Professional Documents
Culture Documents
grain
storage
guide
CONTENTS FEATURES OF GOOD STORAGE
Summer 2003
Section
1 Preparation
2 Moisture
Dear member
1 PREPARATION are both critical. Stores must be clean, dry and well
ventilated. Equipment must work properly.
All parts of the stor e, including the inside of bins and other surfaces in contact with Store infestation
grain,may be treated with the following chemicals: The main threat to stored g rain is from pests in ● Monitor store for pests with insect traps.If live
Actellic – pirimiphos-methyl (spray liquid) the store structure. insects are found,treat structure and protect
Reldan 22 – chlorpyrifos-methyl (spray liquid) Bought-in grain or feed,lorries or equipment can incoming grain.
The following product may be applied to the store structur e, including dead spaces,but NOT to surfaces which also introduce storage pests. ● Ensure that properly trained staff or contractor s
come into contact with grain: Current best practice is to use a pesticide only apply treatments to clean,empty stores.
Crackdown Rapide – deltamethrin and synergised pyrethroids (spray liquid) where it is necessar y. ● Use only pesticides, or mixtures, registered for use
Risk should be assessed taking into account in empty grain stores, and approved by customers.
Dust formulations of diatomaceous earth (DE),which act by desiccating insects,may be applied to dead spaces and
structural surfaces.Check whether this treatment is accepted by your buyer. infestation history, physical controls and intended ● Treat all interior surfaces with pesticide or DE,
markets. especially those that might harbour insects,at
Pesticide registrations change.Check current approval status with Pesticides Safety Directorate (www.pesticides.gov.uk) Poorly-sealed storage areas will cause dif ficulties if least three weeks before filling store.
before use. Follow label instructions on use and allow specified time inter vals before storing grain.Record all pesticide use. fumigation is necessar y (see Section 11). ● If store has been infested within past tw o
seasons,apply an insecticide to structure.
Measure the area to be treated,in square metres.Then, following the label instructions,calculate the amount of
● Store all feedstuffs and similar commodities a way
concentrate and the amount of diluted spr ay required. Apply using an appropriate sprayer to ensure even cover.
from the main store.
Before treatment,turn off the mains electrical supply if there is any risk of water-based sprays penetrating
electrical fittings.Protect,or take care not to treat,electric motors and similar equipment.Two days after treatment,
inspect the store and monitor (using insect traps) for live insects.If large numbers are found in a particular area,
investigate and,if necessary, re-clean and re-treat. Cleaning and disinfection
Buildings used for livestock as well as grain ● Power wash building structure.
Alternative building uses storage must be disinfected to reduce risk of ● Disinfect with appropriate food-safe products.
disease transmission before storing grain.
Ideally use dedicated grain stores.Where buildings are also used for animal feed,machinery or livestock care must ● Leave to dr y.
be taken to avoid taints or contamination of subsequently stored grain.
4 5
Moisture management is vital to prevent spoilage in
stored grain.Temperature and moisture interact to
2 MOISTURE provide suitable conditions for fungi and mites.
6 7
Grain stored for more than a few weeks must
have a moisture content of 14.5% or less to
3 DRYING protect quality and meet contract specifications.
– heated-air
BACKGROUND ISSUE ACTION
Drying temperatures
There are two basic methods of drying grain – heated-air and bulk drying:
Higher drying temperatures give higher
throughput but excess heat can dama ge quality, ● Set drying temperature carefully. Use
Characteristics of the drying options especially protein functionality and germination. manufacturer’s guidance to meet market quality
Factor Heated-air drying Bulk drying requirements.
The general guideline is a maximum of 65 0C at
Capital costs High Low – the dryer is the grain store. 20% mc, reducing by 1 0C for every 1% increase in ● Consider reducing drying temperature to reduce
initial moisture content. For feed grain, a damage if input mc rises.
Operating costs to remove 5% mc £1.50–2.80/t £1.65–3.65/t
maximum of 120 0C for 1 hour or 100 0C for ● Take particular care when drying malting barley
Grain is dried from 20% to 15% (wet basis) in normal weather conditions using diesel @ 17.5 pence/L (delivered energy value 3.6 MJ/kWh).
3 hours can be used.Maltsters and millers require to the industry standard of 13% mc.Grain
For further details , see K A McLean (1989).
that grain temperatures should not exceed 50ºC.
temperature and the time it spends in the dryer
Speed of drying Fast – hours,as grain layers are shallow Slow – days or weeks,as drying front Dryer manufacturer’s performance tables provide (residence time) are both critical.
and temperatures high. moves through bulk. a guide to drying air temperatures that will not
Management skills required Lower – follow manufacturer’s Higher – need to respond to mc damage grain.
instructions. and weather conditions.
Effects of weather None Wet weather slows drying.
Controlling moisture content
Effects of initial moisture content No real problem – may need to dr y Drying capacity reduces if initial
grain for longer or in two passes. mc is high. Over-drying wastes fuel, reduces dryer throughput ● Use a drying time that gives the correct
and may increase heat damage.Under-drying moisture reduction.
Risks of spoilage Low or zero risk of slow drying. Higher risk of slow drying.
Risk of over-heated grain. Low risk of over-heated grain.
makes spoilage more likely. On a continuous dr yer, ● Use automatic controls where fitted.
manual control is difficult because there is a time
Some risk of over-drying. Some risk of over-drying. ● If controlling manually, adjust grain flow gradually.
lag between grain flow adjustment and full effect.
Increasing risk of ochratoxin A Automatic controls, available for most dryers, ● Consider mixing grain before drying to achie ve
production above 18% mc. measure either grain mc at output or temperatur e uniform mc.
Fungi and mites inevitably increase of exhaust air off the bed.The latter is only ● Dry high moisture content g rain (at or above
ahead of the drying front. effective when removing at least 4% mc at a pass. 18% mc) immediately to avoid risk of mycotoxin
formation.
8 9
Near-ambient drying requires fans and ducts
capable of delivering about 20 times the
4 DRYING airflow of cooling systems.
– bulk or near-ambient
BACKGROUND ISSUE ACTION
Bulk grain, in bin or on-floor, 1.5–4 m deep can be dried by blowing air – only 5ºC warmer than the grain – through Dryer design
i t .D rying typically takes at least 10 days with minimum airflows of 180 m3/hour/tonne (100 ft3/min/tonne).
A good design matches the fan to ducts or drying ● Fit larger fans to provide the air needed in
The challenge is to complete drying before fungi and mites exceed acceptable leve l s .D rying occurs in a layer (the floor as well as g rain bed resistance. A fan has a unfavourable conditions.
drying zone) that develops at the air inlet and then moves through the bulk. Grain ahead of the drying zone remains maximum drying power for a given grain depth
wet and may be wa rm ,p roducing ideal spoilage conditions. Drying zone progress is proportional to air speed. ● Make plans to supplement drying with added heat
and mc. in a wet harvest.
Grain ahead of the drying zone is cooled by ventilation.This may cause some moisture to condense on surface
grain,especially with cool,moist night air above the bulk.However, even when weather conditions do not appear
to suit drying,this cooling has a strong benefit as it retards mite and fungal development.
Grain depth
Running costs for drying by 5%,from 20% to 15%, range from around £1 up to £5 a dried tonne. Poor drying can
incur costs of up to £50 a tonne,including spoilt grain,and still be unsuccessful. Spoilage risk increases as grain depth exceeds a ● Do not pile grain too deep for the fan.Adjust
fan’s design maximum. Airflow will be seriously depth of storage in relation to resistance
Different seeds present different resistances to airflow. Therefore,bed depth must be adjusted according to the
reduced and drying zone advance will be slowed. characteristics.
airflow resistance of the crop (see figure opposite).
For instance,if grain is normally stored at 2.8 m ● Level grain surface after filling.
deep,this depth should be reduced by 0.5 m for
Airflow resistance each percentage point increase in initial g rain
A fan overcomes the resistance of the empty dr yer plus that of the g rain bed to blow enough air through the grain moisture above 20%.
to dry it.If the resistance is too high,the fan pumps insufficient air. Pressure in the air ducts indicates fan
performance. Fan manufacturers supply ‘fan curves’ giving data on air delivery o ver a range of duct pressures.
Airflow
Additional approaches Drying from 20% mc requires an airflow of at ● Keep perforations in ducts and/or floor clear.
least 180 m 3/hour/tonne to reduce moisture by ● Check that airflow is adequate.Measure airflow
Dehumidifiers remove moisture from air and add heat,to reduce rh to a pre-set value.They even allow drying in 0.5% a day. Airflow resistance depends on crop
wet weather and use electricity ef ficiently. However, capital cost is high and g rain near air inlet may be o ver-dried. at several points using an anemometer or seek
and bed depth. specialist advice.
Grain stirrers are mobile augers mounted on gantries,which traverse the grain to mix dry and un-dried layers.
This effectively speeds the drying front progress and reduces risk of deterioration near the grain surface. Pressure resistance curves ● Do not allow filling auger to dischar ge in one
place for too long as dust build-up will seriously
Vertical aeration is sometimes used to dry grain.However, duct size and spacing need consider able modification
restrict airflo w.
compared with cooling systems.If fans blow, heat can be added to allow drying to a safe moisture content.To
minimise the risk of ochratoxin A production,this technique should only be used with grain below 18% mc. ● Use a grain stirrer to increase airflow and e ven
out moisture content if drying is too slow.
12 13
Grain must be cooled rapidly to reduce relative
14 15
Insects contaminate and cause direct damage to
stored grain.The trade does not tolerate insect
Control
Prevention,using cooling and drying,is preferable to chemical control.However, if monitoring shows infestation is
present or levels are rising,pesticide use is justified (see Section 11).
16 17
Storage mites are extremely small but widely
distributed.While difficult to detect when
present in low numbers, they can lead to
8 MITES increased risk of rejection.
18 19
9 PEST IDENTIFICATION
Commonest primary pests Secondary pests Pest mites Moths
Can increase rapidly and damage grain stored Cannot complete their life-cycles at 14.5% mc Normally only a problem on damper surface of May be seen flying in summer. Webbing
at 14.5% mc. or below. Feed primarily on fungi. Can invade dry bulk. produced by larvae may clump grains together.
grain stores in large numbers from outside and Mainly occur on surface of bulk, also infest and
feed directly on grain. breed in debris.
Grain weevil Hairy fungus beetle Flour mite Brown house moth
Sitophilus granarius Typhaea stercorea Acarus siro Hofmannophila
Develops inside the grain. Often associated with Indicates bulk mc is higher pseudospretella
Causes heating. stored straw and hay, as than recommended.Internal Often associated with
Difficult to find. well as damp residues. feeder which can build up animal feeds.
massive populations.
Saw-toothed grain beetle Foreign grain beetle Cosmopolitan food mite White-shouldered
Oryzaephilus surinamensis Ahasverus advena Lepidoglyphus destructor house moth
Only develops on damaged Increasingly common in Surface feeder usually Endrosis sarcitrella
surface of grain. UK.Very mobile and a present in low to moderate Slow to develop in old
Very active and easy to common cause of numbers. grain or feed residues.
trap. rejection.
20 21
In the right conditions fungi develop rapidly
causing loss of germination, discolouration,
Physical treatment
A – Aspergillus species which Storage fungi grow within a narrow range of ● Dry grain to 14.5% mc or belo w.
may damage germination moisture and temperature.They continue g rowing or
and cause slow heating. slowly at near 0ºC,so cooling alone is insufficient
● Store grain in an airtight silo.
B – Penicillium species, for long-term storage of damp grain.No storage
including those that fungi will grow below 14.5% mc.
produce mycotoxins.
C – Advanced decay/field
Chemical treatment (animal feed only)
fungi,eg Fusarium species
and heating organisms,eg – Caustic soda-treated grain swells making silo ● Apply caustic soda solution – either 30–45 g
Absidia species which may storage impractical.Treatment offers no long- solid,or 47% solution.
be pathogenic causing, for term protection against insects or mites. or
instance, farmers' lung. – Propionic acid allows storage of damp grain ● Apply propionic acid at 5.5 L/tonne at 16% mc,
D – Thermophilic fungi,which but offers no long-term protection against to 14.5 L/tonne at 32% mc.
thrive at very high insects or mites.
temperatures,such as
occur in compost bins.
Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins formed before harvest,such as ● Dry wet grain immediately to prevent OA
Fusarium toxins,are stable and likely to remain production which occurs above 18% mc.
Options for preventing fungal attack in store during storage. ● Use ventilation to cool damp grain,which is
Advantages Disadvantages Ochratoxin A (OA) can be produced by temporarily stored at lower mc.This will not
Drying Also controls mites Capital cost of heated-air drying Penicillium verrucosum in UK-stored grain.Other prevent some deterioration from fungi and mites.
Grain not killed High running costs mycotoxins may also be formed in stor e.
Permanent protection Mycotoxins are produced at a slightly higher mc.
Airtight Grain rolled for feed does not Grain killed – only usable for animal feed – Penicillium verrucosum grows above 17% mc
need dampening Carbon dioxide hazard and between 5ºC and 40ºC.
Air entry during unloading may allow deterioration – Highest risk is associated with floor-dried bulks
(near-ambient drying).
Caustic soda Digestibility improved Grain killed – only usable for animal feed
– EU maximum permissible level for OA in
Need for rolling eliminated Corrosive – safety measures required
cereals is 5 ppb for cereals.
Organic acids Saves cost of drying Grain killed – only usable for animal feed
– Sampling and analysis for mycotoxin presence
Corrosive – safety measures required is expensive.
A rapid test for OA is being developed with HGCA
EU maximum permissible limits for aflatoxins in cereals came into force on 30 June 1999.However, these funding.
mycotoxins rarely occur in UK-stored grain.In 2002,EU regulations set maximum permissible levels for
ochratoxin A at 5 parts per billion (ppb) for cereals.Where grain is stored above 18% mc,these levels can be Incomplete or slow drying can lead to mouldy
exceeded in just two weeks. grain and mycotoxin production.
22 23
Pesticides which kill insects and mites can be used to
treat storage structures and grain and play a useful
11 PESTICIDES part in Integrated Pest Management.
Birds
All birds are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act,1981.However, listed pest species can be killed or
taken for specific purposes including protecting public health and pr eventing significant financial loss.General
licences allow certain species – eg feral pigeons,collared doves,starlings and house sparrows – to be killed,taken
or their eggs and nests destroyed.Licence enquiries should be made to Defra.
Effective proofing to prevent bird access is usually adequate.
ENSURE RODENTICIDES ARE USED SAFELY AND CORRECTLY.ALWAYS READ THE LABEL AND FOLLOW INSTRUCTIONS.
26 27
Storing oilseeds presents different challenges to
cereals.Crops should be dried and cooled in shallower
bulks, then stored at a lower moisture content.
13 OILSEED RAPE
BACKGROUND ISSUE ACTION
Effects of seed size on airflow In rapeseed 7.5%–8% mc is in equilibrium with ● Dry seed to 7.5–8% mc for safe storage.
Free fatty acids increase rapidly in broken
Small seed size means grain flows very easily.This can seed during storage
65% rh.This is below the minimum requirement ● Dry and cool high mc grain immediately.
lead to leakage and blocked ducts which can restrict for mite and mould de velopment.
airflow for drying and cooling.
Even when properly contained,the small seeds of Oilseed rape seed becomes brittle if: ● Match air temperature to moisture content of
oilseed rape offer increased resistance to airflow so seed being dried (see safe drying temperatures
– dried to a very low mc
bulk depth should be reduced,or fan capacity opposite).
increased.A sur vey has shown that many storekeeper s – dried too fast
● Manage drying temperature to a void burnt seed.
consider rapeseed and cereals in the same way. In fact – air temperatures used are too high.
each crop requires different treatment.
Moisture content,seed breakage and oil content Storage mc is related to change in f fa content,as ● Handle oilseed rape very carefully, eg ensure
The high oil content means that the relative humidity: seed at below 6 % mc is very brittle. augers run full.
moisture content relationship is very dif ferent from that ● Regulate drying so that no seed is below 6% mc.
of cereals (see Section 2). The safe mc for storing
rapeseed is about half that of cereals. Other causes of oilseed spoilage
However, rapeseed becomes very brittle at low mc so Mites,insects and fungi can all degrade oil content. Slow drying and/or cooling will encourage mites ● Reduce bed depth by 50–70% if using systems
over-drying can be a problem.The proportion of Mites pose the biggest threat to oilseed rape because and mould growth which may lead to mycotoxin designed for conventional cereals storage.
broken seed increases rapidly below 7% mc;and seed seed at the surface of a bulk absorbs moisture over formation. ● Consider purpose-built storage for oilseeds.Note,
under 6% mc is not accepted by crushers. winter allowing mite populations to expand rapidly. Reduced airflow, compared to that normally used this is costly and may be impractical.
Oilseed rape is less susceptible to insect attack than for cereals,MAY be adequate for cooling dried ● Cool grain rapidly after drying.
Seed breakage rises as moisture content falls cereals.However, moths may form light infestations at rapeseed as the threat from insects is less.
the surface of seed bulks.Infestations of saw-toothed Low temperatures help protect against ffa increases.
and merchant grain beetles (Oryzaephilus) have been
reported.
No residual pesticides are currently registered for The merchant grain beetle, O. mercator and the ● Dry and cool oilseed rape properl y.
use on rapeseed. saw-toothed grain beetle, O. surinamensis can
The lowest mc for growth of the OA-producing fungus, establish small populations.No insecticides are
Penicillium verrucosum, is around 10% in rapeseed.No available for admixture.
regulatory limits exist for this toxin in rapeseed at present.
Immature seed may appear red in store and look
Mites develop rapidly in damp seed.They damage ● Store seed at 7.5% mc (65% erh).
distinctly green when crushed.They present problems
for marketing and may cause heating in store.
seed, raise ffa levels and may directly reduce oil ● Consider phosphine treatment if mite infestations
yield. develop in incor rectly dried grain.
Safe drying temperatures and moisture content
Seed must be handled carefully as free fatty acid (ffa) Safe drying temperature Immature seed can cause heating, rapid ● Manage proportion of green seeds by:
content increases rapidly in broken seed.This is
Seed moisture Seed moisture deterioration of the oil fraction and affect oil – leaving seeds in the swath for four days
important as high f fa may cause oil degradation after
content content colour, making it less acceptable.This has been
crushing. – drying at safe temperature
Crop usage above 10% mc above 12.5% mc ‘flagged’as a commercial concern.
Seed must not be allowed to heat up before drying. – aerating store intermittently to remove
High temperatures can result in burnt seed and high Seed crop 49ºC 43ºC generated heat.
ffa levels. Commercial 82ºC 71ºC
There is little lee-way between the safest mc for (mixed during
prolonged,sta ble storage (7.5–8%) and the lowest drying) Rapeseed is very likely to leak from most bins. ● Seal bins with tape to contain rapeseed.
acceptable mc (6%).Good practice requires careful Commercial 71ºC 60ºC ● Cover ducts with hessian to pr event leakage of
drying and accurate moisture meter calibration. (unmixed rapeseed.
Drying to below the 9% mc contract level may incur during drying)
extra cost.However, a small increase in oil content
Source:www.ag ric.gov.ab.ca/crops/canada/storage.html
will partly offset this.
28 29
Monitoring physical factors from empty store
onwards is vital to achieve long-term, stable
grain storage.
14 MONITORING
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND ISSUE ACTION
Monitoring and sampling Pest monitoring
In the first edition of ‘The grain storage 1 PREPARATION Invertebrate pests are very small and difficult to ● Look for signs of insects,mites, rodents or birds.
guide’, 1999 the sampling section covered detect. ● If insects are not seen,place insect traps in store
two related aspects: Clean, empty stores are monitored for insect pests using
insect traps and for rodents using bait points. Vertebrate pests can go unnoticed.Evidence of and examine after seven days (ensure bait bags
● determining grain quality for end use, past rodent infestations will persist. are not left in the store).
Detecting insects in the empty store allows decisions to be
eg germination for malting barley, protein
made about need for fabric treatments before grain goes Treatments should only be used when pests are ● Identify insects accurately.
for milling wheat, oil and free fatty acid present.
into store. ● Monitor rodent baiting stations weekly.
for rapeseed.
● monitoring physical and biological
aspects of grain and the storage
Measurements confirm that grain off a hot-air ● Locate the drying front by withdrawing samples
environment before and during storage.
In 2003, a specific HGCA publication 'Grain
2 MOISTURE dryer is at the required mc. from different depths,or by probing the slowest-
They also indicate the prog ress of a drying front drying column using a moisture spear.
sampling - a farmer's guide' focused on Grain moisture content is an important measure. It reflects
with ambient-air or bulk drying.In an upwards ● Take samples each month at the surface during
grain quality sampling.Therefore,the risk of infestation and moulds.
(blowing) drying system the slowest drying area winter.
information below focuses on monitoring to
preserve storage quality. will be near the surface and between ducts or
Monitoring during storage requires a wider between the duct and the store wall.
range of techniques than sampling for Dry grain can absorb moisture at the surface
quality. Stored grain and oilseeds are during winter.
monitored to establish if deterioration is
occurring; or whether drying and cooling are
effective and targets achieved. Cooling and drying performance depends on the ● Use an hours meter and record fan hours weekly.
Changes to grain quality can be predicted by 4&6 DRYING and COOLING air volume passed through the grain,which is ● Calculate air volume delivered.
monitoring physical conditions and pest determined by multiplying fan output (measured
Both ambient-air drying and cooling systems rely on ● Check airflow delivered by the fan using a hot-
incidence.Monitoring thus provides early as m3/hour/tonne) by hours run.Records of fan wire or vane-anemometer.
warning of problems. It also provides sufficient airflow for targets to be met on time. hours run,or airflow may provide explanations if
decision support about when grain should ● Use a floatmeter at the grain surface to measure
Drying requires about 20 times the airflow needed for cooling or drying is slo wer than expected.
be sold and/or management actions needed. drying rate airflows.
cooling.
Records from monitoring ensure compliance
with assurance schemes.
Monitoring is an integral part of grain storage Measuring temperature indicates if the cooling ● Take measurements daily for the first week or
at several stages and for several purposes.
Where appropriate, section 14 cross-refers to
5 TEMPERATURE system is operating properly so remedial action two while temperatures fall below 15–20ºC.
can be taken if necessar y. ● Take measurements weekly for the first month or
the relevant section in this guide. Monitoring equipment
Temperature also indicates infestation risk.The two and thereafter monthly.
● Thermocouples, which are cheap and flexible,may be used ● Ideally use a permanent grid of sensors in
most important temperature to measure is wher e
for sensor arrays but are less robust than thermistors which large stores.
grain cooling takes longest,eg furthest away from
are usually employed in commercial equipment or
Sampling before installations. the fan in blowing (upward aeration) systems.This ● For smaller bins or heaps,use a portable
storage to is usually 0.5 m beneath the surface and centrally temperature spear probe,possibly with a
● Permanent probe arrays can be interfaced with computers moisture sensor.
determine grain and downloaded into record-keeping software to access
between ducts.
quality is problem-solving tools. ● Do NOT use long metal probes as sensors need
summarised in the to attain stable grain temperature rapidly.
HGCA booklet ● Alcohol, mercury in glass or bimetallic strip
thermometers cannot be used for remote sensing.Glass ● Sample temperatures regularly at the same
Grain sampling – locations and keep permanent records.
a farmer's guide. thermometers may not be used in grain stores because of the
possibility of breakage.
Temperature sensors can be integrated to control fan operation
and linked to automatic recording systems.
30 31
Monitoring pests assesses effectiveness of
control measures.
14 MONITORING
BACKGROUND ISSUE ACTION
Traps are not very ef fective for quantifying insect ● Lay traps in a 4–5 m g rid.Check every week early
7 INSECTS infestations but can indicate population trends. in the season and monthly thereafter. Leave in
Numbers caught are influenced by trap type, place for a week before examination.
Detecting insects in grain enables corrective ● Pitfall traps: Tie at least 1 m of string to a bamboo species, grain disturbance,temperature and ● Record trap locations.Account for all traps at
action to be taken before sale. This avoids costly cane marker to avoid losing trap.In large stores fla g whether grain has been treated with pesticide. each monitoring.
rejection if insects are detected at the point of sale. and number canes.Bury trap so that the rim is level
with grain surface.If grain falls into trap still
Insects usually die out during cool stor age.If ● Empty pests onto white tray or card to make more
Detecting insects inside the empty store allows numbers trapped increase consistently there is visible.Alternatively place insects in a sealable,
decisions to be made about whether fabric examine contents using a sieve to separate out
cause for concern. labelled bag or tube and examine in the office.
treatments are needed before grain goes into store. insects or mites.Clean pitfall traps and treat with
fluon every 2–3 months. A few insects in a trap do not mean control ● Record trap catches.Identify pests accurately.
Insects are relatively small (3–6 mm) and dif ficult to measures must be used. Treatment depends on
find.As more samples are taken, chances of detection ● Probe traps: Tie trap to marker cane by at least 1 m ● React to sustained increases in numbers.
intended market and stage of storage.
increase.Even a single insect in a 1 kg sample may of string.Bury traps vertically to just below surface. ● Apply treatments,possibly in localised areas.
represent potentially serious infestation. ● PC traps combine features of pitfall and probe ● Use I-Spy insect indicator or bait bags to detect
To assist monitoring,traps have been developed.These traps.Use in pairs – at surface and 5–10 cm below. crawling insects on flat surfaces.
are more than ten times as ef fective as sampling at ● Bait bags containing carob-based aromatic seed Sampling for pests
detecting insects and mites.They may also be the only mixes are used to assess residual infestations,
effective method of detecting insects in grain bulks particularly in empty stores.Bait bags must be – at intake ● No action is needed for har vest-fresh grain. Field
where use of spears is restricted. collected and counted after use. Freshly harvested grain will not contain insects will die out.
● The I-spy insect indicator (also called a PC floor storage pests. ● Sample before unloading – sieve at least 3–5 kg
trap) is a PC trap with a flat base in place of the Previously stored grain may be infested. of grain from each load.
perspex funnel and enhanced with a lure. – during storage
Early detection is crucial,but sampling is ● Use insect traps as the most relia ble method of
unreliable.Changes in temperature and moisture detecting insects (see Sections 7 & 8) .
may indicate infestation risk.Mites and fungus ● Monitor and record temperature and moisture
HGCA funding has developed insect traps beetles commonly occur in damper surface la yers. regularly (see Sections 2 & 5) . Investigate areas
which are the most cost-effective way of
of change.
detecting insects in static bulks. – at outloading
● Check samples for insects or mites. Absence of
Insect trapping is an integral component of Pests must be detected and dealt with befor e
pests is no guarantee of freedom from infestation.
the Assured Combinable Crops Scheme. outloading.
Mites often occur in lar ge numbers in debris and ● Monitor store structure using mite traps . These
8 MITES are almost indistinguishable from dust.In damp should indicate higher risk areas.
grain,mites are distributed throughout the bulk ● Sample grain from different depths and sieve
Mites can be monitored by using mite traps or but in drier grain will be close to the surface. through a 1 mm mesh.Examine sievings using a
by sieving. Mites are most likely to re-infest a g rain surface hand lens (minimum x10).Carry out parallel
● If the moisture content is above 14.5%, mites when it absorbs moisture from the atmosphere measurement of mc to assess likelihood of
will be widespread throughout the bulk. in winter. further infestation.
● Providing the bulk mc is below 14.5, mites only ● Monitor grain surface for mites and control an y
usually occur at the grain surface populations found.
● Where the bulk mc is below 13%, the risk of mite ● Look for mites in insect traps or by sieving a
infestation occurring at the surface is negligible. spear sample of grain.
Mite trap
32 33
REFERENCES
HGCA guides 69 The control of insects in export grain by Books Software
Rodent control in agriculture – a guide , 2002 admixture chemicals – Drying and storing combinable crops , K A McLean, – HGCA GrainPlan – an expert system. Available
Grain sampling – a farmer’s guide , 2003 79 An assessment of practical methods for collecting Farming Press, second edition, 1989. early 2004.
samples from lorry-loads of grain – Common insect pests of stored food products. A Free to levy payers from HGCA.
82 The development of a practical method for guide to their identification , Ed. P. Freeman, – Grain sampling – a farmer’s guide , on CD, 2003.
HGCA Topic Sheets removing insects from large samples of grain British Museum (Natural History), Economic – Integrated grain storage manager – an expert
Posted free to levy payers on request. Series No. 15. system developed with HGCA and Defra funding.
7 Integrated grain storage strategies – Storage of cereal grains and their products , Ed: D £49.99 (inc p&p) to HGCA levy payers.
8 Effective phosphine fumigation of grain B Sauer, American Association of Cereal Tel: 020 7594 6565.
16 Bulk storage drying of grain and oilseeds Chemists, 4th Edition, 1992.
– Stored grain ecosystems , Eds: D S Jayas, N D
26 Sampling grain on farm Legislation
White, W E Muir, Marcel Dekker, USA, 1995.
34 Mycotoxins in stored grain • Agriculture act 1947
– Technical bulletin 9. The mites of stored food and
53 Vertical ventilation for cooling grain houses, Dr A M Hughes, HMSO, second edition, • Prevention of damage by pests act 1949
60 Ensuring good germination in malting barley 1976. • Pests act 1954
62 Preventing and controlling mites in stored cereals – “Codes of practice” for quality assurance – • Health and safety at work act 1974
Assured Combinable Crops Scheme (for England • Control of pollution act 1974
and Wales) and Scottish Quality Cereals.
HGCA Research Reviews (cereals)* • Spring traps approval order 1975
– Codes of practice for control of salmonella , MAFF.
3 The biodeterioration of stored cereals • Wildlife and countryside act 1981
– Pesticides 1999: pesticides approved under the
7 The control of pests in stored cereals Control of Pesticides Regulations 1985 and the • Spring traps approval (variation) order 1985
12 The occurrence and detection of pesticide Plant Protection Products Regulations 1995 , • Food and environment protection act 1985 (part
residues in UK grain MAFF. iii)
13 The occurrence and detection of moulds, – Integrated management of insects in stored • Control of pesticides regulations as amended 1986
mycotoxins and actinomycetes in UK grain products. Eds. B Subramanyam, D. Hagstrum, • Food safety act 1990
15 Moisture content of cereal grains Marcel Dekker USA, 1996.
• Environmental protection act 1990
– The UK pesticide guide, CAB International 2003.
27 Methods of distributing phosphine in bulk grain • Management of health and safety at work
38 Bulk storage drying of grain and oilseeds regulations 1992
42 Alternatives to organophosphorous compounds for Websites • The control of substances hazardous to health
the control of storage mites HGCA: regulations 1994
www.hgca.com/research/grain storage • Food safety (general food hygiene) regulations
Maltsters’ Association of Great Britain: 1995
HGCA Research Review (oilseeds)* www.ukmalt.com • Wild mammals (protection) act 1996
OS6 Drying and storage of oilseeds www.malt.info • Biocidal products directive (98/008/EEC)
Pesticides Safety Directorate: • Plant protection products (basic conditions)
www.pesticides.gov.uk regulations 1997
HGCA Project Reports (cereals)*
Central Science Laboratory: • Anon, 2002. Commission directive 2002/26/EC
6 The control of insects in export grain www.csl.gov.uk of 13 March 2002 laying down the sampling
7 Economic analysis of stored product pest control US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research methods and methods of analysis for the official
strategies (GPA ‘Grain Pest Adviser’ expert Service: control of the levels of ochratoxin A in foodstuffs.
system) www.ars.usda.gov/is/mb/mebrweb.htm Official Journal of the European Communities.
24 Integrated pest control strategy for stored grain Pestweb: L75/38 – 43.
29 Commercial grain stores 1988/89, England and www.pestweb.com
Wales. Pest incidence and storage practices (two Stored Grain Research Laboratory, Australia:
volumes) http://sgrl.csiro.au/default/html
30 Improving the effectiveness of pitfall traps for Alberta Agriculture Food and Rural Development,
the detection of insect pests in grain Canada:
34 An assessment of methods of sampling bulk grain
35 The reduction of chemical and microbial
contaminants in wheat British and International Standards
40 Evaluation and development of systems for Standard number Title International
storing malting barley equivalent
41 New application methods for the use of phosphine BS 4317 Part 3(1999) Determination of moisture content of cereals and cereal products (routine
to disinfest bulk grain reference method) ISO 712
45 Residues of etrimfos and pirimiphos-methyl in BS 4317 Part 18(1988) Determination of hidden insect infestation ISO 6639
wheat and malting barley stored in ventilated BS 4317 Part 24(1990) Method of checking the calibration of moisture meters for cereals ISO
bins 7700-1
57 Integrated pest control strategy for stored grain BS 4317 Part 26(1991) Measurement of temperature of grain during bulk storage ISO 4112
– surface pesticide treatment of aerated BS 6219 (1996) Test sieves for cereals ISO 5223
commercial and farm stores to control insects
and mites BS 6279 Part 2(2001) Storage of cereals and pulses. Practical recommendations ISO 6322-2
BS 13690 (1999) Cereals, pulses
NOTE:*Project Reports and Research Reviews are available at cost from HGCA.
34 35
Acknowledgments
This guide represents a knowledge transfer project.The guide
describes general principles developed through HGCA and/or
Defra-funded research.
This edition was revised by David Armitage and Dr Ken Wildey,
CSL and edited by Dr Clive Edwards,HGCA; and Geoff
Dodgson,Chamberlain.
The editors acknowledge the helpful comments made by many
industry experts.They incl u d e :A d rian Meyer and Mike Kelly,
Acheta; Robin Pirie,ACCS; John Bailey, David Bartlett and Rob
Clare,ADAS;Richard Whitlock, Banks Cargill; Dr Denise Baxter,
BRi; Dean Cook, Patrick Cox and Dr Roger Quy, CSL;Bruce
Johnson,Greencore;Archi Lamont, Grainfax;Bryan Collen, Dr
Simon Hook, Professor Graham Jellis, Dr Roger Williams and
Norman Wisely, HGCA;David Cross and Chris Watson,IGROX;
Dr Jonathan Knight, Imperial College London; Ivor Murrell,
MAGB (with input from many member companies);Alex
Waugh and Damian Testa,nabim;David Richardson,PSD; Paul
Molyneux, Rank Hovis;Anne Guttridge,Cargill and Martin
Farrow, ADM (for SCOPA); Dr David Bruce,SRI; Paul Rooke,
UKASTA;Richard Elsdon, United Oilseeds; Dr Julian
Wiseman,University of Nottingham; Robin Wilkin,
grain storage consultant.
Design by Chamberlain.
© HGCA 2003
The original guide was written by David Armitage and Dr Ken Wildey; with Dr David Bruce
of Silsoe Research Institute; and Mike Kelly and Adrian Meyer of The Acheta Partnership.