Machining

ver. 1

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
Old Machine
Shop –
Edison’s lab

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
Machining
g = Chip
p formation by
y a tool

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Big lathe with big chips

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Discontinuous chips

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Continuous chips

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 Machine Tools and Processes
• Turning g • Filing
• Boring • Sawing
• Milling • Grinding
• Planing • Reaming
• Shaping • H i
Honing
• Broaching g • Tapping
• Drilling

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
Lathe (for turning)

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 Lathe Parts

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Typical Insert Cutting Tool
insert

holder

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 Old Lathe

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 Boring

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Old Boring Machine

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 Old Planer

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 Shaper

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 Trepanning

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 Drilling
(a)

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 Milling

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 Face Milling

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 Horizontal Mill

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Old Horizontal Mill

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 Vertical Mill

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 Milling
g Types
yp

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 Broach

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 Reamers

bridge reamer
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Honing

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 Thread Tap and Die

internal external

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 Idealized Chip-formation Process
Orthogonal Cutting

chip

shear zone cutting tool

workpiece

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 Chip-formation
p Geometryy

primary shear zone chip

B tc
tool
α
to
φ V (cutting velocity)
ζ
A
workpiece

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 Turning vs
vs. Orthogonal Cutting

• Terminology used in a turning

operation on a lathe, where f is
the feed rate (in./rev or mm/rev)
and d is the depth of cut.
• In turning,
turning the “orthogonality”
orthogonality is
to the left in the drawing, hence
a change of coordinate system
is needed. If you were doing a
diametral cut-off (p (plunge
g cut))
operation, no change would be
needed.
• Note that feed in turning is
equivalent to the depth of cut in
orthogonal
th l cutting,
tti and
d th
the
depth of cut in turning is
equivalent to the width of cut in
orthogonal cutting.

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 Cutting Force Diagram

R
β F
Fc α V
N
Ft R
Fs Ns φ

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
Merchant’s
Merchant s Force Circle
Fs
α
V
Fc φ
Ns β−α
β α
Ft α
R
F
β
N

M Eugene Merchant
M.

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 3D Cutting (Oblique)
Z

Vc
αn A

X, V αe
O
i

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
Typical Insert Cutting Tool
insert

holder

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 Tool Coatings

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
Chip Types (a) (b) (c)

Basic types of chips

and their
photomicrographs
produced in metal
cutting: (a) continuous
chip with narrow,
straight primary shear
zone; (b) secondary
shear zone at the
chip-tool interface; (c)
continuous chip with (d) (e) (f)
built-up edge; (d)
continuous chip with
large primary shear
zone; (e) segmented
or nonhomogeneous
chip and (f)
discontinuous chip.
Source: After M. C.
Shaw, P. K. Wright,
and S. Kalpakjian.

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 Chip Types

• (a) Continuous chip with narrow primary

shear zone
– ductile materials at high speed
– bad
b d ffor automation
t ti (use
( chip
hi bbreakers)
k )
• (b) Secondary shear zone at chip-tool
interface
– increased energy dissipation
• (c) Continuous chip with built up edge (BUE)
– hi
high
h plastic
l ti working
ki
– bad for automation

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 Chip Types
• (d) Continuous chip with large primary shear
zone
– soft metals at low speeds and low rake angles
– poor surface finish
– residual stresses
• (e) Segmented chip
– low thermal conductivity materials
• (f) Discontinuous chip
– low ductility materials and/or negative rake angles
– good for automation

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Segmented chips

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 Chip Breaker
chip breaker
chip
hi

shear zone cutting tool

workpiece

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Integral Chip Breakers

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 Tool Marks

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 Roughness

2 2
f f
Roughness AA ≈ Roughnesst ≈
18 3 r 8r

f = feed
f d f
r = nose radius
AA = arithmetic
ith ti average
r
t = peak-to-valley

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 Surface Marks

(a) (b)

Surfaces produced on steel by cutting, as observed with a scanning electron microscope: (a) turned
surface and (b) surface produced by shaping. Source: J. T. Black and S. Ramalingam.

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
Formation of Built
Built-up
up Edge (BUE)

BUE
chip deposit

BUE cutting tool

BUE
deposit

workpiece

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 Chatter
• Results from vibration
• Tool
T lb bounces iin and
d outt off th
the
workpiece

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 Glacial Chatter

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Chip / Tool Interface

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 Tool Wear
(a) (b) (c)
Rake

Flank

(d) ( )
(e)

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 Taylor’s
y Equation
q

VTn = C
V = cutting speed
T = tool life
n, C = Taylor constants (empirical)

C
Frederick W. Taylor
1856-1915
n
log V

log T
1
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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 F W Taylor
F.W. Taylor’s
s Contributions

• Metal cutting
• Time / motion studies
– Led to Congressional
inquiry and banning of
stop
p watch use by
y civil
servants (1912-1949)
• Design of shovels
• Scientific management

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 Cost components
Total

Tool changing

Min Tool
OST
CO

Machining
Raw material
Material handling

CUTTING VELOCITY

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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009
 Cutting cost example
HSS Carbide Carbide all
Vcm Vtm Vcm Vtm Vcm Vtm
N (rpm) 183 200 432 490 432 490
T (min) 43 5
43.5 18 1
18.1 5 64
5.64 3 5 64
5.64 3
Cm 3.1831 2.9125 1.3484 1.1888 1.3484 1.1888
Cc 0.1463 0.3218 0.1793 0.2972 0.3495 0.3495
Cg 0.2117 0.4655 0.1603 0.2657 0.3125 0.3125
Ci 0.699 0.699 0.699 0.699 0.699 0.699
Cs 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Cr 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
Total ($) 5 14
5.14 5 30
5.30 3 29
3.29 3 35
3.35 3 61
3.61 3 45
3.45
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Prof. J.S. Colton © GIT 2009