in P/li; Tr. F.L. Woodward, vols. I, II; E.M. Hare, vols. III, The Book of the
Gradual Sayings, 1st Indian Edition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private
Limited, 2006.
The Dhammapada
Tr. Daw Mya Tin, The Dhammapada, Yangon: The Department for the Promotion
and Propagation of the Sasana, 1993.
The Milindapañh/
Tr. T.W. Rhys David, The Questions of King Milinda, Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1890.
*** All references to P/li Texts are from the editions of Chatthasa?gayan/ CD-ROM,
Version-3, Igatpuri in India: Vipassan/ Research Institute, 1999.
Asokan Edicts and Translations
Bhattacharya, V., Buddhist Texts As Recommended by A6oka, Calcutta: University of
Calcutta, 1948.
Cunningham, A., Inscriptions of Asoka, Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent Government
Print, 1877.
Mookerji, R.K., Asoka, reprint, Delhi: Motila Banarsidass, 1972.
Rastogi, N.P., Inscription of Asoka, Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 1990.
Thapar, R., AVoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, 2nd edition, New Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 1997.
Dictionaries, Encyclopedias
Borchert, Donald M., (editor in chief) Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd edition, vols. 10,
Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale, 2006.
Buswell, Robert E., (editor in chief) Encyclopedia of Buddhism, New York: Macmillan
Reference USA, 2004.
Malalasekera, G.P., Dictionary of P!li Proper Names, 2 vols, London: P/li Text Society,
1938, reprinted, 1974.
Rhys Davids, T.W., & Stede, W., (ed.) P!li-English Dictionary, Chilstead: P/li Text Society,
1921-25; reprinted include: London: Luzac, 1966.

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THE LION’S OUTLOOK

Sitagu Students’ Research Journal

Sitagu International Buddhist Academy

Mandalay, Sagaing, Yangon

Organizing Body: SitaguStar StudentSelection

Published for Department of Research & Compilation,

Sitagu International Buddhist Academy,

Sagaing Hills, Sagaing, Myanmar.

We resolve to make effort:

To beautify our lives in this world we live,

To promote our Sāsana ardently,

To make our country prosperous,

With the best of our ability, without arrogance.

awareness of the expending scope and importance of Buddha’s Dhamma in today’s

research principles of the formation of knowledge.

SitaguStar StudentSelection is a part of SIBA and it furthers SIBA’s objective of

19 March 2011 Organizing Body

Sitagu International Buddhist Academy

Mandalay, Sagaing, Yangon, MYANMAR

The Sītagū Resolution

1. The Great Attributes of the Lord Buddha in Theravāda Buddhism 1

1. A Comparative Study of the Ten Perfections 38

1. A Critical Study of Dosa and Mettā 66

1. Buddhism and the Global Peace 89

1. Araham: The Accomplished Destroyer of Defilements

attributes is called Buddhnussati. Cultivating or repeatedly contemplating the attributes is

Buddha when they do devotional daily activities.

many important texts of Tipitaka as follows:

‘Iti pi so Bhagav araham samm-sambuddho vijjcaranasampanno sugato lokavid+

anuttaro purisadammasrath, satth devamanussnam buddho Bhagav.’ 1

qualities of the Buddha, (b) ara+ham and (c) a+raham.

Blessed One is accomplished (araham) (i) as he is worthy of requisites of robes,

One is accomplished (iii) as he had eradicated completely his enemies of defilements

2. Sammsambuddho: A Buddha Perfected by Himself

Samm smañca sabbadhammnam buddhatt pana sammsambuddho.

He is “fully self-awakened” because of his awakening to (or discovering of_ (budhatt)

all things rightly (samm) and by himself (smam).

twelve aspects, the Buddha declares:

Abhiññeyyam abhiññtam = What is to be directly known has been directly known;

Bhvetabbañ ca bhvitam = What is to be cultivated has been cultivated;

pahtabbam pah,nam me = What is to be abandoned has been abandoned by me;

tasm buddho’smi brhman a = Therefore, Brahmin, am I awakened (Buddha).4

His knowledge is as much as what is to be known and what is to be known is as

meaning of] samm-sambuddha.5

3. Vijjcaranasampanno: Complete in Clear Knowledge and Compassionate Conduct

endowed with. So the Buddha is endowed with knowledge and conduct.

Buddha’s knowledge or wisdom is usually known as “three knowledges” or “threefold

knowledges” (tevijja), as defined in the Bhayabherava Sutta.6 They are as follows:

(1) Retrocognition (pubbenivsnussatiñna), that is, the recollection of past lives:

(2) The divine eye (dibbacakkhuñna) or clairvoyance; and

(1) psychic powers (iddhividhañna);

(2) the divine ear (dibbasotañna);

(3) mind-reading (paracittavijnanañna) or telepathy;

(4) retrocognition (pubbenivsnussatiñna), that is, the recollection of past lives;

(5) the divine eye (dibbacakkhuñna) or clairvoyance; and

(7) insight knowledge (vipassanñna); and

(8) the psychic power of the mind-made body (manomayiddhiñna)7

sense faculties’ (indriyesu guttadvrat), ‘moderation in eating’ (bhojane mattaññut)

‘vigilance’ (jgariynuyoga), ‘moral shame’(hir,), ‘moral dread’ (ottappa), ‘great learning’

(bhussacca), ‘wisdom’ (paññ), ‘confidence’ (saddh), ‘industriousness’ (v,riya)

(4) Sugato: Supremely Good in Presence and in Destiny

(a) Sobhana gamanatt Sugato

Nibbna is good (sobhana), purified (parisuddha), and blameless (anavajja).

attributes is called Buddhnussati. Cultivating or repeatedly contemplating the attributes is

‘Iti pi so Bhagav araham samm-sambuddho vijjcaranasampanno sugato lokavid+

anuttaro purisadammasrath, satth devamanussnam buddho Bhagav.’ 1

2. Sammsambuddho: A Buddha Perfected by Himself

Samm smañca sabbadhammnam buddhatt pana sammsambuddho.

He is “fully self-awakened” because of his awakening to (or discovering of_ (budhatt)

all things rightly (samm) and by himself (smam).

Abhiññeyyam abhiññtam = What is to be directly known has been directly known;

Bhvetabbañ ca bhvitam = What is to be cultivated has been cultivated;

pahtabbam pah,nam me = What is to be abandoned has been abandoned by me;

tasm buddho’smi brhman a = Therefore, Brahmin, am I awakened (Buddha).4

meaning of] samm-sambuddha.5

3. Vijjcaranasampanno: Complete in Clear Knowledge and Compassionate Conduct

(1) Retrocognition (pubbenivsnussatiñna), that is, the recollection of past lives:

(2) The divine eye (dibbacakkhuñna) or clairvoyance; and

(1) psychic powers (iddhividhañna);

(2) the divine ear (dibbasotañna);

(3) mind-reading (paracittavijnanañna) or telepathy;

(4) retrocognition (pubbenivsnussatiñna), that is, the recollection of past lives;

(5) the divine eye (dibbacakkhuñna) or clairvoyance; and

(7) insight knowledge (vipassanñna); and

(8) the psychic power of the mind-made body (manomayiddhiñna)7

sense faculties’ (indriyesu guttadvrat), ‘moderation in eating’ (bhojane mattaññut)

‘vigilance’ (jgariynuyoga), ‘moral shame’(hir,), ‘moral dread’ (ottappa), ‘great learning’

(bhussacca), ‘wisdom’ (paññ), ‘confidence’ (saddh), ‘industriousness’ (v,riya)

(a) Sobhana gamanatt Sugato

Nibbna is good (sobhana), purified (parisuddha), and blameless (anavajja).

(b) Sundaram thnam gatattpi Sugato

(c) Samm gatatt Sugato13

(d) Samm gadattpi sugato

world of sentient beings (Sattaloka), the world of conditioned phenomena, (Sa<khraloka),

(6) Anuttaropurisadhammasratthi (Incomparable Tamer of Those to be Tamed)

(7) Satthdevamanussnam (Teacher of devas and humanity)

samparyikaparamatthehi yathraham anussat, ti Satth).21

the Buddha is worthy to be endowed with the title of ‘Satthdevamanussnam.’

9. Bhagav: (The Blessed One)

(h) Yatthakmvasyit: He has complete control over jhnic absorptions and in

Iddhividha abhiññ knowledge by which supernormal powers are accomplished. The

the sheer majesty of the person of the Bhagav.

(v) Kma : Power of accomplishment.

multitudes to the shore of safety (Tinno treyyam).” 43

1. ATguttaranikya, ed. R.Morris and e. Hardy, vol., I, London, PTS, 1885-1900

3. Cariypitaka-atthakath, ed. D.L.Barua, PTS, London, 1979

5. . DSghanikya, ed. J.E.Carpenter, vol III., PTS, London, 1976

6. . DSghanikya-atthakath (SumaTgalavilsinS), ed. T.W.Rhys Davids, J.Estlin Carpenter and

8. Majjhimanikya, ed. V. Trenckner, Vol I., PTS, London, 1979

9. Majjhimanikya-atthakath (PapañcasVdanS), ed. J.H.Woods, D.Kosambi and I.B.Horner,

10. Majjhimanikya-atthakath (PapañcasVdanS), ed. J.H.Woods, D.Kosambi and I.B.Horner,

13. Udna-atthakath, ed, F.L. Woodward, PTS, London, 1977.

15. VibhaTga-atthakath (SammohavinodanS), ed. A.P.Buddhadatta, PTS, London, 1980.

1. Min Gwin Saydaw, The Great Chronicle of Buddhas, Vols.V,

2. Ñnamoli, Bhikkhu,”The Path of Purification”,