Measuring Bit Error Rate and C/N for MSB

( Reviewed 05/23/09)
The BER, or quality of the digital link, is calculated from the number of bits received in error divided by
the number of bits transmitted.

BER= (Bits in Error)/(Total bits received)

Using a bench test setup, this is easily measured by means of a comparator in which the transmitted bits
are matched in an XOR gate with the received bits. Fig 1 shows the schematic of the device used for the
following measurements.

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Data Generator Bit Delay 1
3 2 5
D Q

PR
2
Clock 3 Event Counter
CLK
4

CL
2 5 Q
Data Received D Q
PR

3 1 2

1
CLK
6
CL

Q
1

Fig. 1.

The transmitting and receiving circuits introduce a time delay of several bits. The transmitted bit pattern
is delayed by the proper amount to match the received pattern in time. If the bits are alike at the XOR gate
input when clocked in from the D flip flop, the output is low. If they are different, the XOR output goes
high, causing an event count. The event counter can be set for various time periods. In general the longer
the time period, the more accurate the count. The number of bits processed should be on the order of
10/BER. This would yield an Eb/No uncertainty of about .5 dB.

A random character generator and white noise source should be used for these measurements. See
references.

The number of bit errors is dependent upon the amount of noise entering the system. White noise, or
background noise, has an average or RMS value that is exceeded periodically by peaks that rise many
times that level. These peaks exist only for a very short period of time. When the peak equals or exceeds
the signal level, that is, noise energy = bit energy, there is a 50/50 chance of error. The peak time periods
can be calculated statistically from the Q function. The calculations for BER are based on finding the bit
energy and noise power.

The Characteristics of Gaussian Noise:

Gaussian noise is random with peaks that reach predictable levels for a period of time according to a
probability factor ‘Q’, which is mathematically related to the erf and erfc functions. The Q function is
plotted in Figs. 5 and 8.

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When the Q function is plotted, it results in a curve that shows the period of time the momentary noise
voltage level ‘E’ will exceed a certain level according to the ratio of V/E(noise)rms.

It is not likely that this peak will occur suddenly from a zero base level to a spike one millionth of the
time. Much more likely, is that there will be a background level of lower frequency noises that will add
so that the very short peak period will merely be a spurt on top of the low frequency background. When
V/E is 4.75, the noise peak V will be above E for 10-6 of the time.

Bandwidth Efficiency or Power Bandwidth Ratio

Texts written before 1990 generally referred to a bandwidth efficiency in bits/sec./Hz, which was based
on the number of bits/symbol ( N ). Some modulation methods in use combined 2 or more bits into a
symbol according to a relationship 2 N = M. If 4 bits are included in a symbol, there are M points in a
“constellation”. 16 QAM has 16 constellation points and four bits combined into a symbol. When this is
done, the bandwidth is theoretically compressed by 4/1. The bandwidth efficiency is 4 bits/sec./Hz. It
should be noted that the “sampling rate” is also reduced 4/1.

As more and more engineers began working with digital modulation, it was realized this concept lacked a
required link to reality. The actual bandwidth used was not 1/4 the uncompressed bandwidth, but could
vary widely from it. Nyquist filters with an excess bandwidth figure " have a noise bandwidth greater
than BR/N. Using the value for 16QAM, the actual bandwidth efficiency may be 3 bits/sec./Hz, not 4
b/s/Hz.

This led to the “power bandwidth ratio”, which takes the excess filter bandwidth into account, whereas
’bandwidth efficiency’ alone does not.

PBR = ( Bit Rate ) / ( Actual Filter BW ) Also in bits/sec./Hz,

This is similar to "processing gain" in DSSS, which is (Chip Rate)/(Filter BW) and the “R Factor”.
Which is (Sampling Rate)/(Filter BW).

This latter relationship is extremely important in calculations relating to 3PRK. For 3PRK, the number
of bits per symbol is 1, but the PBR = ( Bit Rate ) / ( Filter BW ), which may be in the thousands.

The SNR Limit ( and Shannon's Limit ) for Ultra Narrow Band Modulation is the same as that for any one
bit per symbol method, that is 0 dB SNR. The sampling rate does not change, it remains equal to, or
greater than, the bit rate, but the filter noise bandwidth is greatly reduced compared to BPSK

The noise power entering a system is directly proportional to the noise bandwidth of the filter. Excess
filter BW means more noise and an increased BER.

Measuring C/N and Eb/No

In order to obtain a level playing field for the comparison of digital modulation methods, engineers have
adopted the Eb/No standard. That is - bit energy divided by the noise power.

The bit energy Eb is = (Signal Power)/(Data rate) **

The noise power per Hz of bandwidth ( No , or η ) is = (Noise Power)/(Noise Filter

Bandwidth(Hz))

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** Traditionally this is "Energy per Transmitted Symbol", where the sample is 1 symbol period.. When
using MSB modulation, this changes to "Energy per cycle, or energy per sample", since the zero group
delay filter and synchronous detector sample at the IF frequency and not at the symbol rate. Eb is lower
than for samples at the actual symbol rate, but this is compensated for by the large increase in PBR. The
noise BW is much smaller. This is compensated for in the equation below if the bit rate is assumed to be
equal the IF frequency instead of the actual bit rate, since theoretically, the sampling on each cycle could
determine a new bit difference each IF sampled cycle. This difference is noted by Sklar ( 12 ) ( Ch 9 ) as
being responsible for a 'Contradiction in Shannon's Limit.'
--------------------------------
The measurements of signal power and noise power are made with a “True RMS” voltmeter. The load
impedance can be ignored since it is the same for both. The measured ratio in dB is ‘C/N, or carrier
power over noise power. For the ultra narrow band methods discussed in these papers:
C/N = Eb/n = SNR.

The standard method used to measure Eb/No is to use a white noise generator having an output bandwidth
at least 4 times the bandwidth of the receiver filter to insure uniform noise distribution. ( Ref. 3 ).

Receiver Filter

Noise F

Measuring Eb/No
Fig.2.

If the measurements are made after the receiver filter, the measured C/N ratio
can be used without bothering to calculate the actual values of Eb, or No.

Substitute "Sample Rate" for "BitRate". The ultra narrow BW filters have a Nyquist BW =
Sample Rate.
⎛ BitRate ⎞ ⎛ Eb ⎞
SNR = (sin 2 β ) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ Bandwidth ⎠ ⎝ η ⎠
⎛ SignalPower ⎞
⎛ BitRate ⎞ ⎜ BitRate ⎟
= SNR = (sin 2 β ) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ Bandwidth ⎠ ⎜ NoisePower ⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ Bandwidth ⎠
Canceling terms:

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 ⎛ SignalPower ⎞
SNR = ( sin 2 β ) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ NoisePower ⎠
Signal Power/Noise Power = SNR = C/N = Eb/n for +-90 degree or missing cycle modulation.
-------- With UNB methods there is no β and SNR = Eb/n ------------

Noise power/ Bandwidth is the major concern. There are two noise sources to contend with. Source 1 is
the noise and bandwidth associated with the ultra narrow band filter and source 2 is the noise source that
comes in from the filter shoulders, which is a much wider BW. All bandpass filters have broad shoulders
extending from 0 to infinity. This can be seen in Fig 3, which is the swept response of a 2 pole Ultra
Narrow Band filter.

Figure 3. Swept response of near zero group delay UNB filter with 2 poles. The lower level shoulders
extend from 0 Hz to infinity unless a pre-filter is used. The 3 dB noise bandwidth of the filter is
approximately 1 kHz.

The noise power portion of the equation above becomes:

(Noise Power/BW) 1 + (Noise Power/BW) 2

(Noise Power/BW) 2 must be kept small, that is - less than (NP)1. Assume there is a pre- filter that is less
than 1 MHz wide and the shoulders are -30dB down. Then ( Attenuation x Noise Power/BW) 2 is the
factor that must now be used.

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The NP1 bandwidth assumed is 1 kHz, so the NP2 bandwidth could be 30 dB ( 1,000 times ) wider. Noise
power is proportional to bandwidth, so the pre-filter could be 1 MHz wide at the 3 dB points. To allow a
margin of safety, 6 dB is arbitrarily subtracted so the bandwidth allowable is only 250 kHz.

Zero group delay pre-filters with bandwidths this narrow are available. If used, the lowest ( best ) C/N is
obtainable. This has been measured to be better than for BPSK where SNR = C/N = Eb/n, but the noise
bandwidth is many times greater for BPSK than it is for MSB ultra narrow band methods. ( Fig. 6 ).
Note: The RF bandpass filter in a superheterodyne receiver is a pre-filter - wider than the IF
bandpass ). Unless a pre-filter is used, C/N and SNR measurements can be
falsely too high.

Fig. 4. Noise Spectrum of the AWGN generator. This is approximately 200 kHz within the 3dB
half power level. This is much more than the 4/1 Noise/filter ratio recommended.

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For a 3PRK filter having a 3-dB bandwidth of 2-3 kHz, the noise generator bandwidth shown in
Fig. 4 meets the requirements of Fig. 2. The vertical scale is 10 dB per division. The noise
generator bandwidth is seen to be 200 kHz..
The probability of error is given by: Pe = ½ erfc [SNR] ½ SNR = (sin2β) Eb/n
Also, Pe = ½ erfc [z] where z = Vp/1.4EN (Vp = peak signal level and EN = noise RMS)
--------- With UNB methods there is no β and SNR = Eb/n ------------
This equation applies to double sideband suppressed carrier signals where each sideband
carries half the energy and any noise equal to either sideband will cause an error. When
using MSB, there is only one vector, the noise level can be twice as high and the equation
becomes:
Pe = (½)erfc [2SNR] ½ = ( ½) erfc [2 Eb/n] ½. Note the quote from Bellamy below.
Assuming Vsig and Enoise are both measured as true RMS values. This is verified by
measurement. ( Fig. 6 ).

From Bellamy [5]

Quote: Referring to “some communications theorists”: “Since pre-detection SNRs are measured prior to band
limiting the noise, a noise bandwidth must be hypothesized to establish a finite noise power. Commonly, a bit rate
bandwidth 1/Ts, or a Nyquist bandwidth 1/2Ts, is specified. The latter specification produces----“.
SNR = 2(Eb / N0), where SNR is measured at the detector. It is called “post detection SNR” because it is at
the output of the signal processing circuitry. ( Bellamy [5] Eq. C34 ).

Other relationships are:

⎡ A ⎤ ⎡ A⎤ 1 ⎡ A⎤
Pe = Q ⎢ ⎥ = Q =
⎢σ ⎥ 2 erfc ⎢σ ⎥ = Probability of Error (BER )
⎣ Nt ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
∞
1
∫
− z2
Q( z ) = e dV z = V/( 1.4σ ) A = V signal voltage peak.
2π V
erfc ( z ) = 2Q (2 2 z ) where σ = RMS noise voltage

erf ( z ) = 1 − 2Q (2 2 z ) Note the correction for both RMS above.

The actual measured values for the equipment in use, using a random character generator and a white
noise source, are very close to these theoretical values, that is, the BER measurements were about 3dB
better than for BPSK, which is the comparison standard, in C/N terms ((SNR = 2(Eb / N0)),. ( Also see 'R'
Factor below ). The measured value is close to the Q curve. ( Fig. 5 ).

Some values for Eb/No vs BER for BPSK modulation are:

Theoretical BER (BPSK) ( This is also the erfc values)

10-2 4.3 dB
10-3 6.8 dB
10-4 8.4 dB See Fig. 5.

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10-5 9.6 dB
10-6 10.5 dB
10-7 11.3 dB

Measured BER (3PRK) C/N

10-2 4 dB C/N
10-3 6 dB C/N
10-4 7 dB C/N Values +- 1 dB
10-5 7.5 dB C/N
10-6 7.8 dB C/N
10-7 8 dB C/N

For BPSK: SNR = ( Eb/No ), since the PBR = 1.0. For 3PRK (SNR = 2(Eb / N0)),

The 'R' Factor:

When the sampling rate is greater than the filter bandwidth, a new term enters the equation. This is the 'R'
factor, or 'phase noise reduction factor'. It is applicable to wide band FM, VPSK, VMSK and 3PRK.
( See Best (10)).

If the white noise passes through a narrow bandwidth filter, the output of the filter consists of a low
frequency AM and PM signal with its upper frequency limit determined by the bandwidth of the narrow
bandwidth filter. ( See Taub and Schilling,(11) pp325, Fig. 7.5 ). The high sampling rate, combined with
the low frequency of the noise, results in only a portion of the noise appearing in each sample. In theory,
this could result in a 10-15 dB improvement in C/N and SNR. In practice, it is limited to about 3- 4 dB
when using VMinSK, or 3PRK modulation, and narrow band filters.

Unfortunately, several factors including the zero group delay pre-filters required often eliminate
this valuable feature, which is based on integrating a number of detected cycle changes. UNB
methods operate on a cycle by cycle basis where the sampling rate = the intermediate frequency and
the Nyquist BW of the zero group delay filters = IF, so the ratio is 1/1. There is no ‘R’ factor
improvement The noise BW of the filters is much less.

The attached chart shows that the error probability is tied to both SNR and Eb/No. In fact, Eb/No
can have values less than 1 ( or 0 dB ) for some methods, while SNR must be greater than 1.0 for
reception..

SNR can be used to obtain an equivalent equal to Shannon’s Limit. Logic says that when the signal and
noise are at equal levels, there is no way to determine one from the other. When SNR = 1 = 0dB, the
limit has been reached. The derivation of SNR is covered in the references ( 5, 6 ).

Some examples are:

SNR Offset ( Shannon's Limit)
BPSK/QPSK ( Eb/No ) 0
8PSK .44 Eb/No 3.5 dB
16PSK .15 Eb/No 8 dB
16QAM .44 Eb/No 3.5 dB
64QAM .14 Eb/No 8.3 dB
1024QAM .01 Eb/No 20 .0 dB ( Signal strength must be raised 20 dB )

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 It will be noted that the offset value is the same as the value of Shannon’s Limit obtained from
the Shannon-Hartley equation. The attached graphs merely show the erfc curve, to which the
offset, or Shannon’s Limit must be added.

Measured Bit Error Rates ( BER ) for 3PRK modulation in terms of C/N, SNR and
Eb / N o.

In the plot of measured data below, the top scale is for the C/N value to match the erfc curve for
BPSK. It is also used for the C/N value measured for 3PRK.

In Figure 6, note that the measured BER closely follows the curve of Fig. 5.

1 ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
Q( x) = erfc ⎢ ⎥ Pe = Q ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎣1.4 ⎦ ⎣1.4 ⎦
X is (Signal Peak/ Noise RMS). The 1.4 converts the signals to the same reference.
1
⎛E ⎞ 2
Q=⎜ τ⎟ s
determines the BER for MSB. τ = 1 to 3 for 3PRK and MCM.
⎝σ ⎠
1
1 ⎛ z ⎞ 1 ⎛ V ⎞ 1 ⎛ Es ⎞ 2
Q( z ) = erfc ⎜ ⎟ = erfc ⎜ ⎟ = = erfc ⎜ τ⎟
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎝ 2N ⎠ 2 ⎝σ ⎠
Bellamy, Eq C.19, Rappaport D.11
All are Signal peak /Noise RMS

The theoretical and measured BER follows the Q(z) curve.

SignalPower
Eb
= BitRate = Esτ Eb
=
SignalPower C
=
η NoisePower η η NoisePower N
FilterBW
( BR = filter BW)
With VMSK and MSB, the highest possible bit rate is the sampling rate, which is the IF Frequency. The
filter Nyquist BW is seen to be = IF Freq. as well. In the above equation, the two cancel leaving C/N.

But, if a number of SubBits ( altered cycles ) are integrated after correlation, τ increases and Eb improves.
Unfortunately noise η increases as well.

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It might be argued, that conventional modulation methods utilizing coherent correlating detection with
integrating filters, that is filters with group delay, will also increase the power of Eb by increasing τ. This
is correct, but there is also an increase in η. Conventionally, for an optimum system BT=1. B = Bit Rate
and T = Bit Period. As the bit rate decreases, the optimum filter bandwidth also decreases.

Bit rate and filter BW are tied together. As the filter BW decreases, η decreases. The SNR and Eb/n do not
improve in this argued example.

With MSB, η is fixed at (NoisePower)/(IntFreq). It does not change with post detection bandwidth
changes, so Eb/n remains constant with increasing τ. 3PRK and VMSK have the same Eb/n.
E/N
6

4 E peak/N rms
RMS/RMS
3

2
Post Det.
RMS/RMS
1

1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6

Figure. 5.

Figure 5 shows the percent of time probability that the noise will exceed signal for given SNR.
With E signal measured as peak and Noise measured as RMS, use upper curve. For both
measured RMS, or both peak, use center curve. For post detection measurement use the lower
curve. These curves determine the Bit Error Rate. The curves are approximate only. These are
voltage ratios ( E/N ), not power ratios.

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 Carrier to Noise Ratio and erfc values
10-1 2 dB 4 dB 6 dB 8 dB 10 dB

10-2 BPSK-erfc
Differential
BPSK
10-3

MCM-MSB
10-4

10-5

10-6

Measured for MSB

Fig. 6. The Measured C/N for VMSK, MCM and MSB ) and the theoretical value for BPSK. The MCM/MSB curve
does not follow the BPSK curve since it is a single signal vector vs two sideband vectors and is measured post
½
detection. Pe = (½)erfc [2SNR]

Filter Overload:

Given an ideal filter with zero comeback on the shoulders, or with the out of filter bandpass region with
infinite attenuation, there is no problem with using a broadband noise source. If the filter has only a
limited reduction at the sides, it can cause a problem if the noise bandwidth used for the C/N
measurements is too wide. See NP1 and NP2 above. The noise creates a noise floor that must be
overcome by additional filtering

Assume a single monopole crystal filter for 3PRK with a 3- dB noise BW of 3 kHz, but only 16 dB of
rejection at the sides and a CW error breakpoint at -6 dB in the 3PRK detector. The C/N will be accurate
as long as the noise bandwidth from the test set ( or the bandwidth of a pre-filter ) is less than 30 kHz.
( NP2 ). If the noise bandwidth is 300 kHz, the total noise power ( the rising noise floor ) will overload
the filter by 10 dB and the measurement will be off by 10 dB. A CW signal at +10 dB located at either
side will just cause the signal to reach the break point. For this reason, the 200 kHz noise source of Fig. 4
is used to limit NP2. In practical 3PRK applications, this noise floor must be considered in the receiver
filter design. 3 MHz +30

300 kHz +20

30 kHz +10

10 dB
16 dB
3 kHz
0 dB
Figure 7.
-6 dB

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For an ultra narrow bandpass filter with a 3 dB BW of 1 kHz, which is common with the filters presently
in use with MSB, the BW figures in Fig 7 must be reduced accordingly. For example, 30 kHz above
becomes 10 kHz.

This plot points out the necessity for the narrowest possible noise bandwidth at the input to the ultra
narrow band filter, and of course the greatest possible off center rejection in the filter itself.

Fig. 8. The Q Curve. V peak / E Noise (RMS) Plotted. Period of time Noise equals E signal peak.

Reconciliation with Q values.

Q = 2 Q(z) = .02275 Approx. ratio 43. = ½ 10-2 That fits the curve above.
Q = 3 Q(z) = .00135 Approx. ratio 743 = Approx. 10-3 Also comes close to curve above.

Q was apparently derived for E peak/ Noise rms. To correct for both being RMS, the factor 1.4 must be
included as in Fig. 5. An additional factor is applied for post detection measurements.

Figure 9. The RSSI output of the AD8306 used to measure true RMS levels.

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References:

1) K. Feher, “Wireless Digital Communications”, Prentice Hall

2) D. Pleasant, “Practical Simulation of Bit Error Rates”, Appl. Microwaves & Wireless, Winter94.
3) E. Franke & J. Wunderlich, Practical BER Measurements.” Paper- R.F. Expo, West, Jan 1995.
4) A.B. Carlson, “ Communications Systems”, McGraw Hill
5) J.C. Bellamy, “Digital telephony”, John Wiley, 1982.
6) H.R. Walker, “ Modulation Analysis” Vol 13, Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
John Wiley -also Applied Microwaves and Wireless magazine, July/Aug 1997
(7) Mischa Schwartz, “Information Transmission, Modulation and Noise.”
McGraw Hill. 1959.
(8) Proakis and Saleh, “ Communications System Engineering” Prentice Hall, 1994.
(9) K. Feher, "Telecommunications Measurements, Analysis, and Instrumentation", Noble Publishing,
Atlanta, Ga.
(10) R. E. Best, "Phase Locked Loops" McGraw Hill.
(11) Taub and Schilling, "Principals of Communications Systems" McGraw Hill.

A paper entitled “Bits and SubBits” is informative regarding BER = Pe and C/N = Eb/n = SNR.

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