Cybernetics and

Cryptography

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Contents
Articles
User:Rajah2770 1
Cybernetics 5
Cryptography 14
Pattern recognition 28
Cupid 33
Cupid and Psyche 35
Holy Grail 41
Nikah 48
Poker 49

References
Article Sources and Contributors 54
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 57

Article Licenses
License 58
User:Rajah2770 1

User:Rajah2770
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika
[[File:File:Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika & his two kids.jpg||alt=]]
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter)

Born Azad Bin Rajib HazarikaJuly 2, 1970Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Residence Nagaon, Assam, India

Nationality Indian

Ethnicity AssameseMuslim

Citizenship India

Education PhD, PDF, FRAS

Alma mater University of Jodhpur

Jai Narayan Vyas University
[1]
Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology
[2]
Kendriya Vidyalaya
[3]
Poona College of Arts, Science &Commerce

Occupation Assistant Professor(Lecturer), Diphu Govt. College , Diphu,Assam,India

Years active 2004- onwards

Employer Diphu Government College

Government of Assam,Assam Education Service

Known for Lecturer ,Assistant Professor,Mathematician,Academician,Fusion,Astronomy

Home town Nagaon, Assam, India

Salary Rs 40000 per month

Height 6 feet and 2 inches

Weight 100 kg

Title Doctorate, Dr., FRAS (London), Assam Education Service, AES

Board Member of Scientific and Technical committee & Editorial review board of Natuaral and Applied sciences World Academy of
member of [4]
Science ,Engineering & Technology

Religion Sunni Islam,

Spouse Helmin Begum Hazarika

Children Laquit Ali Hazarika(son), Danisha Begum Hazarika(daughter)

Parents Rosmat Ali Hazarika@Rostam Ali Hazarika@Roufat Ali Hazarika and Anjena Begum Hazarika

Call-sign Drabrh or Raja

Website

[5]
[6] [7] [8] [9]
User:Rajah2770 2

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit (son) and Danisha(daughter)

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika (born July 02, 1970, in Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India) is Assistant
Professor(Lecturer) Diphu Government College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district , Government of Assam [10] , [11] ,
Karbi Anglong,Assam's largest conglomerate by Government of Assam . He is also the Fellow of Royal
Astronomical Society[12] ,London ,Member of International Association of Mathematical Physics, World Academy
of Science ,Engineering & Technology, Focus Fusion Society, Dense Plasma Focus, Plasma Science Society of
India, Assam Science Society, Assam academy of mathematics,International Atomic Energy Agency,Nuclear and
Plasma Sciences Society,Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics,German Academy of Mathematics and
Mechanics,Fusion Science & Technology Society,Indian National Science Academy,Indian Science Congress
Association,Advisory Committee of Mathematical Education,Royal Society,International Biographical Centre.

Early life
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was born into the famous Hazarika family, a prominent family belonging to Dhing's wealthy
Muslim Assamese community of Nagaon district. He was born to Anjena Begum Hazarika and Rusmat Ali
Hazarika. He is eldest of two childrens of his parents younger one is a Shamim Ara Rahman(nee Hazarika)daughter .

Early career
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika completed his PhD degree in Mathematics from J N Vyas University of Jodhpur in 1995 with
specialization in Plasma instability, the thesis was awarded “best thesis” by Association of Indian Universities in
1998 and the Post-Doctoral Fellow Program from Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology [13] in
Guwahati Assam in 1998 as Research Associate in Plasma Physics Division in theory group studying the Sheath
phenomenon. As a Part-time Lecturer in Nowgong college, Assam before joining the present position in Diphu
Government College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district[14] ,[15] He is a member of the wikipedia[16] , [17] . He is
Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society[18] ,member of International Association Mathematical Physics[19] , member
of World Academy of Science,Engineering & Technology [20] ,[21] , member of Plasma science Society of India [22] ,
[23]
,member of Focus Fusion Society forum [24] ,member of Dense Plasma Focus [25] , Member of Assam Science
Society [26] , Member of Assam Academy of Mathematics [27]
User:Rajah2770 3

He joined the Diphu Government College in July2004 as Lecturer in Mathematics (Gazetted officer), through Assam
Public Service commission [28] in Assam Education Service [29] , AES-I. [30] now redesignated as Assistant
Professor.

Career
In May 1993, Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was awarded Junior Research Fellowship,University Grants Commission,
National Eligibility Test and eligibility for Lecturership ,Govt. of India and worked as JRF(UGC,NET) in
Department of Mathematics and Statistics of J N Vyas University in Jodhpur. Later on in May 1995 got Senior
Research Fellowship(UGC,NET) and continued research for completion of PhD on 27th Dec 1995 .From 1993
onwards taught in Kamala Nehru College for women, Jodhpur and in Faculty of Science in J N Vyas University in
Jodhpur up to the completion of PhD .In 1998 May joined Plasma Physics Division of Institute of Advanced Study
in Science & Technology in Guwahati as Research Associate for PDF in theory group to study the sheath
phenomena of National Fusion Programme [31] of Govt. of India . Then joined Nowgong College as a part-time
Lecturer after which in 2004, July joined the present position of Lecturer in Diphu Government College which is
redesignated as Assistant Professor.

Research
During PhD [32] [33] [34] [35] [36]
The research was based on Astronomy,Astrophysics, Geophysics , for plasma instability with the title of thesis as
“Some Problems of instabilities in partially ionized and fully ionized plasmas” which later on in 1998 was assessed
as best thesis of the year by Association of Indian Universities in New Delhi. He is known for Bhatia-Hazarika
limitResearch at Diphu Govt. College [37] , [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] Applied for patent in US patent and
trademarks office [45] [46]
Research guidance is given to students in Mathematics for MPhil. He has written six books entitled Inventions of
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika on future devices and Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's Pattern recognition on fusion
,Application of Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's conceptual devices , Green tecnology for next genration , Invention of
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's devices ,VASIMR DANISHA:A Hall Thruster Space Odyssey ,[47] , [48] , [49]
He has derived a formula Hazarika's constant for VASIMR DANISHA as Hazarika constant Ch=1+4sin3φ sin θ-2sin
φ-2sin θ the value is 2.646

Personal life
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika has a metallic Scarlet red Tata Indigo CS of Tata motors make and loves to drive himself.He
is married to Helmin Begum Hazarika and have two chidrens Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter).

Quotes
• "Fakir(saint) and lakir(line) stops at nothing but at destination"
• "Expert criticizes the wrong but demonstrates the right thing"
• “Intellectuals are measured by their brain not by their age and experience”
• “Two type of persons are happy in life one who knows everything another who doesn’t know anything”
• “Implosion in device to prove every notion wrong for fusion”
• “Meditation gives fakir(saint) long life and fusion devices the long lasting confinement”
User:Rajah2770 4

Awards and recognition

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika got Junior Research Fellowship,Government of India
Senior Research Fellowship,Government of India
Research AssociateshipDSTGovernment of India
Fellowof Royal Astronomical Society [50]
Member of Advisory committee of Mathematical Education Royal Society London
Member of Scientific and Technical committee & editorial review board on Natural and applied sciences of World
Academy of Science ,Engineering &Technology [51]
Leading professional of the world-2010 as noted and eminent professional from International Biographical Centre
Cambridge

References
[1] http:/ / www. iasst. in
[2] http:/ / www. kvafsdigaru. org
[3] http:/ / www. akipoonacollege. com
[4] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=45
[5] http:/ / www. facebook. com/ Drabrajib
[6] http:/ / in. linkedin. com/ pub/ dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/ 25/ 506/ 549
[7] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh
[8] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org
[9] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege. org/ teaching. html
[10] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html
[11] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf
[12] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid==5531
[13] http:/ / www. iasst. in
[14] {{cite web|url=http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf
[15] http:/ / karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html
[16] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ User:Drabrh
[17] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh
[18] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid=5531,
[19] http:/ / www. iamp. org/ bulletins/ old-bulletins/ 201001. pdf
[20] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=45
[21] http:/ / www. waset. org/ Search. php?page=68& search=
[22] http:/ / www. plasma. ernet. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssi_new04. doc
[23] http:/ / www. ipr. res. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssidir_new-04. doc
[24] http:/ / www. focusfusion. org/ index. php/ forums/ member/ 4165
[25] http:/ / www. denseplasmafocus. org/ index. php/ forum/ member/ 4165
[26] http:/ / www. assamsciencesociety. org/ member
[27] http:/ / www. aam. org. in/ member/ 982004
[28] http:/ / apsc. nic. in
[29] http:/ / aasc. nic. in/ . . . / Education%20Department/ The%20Assam%20Education%20Service%20Rules%201982. pdf
[30] (http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC prospests 08-09. pdf)
[31] http:/ / nfp. pssi. in
[32] http:/ / www. iopscience. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 51/ 6/ 012/ pdf/ physcr_51_6_012. pdf
[33] http:/ / www. iopsciences. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 53/ 1/ 011/ pdf/ 1402-4896_53_1_011. pdf,
[34] http:/ / www. niscair. res. in/ sciencecommunication/ abstractingjournals/ isa_1jul08. asp
[35] http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ Wikitionary%3ASandbox
[36] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1996PhyS. . 53. . . 578
[37] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh/ File:Drabrhdouble_trios_saiph_star01. pdf
[38] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_bayer_rti. pdf
[39] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Columb_drabrh. pdf
[40] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_double_trios. pdf
[41] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrhiterparabolic2007. pdf
[42] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_mctc_feedbackloop. pdf
[43] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_tasso_07. pdf
User:Rajah2770 5

[44] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Abstracts. pdf?page=2

[45] http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ 5/ 50/ EfilingAck5530228. pdf
[46] http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ c/ c4/ EfilingAck3442787. pdf
[47] http:/ / www. pothi. com
[48] http:/ / i-proclaimbookstore. com
[49] http:/ / ipppserver. homelinux. org:8080/ view/ creators/ Hazarika=3ADr=2EA=2EB=2ERajib=3A=3A. html
[50] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ members?recid=5531
[51] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=46

External links
• (http://www.diphugovtcollege.org/)
• Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's profile on the Linkedin Website (http://in.linkedin.com/pub/dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/25/
506/549=)
• (http://www.facebook.com/Drabrajib)
Rajah2770 (talk) 18:12, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

Cybernetics
Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the structure of regulatory systems. Cybernetics is closely related to
control theory and systems theory. Both in its origins and in its evolution in the second-half of the 20th century,
cybernetics is equally applicable to physical and social (that is, language-based) systems.

Overview
Cybernetics is most applicable when
the system being analysed is involved
in a closed signal loop; that is, where
action by the system causes some
change in its environment and that
change is fed to the system via
information (feedback) that causes the
system to adapt to these new
conditions: the system's changes affect
its behavior. This "circular causal"
relationship is necessary and sufficient
for a cybernetic perspective. System
Dynamics, a related field, originated
Example of cybernetic thinking. On the one hand a company is approached as a system in
with applications of electrical an environment. On the other hand cybernetic factory can be modeled as a control system.
engineering control theory to other
kinds of simulation models (especially business systems) by Jay Forrester at MIT in the 1950s. Convenient GUI
system dynamics software developed into user friendly versions by the 1990s and have been applied to diverse
systems. SD models solve the problem of simultaneity (mutual causation) by updating all variables in small time
increments with positive and negative feedbacks and time delays structuring the interactions and control. The best
known SD model is probably the 1972 The Limits to Growth. This model forecast that exponential growth would
lead to economic collapse during the 21st century under a wide variety of growth scenarios.

Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems, electrical
network theory, mechanical engineering, logic modeling, evolutionary biology, neuroscience, anthropology, and
Cybernetics 6

psychology in the 1940s, often attributed to the Macy Conferences.

Other fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by cybernetics include game theory, system theory (a
mathematical counterpart to cybernetics), perceptual control theory, sociology, psychology (especially
neuropsychology, behavioral psychology, cognitive psychology), philosophy, and architecture and organizational
theory.[1]

Definition
The term cybernetics stems from the Greek κυβερνήτης (kybernētēs, steersman, governor,
pilot, or rudder — the same root as government). Cybernetics is a broad field of study, but
the essential goal of cybernetics is to understand and define the functions and processes of
systems that have goals and that participate in circular, causal chains that move from action
to sensing to comparison with desired goal, and again to action. Studies in cybernetics
provide a means for examining the design and function of any system, including social
systems such as business management and organizational learning, including for the
purpose of making them more efficient and effective.

Cybernetics was defined by Norbert Wiener, in his book of that title, as the study of control and communication in
the animal and the machine. Stafford Beer called it the science of effective organization and Gordon Pask extended it
to include information flows "in all media" from stars to brains. It includes the study of feedback, black boxes and
derived concepts such as communication and control in living organisms, machines and organizations including
self-organization. Its focus is how anything (digital, mechanical or biological) processes information, reacts to
information, and changes or can be changed to better accomplish the first two tasks [2] . A more philosophical
definition, suggested in 1956 by Louis Couffignal, one of the pioneers of cybernetics, characterizes cybernetics as
"the art of ensuring the efficacy of action" [3] . The most recent definition has been proposed by Louis Kauffman,
President of the American Society for Cybernetics, "Cybernetics is the study of systems and processes that interact
with themselves and produce themselves from themselves" [4] .
Concepts studied by cyberneticists (or, as some prefer, cyberneticians) include, but are not limited to: learning,
cognition, adaption, social control, emergence, communication, efficiency, efficacy and interconnectivity. These
concepts are studied by other subjects such as engineering and biology, but in cybernetics these are removed from
the context of the individual organism or device.
Other fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by cybernetics include game theory; system theory (a
mathematical counterpart to cybernetics); psychology, especially neuropsychology, behavioral psychology and
cognitive psychology; philosophy; anthropology; and even theology,[5] telematic art, and architecture.[6]
Cybernetics 7

History

The roots of cybernetic theory

The word cybernetics was first used in the context of "the study of self-governance" by Plato in The Laws to signify
the governance of people. The word 'cybernétique' was also used in 1834 by the physicist André-Marie Ampère
(1775–1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge.
The first artificial automatic regulatory system, a water clock, was invented
by the mechanician Ktesibios. In his water clocks, water flowed from a source
such as a holding tank into a reservoir, then from the reservoir to the
mechanisms of the clock. Ktesibios's device used a cone-shaped float to
monitor the level of the water in its reservoir and adjust the rate of flow of the
water accordingly to maintain a constant level of water in the reservoir, so
that it neither overflowed nor was allowed to run dry. This was the first
artificial truly automatic self-regulatory device that required no outside
intervention between the feedback and the controls of the mechanism.
Although they did not refer to this concept by the name of Cybernetics (they
considered it a field of engineering), Ktesibios and others such as Heron and
Su Song are considered to be some of the first to study cybernetic principles.

The study of teleological mechanisms (from the Greek τέλος or telos for end,
James Watt
goal, or purpose) in machines with corrective feedback dates from as far back
as the late 18th century when James Watt's steam engine was equipped with a
governor, a centrifugal feedback valve for controlling the speed of the engine. Alfred Russel Wallace identified this
as the principle of evolution in his famous 1858 paper. In 1868 James Clerk Maxwell published a theoretical article
on governors, one of the first to discuss and refine the principles of self-regulating devices. Jakob von Uexküll
applied the feedback mechanism via his model of functional cycle (Funktionskreis) in order to explain animal
behaviour and the origins of meaning in general.

The early 20th century

Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems, electrical
network theory, mechanical engineering, logic modeling, evolutionary biology and neuroscience in the 1940s.
Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of Bell Telephone Laboratories engineer Harold S. Black
on using negative feedback to control amplifiers. The ideas are also related to the biological work of Ludwig von
Bertalanffy in General Systems Theory.
Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antenna
during WWII. Jay Forrester, a graduate student at the Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT during WWII working
with Gordon S. Brown to develop electronic control systems for the U.S. Navy, later applied these ideas to social
organizations such as corporations and cities as an original organizer of the MIT School of Industrial Management at
the MIT Sloan School of Management. Forrester is known as the founder of System Dynamics.
W. Edwards Deming, the Total Quality Management guru for whom Japan named its top post-WWII industrial prize,
was an intern at Bell Telephone Labs in 1927 and may have been influenced by network theory. Deming made
"Understanding Systems" one of the four pillars of what he described as "Profound Knowledge" in his book "The
New Economics."
Numerous papers spearheaded the coalescing of the field. In 1935 Russian physiologist P.K. Anokhin published a
book in which the concept of feedback ("back afferentation") was studied. The study and mathematical modelling of
regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in 1943. These papers
Cybernetics 8

were "Behavior, Purpose and Teleology" by Arturo Rosenblueth, Norbert Wiener, and Julian Bigelow; and the paper
"A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts.
Cybernetics as a discipline was firmly established by Wiener, McCulloch and others, such as W. Ross Ashby and W.
Grey Walter.
Walter was one of the first to build autonomous robots as an aid to the study of animal behaviour. Together with the
US and UK, an important geographical locus of early cybernetics was France.
In the spring of 1947, Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in Nancy, France. The event was
organized by the Bourbaki, a French scientific society, and mathematician Szolem Mandelbrojt (1899–1983), uncle
of the world-famous mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot.
During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a
manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied
mathematics, which is found in the study of Brownian motion and in
telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the
United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism cybernetics
into his scientific theory. The name cybernetics was coined to denote
the study of "teleological mechanisms" and was popularized through
his book Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal
and Machine (Hermann & Cie, Paris, 1948). In the UK this became the
focus for the Ratio Club.

In the early 1940s John von Neumann, although better known for his
work in mathematics and computer science, did contribute a unique
and unusual addition to the world of cybernetics: Von Neumann
cellular automata, and their logical follow up the Von Neumann
Universal Constructor. The result of these deceptively simple John von Neumann
thought-experiments was the concept of self replication which
cybernetics adopted as a core concept. The concept that the same properties of genetic reproduction applied to social
memes, living cells, and even computer viruses is further proof of the somewhat surprising universality of cybernetic
study.

Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as a
regulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling The Human Use of Human Beings : Cybernetics
and Society (Houghton-Mifflin, 1950).
While not the only instance of a research organization focused on cybernetics, the Biological Computer Lab [7] at the
University of Illinois, Urbana/Champaign, under the direction of Heinz von Foerster, was a major center of
cybernetic research [8] for almost 20 years, beginning in 1958.

The fall and rebirth of cybernetics

For a time during the past 30 years, the field of cybernetics followed a boom-bust cycle of becoming more and more
dominated by the subfields of artificial intelligence and machine-biological interfaces (i.e. cyborgs) and when this
research fell out of favor, the field as a whole fell from grace.
In the 1970s new cyberneticians emerged in multiple fields, but especially in biology. The ideas of Maturana, Varela
and Atlan, according to Dupuy (1986) "realized that the cybernetic metaphors of the program upon which molecular
biology had been based rendered a conception of the autonomy of the living being impossible. Consequently, these
thinkers were led to invent a new cybernetics, one more suited to the organizations which mankind discovers in
nature - organizations he has not himself invented"[9] . However, during the 1980s the question of whether the
features of this new cybernetics could be applied to social forms of organization remained open to debate.[9]
Cybernetics 9

In political science, Project Cybersyn attempted to introduce a cybernetically controlled economy during the early
1970s. In the 1980s, according to Harries-Jones (1988) "unlike its predecessor, the new cybernetics concerns itself
with the interaction of autonomous political actors and subgroups, and the practical and reflexive consciousness of
the subjects who produce and reproduce the structure of a political community. A dominant consideration is that of
recursiveness, or self-reference of political action both with regards to the expression of political consciousness and
with the ways in which systems build upon themselves".[10]
One characteristic of the emerging new cybernetics considered in that time by Geyer and van der Zouwen, according
to Bailey (1994), was "that it views information as constructed and reconstructed by an individual interacting with
the environment. This provides an epistemological foundation of science, by viewing it as observer-dependent.
Another characteristic of the new cybernetics is its contribution towards bridging the "micro-macro gap". That is, it
links the individual with the society"[11] Another characteristic noted was the "transition from classical cybernetics to
the new cybernetics [that] involves a transition from classical problems to new problems. These shifts in thinking
involve, among others, (a) a change from emphasis on the system being steered to the system doing the steering, and
the factor which guides the steering decisions.; and (b) new emphasis on communication between several systems
which are trying to steer each other"[11] . The work of Gregory Bateson was also strongly influenced by cybernetics.
Recent endeavors into the true focus of cybernetics, systems of control and emergent behavior, by such related fields
as game theory (the analysis of group interaction), systems of feedback in evolution, and metamaterials (the study of
materials with properties beyond the Newtonian properties of their constituent atoms), have led to a revived interest
in this increasingly relevant field.[2]

Subdivisions of the field

Cybernetics is an earlier but still-used generic term for many types of subject matter. These subjects also extend into
many others areas of science, but are united in their study of control of systems.

Basic cybernetics
Cybernetics studies systems of control as a concept, attempting to discover the basic principles underlying such
things as
• Artificial intelligence
• Robotics
• Computer Vision
• Control systems
• Emergence
• Learning organization
• New Cybernetics
• Second-order cybernetics
• Interactions of Actors Theory
ASIMO uses sensors and intelligent algorithms to
• Conversation Theory
avoid obstacles and navigate stairs.
Cybernetics 10

In biology
Cybernetics in biology is the study of cybernetic systems present in biological organisms, primarily focusing on how
animals adapt to their environment, and how information in the form of genes is passed from generation to
generation[12] . There is also a secondary focus on combining artificial systems with biological systems.
• Bioengineering
• Biocybernetics
• Bionics
• Homeostasis
• Medical cybernetics
• Synthetic Biology
• Systems Biology
Thermal image of a cold-blooded tarantula on a
warm-blooded human hand
In computer science
Computer science directly applies the concepts of cybernetics to the control of devices and the analysis of
information.
• Robotics
• Decision support system
• Cellular automaton
• Simulation
• Technology

In engineering
Cybernetics in engineering is used to analyze cascading failures and System Accidents, in which the small errors and
imperfections in a system can generate disasters. Other topics studied include:
• Adaptive systems
• Engineering cybernetics
• Ergonomics
• Biomedical engineering
• Systems engineering

In management
• Entrepreneurial cybernetics
An artificial heart, a product of biomedical
• Management cybernetics engineering.
• Organizational cybernetics

• Operations research
• Systems engineering
Cybernetics 11

In mathematics
Mathematical Cybernetics focuses on the factors of information, interaction of parts in systems, and the structure of
systems.
• Dynamical system
• Information theory
• Systems theory

In psychology
• Homunculus
• Psycho-Cybernetics
• Systems psychology
• Perceptual Control Theory

In sociology
By examining group behavior through the lens of cybernetics, sociology seeks the reasons for such spontaneous
events as smart mobs and riots, as well as how communities develop rules, such as etiquette, by consensus without
formal discussion. Affect Control Theory explains role behavior, emotions, and labeling theory in terms of
homeostatic maintenance of sentiments associated with cultural categories. The most comprehensive attempt ever
made in the social sciences to increase cybernetics in a generalized theory of society was made by Talcott Parsons.
In this way, cybernetics establish the basic hierarchy in Parsons' AGIL paradigm, which is the ording
system-dimension of his action theory. These and other cybernetic models in sociology are reviewed in a book edited
by McClelland and Fararo[13] .
• Affect Control Theory
• Memetics
• Sociocybernetics

In Art
The artist Roy Ascott theorised the cybernetics of art in "Behaviourist Art and the Cybernetic Vision". Cybernetica,
Journal of the International Association for Cybernetics (Namur), 1967.
• Telematic art
• Interactive Art
• Systems art
Cybernetics 12

Related fields

Complexity science
Complexity science attempts to understand the nature of complex systems.
• Complex Adaptive System
• Complex systems
• Complexity theory

References
[1] Tange, Kenzo (1966) "Function, Structure and Symbol".
[2] Kelly, Kevin (1994). Out of control: The new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world. Boston: Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 0-201-48340-8. OCLC 221860672 32208523 40868076 56082721 57396750.
[3] Couffignal, Louis, "Essai d’une définition générale de la cybernétique", The First International Congress on Cybernetics, Namur, Belgium,
June 26–29, 1956, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1958, pp. 46-54
[4] CYBCON discusstion group 20 September 2007 18:15
[5] Granfield, Patrick (1973). Ecclesial Cybernetics: A Study of Democracy in the Church. New York: MacMillan. pp. 280.
[6] Hight, Christopher (2007). Architectural Principles in the age of Cybernetics. Routledge. pp. 248. ISBN 978-0415384827.
[7] http:/ / www. ece. uiuc. edu/ pubs/ bcl/ mueller/ index. htm
[8] http:/ / www. ece. uiuc. edu/ pubs/ bcl/ hutchinson/ index. htm
[9] Jean-Pierre Dupuy, "The autonomy of social reality: on the contribution of systems theory to the theory of society" in: Elias L. Khalil &
Kenneth E. Boulding eds., Evolution, Order and Complexity, 1986.
[10] Peter Harries-Jones (1988), "The Self-Organizing Polity: An Epistemological Analysis of Political Life by Laurent Dobuzinskis" in:
Canadian Journal of Political Science (Revue canadienne de science politique), Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1988), pp. 431-433.
[11] Kenneth D. Bailey (1994), Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis, p.163.
[12] Note: this does not refer to the concept of Racial Memory but to the concept of cumulative adaptation to a particular niche, such as the case
of the pepper moth having genes for both light and dark environments.
[13] McClelland, Kent A., and Thomas J. Fararo (Eds.). 2006. Purpose, Meaning, and Action: Control Systems Theories in Sociology. New
York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Further reading
• Roy Ascott (1967). Behaviourist Art and the Cybernetic Vision. Cybernetica, Journal of the International
Association for Cybernetics (Namur), 10, pp. 25–56
• Andrew Pickering (2010) The Cybernetic Brain: Sketches of Another Future (http://www.amazon.com/
Cybernetic-Brain-Sketches-Another-Future/dp/0226667898) University Of Chicago Press.
• Slava Gerovitch (2002) From Newspeak to Cyberspeak: A History of Soviet Cybernetics (http://web.mit.edu/
slava/homepage/newspeak.htm) MIT Press.
• John Johnston, (2008) "The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI", MIT Press
• Heikki Hyötyniemi (2006). Neocybernetics in Biological Systems (http://neocybernetics.com/report151/).
Espoo: Helsinki University of Technology, Control Engineering Laboratory.
• Eden Medina, "Designing Freedom, Regulating a Nation: Socialist Cybernetics in Allende's Chile." Journal of
Latin American Studies 38 (2006):571-606.
• Lars Bluma, (2005), Norbert Wiener und die Entstehung der Kybernetik im Zweiten Weltkrieg, Münster.
• Francis Heylighen, and Cliff Joslyn (2001). " Cybernetics and Second Order Cybernetics (http://pespmc1.vub.
ac.be/Papers/Cybernetics-EPST.pdf)", in: R.A. Meyers (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physical Science & Technology
(3rd ed.), Vol. 4, (Academic Press, New York), p. 155-170.
• Charles François (1999). " Systemics and cybernetics in a historical perspective (http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/
~gossimit/ifsr/francois/papers/systemics_and_cybernetics_in_a_historical_perspective.pdf)". In: Systems
Research and Behavioral Science. Vol 16, pp. 203–219 (1999)
Cybernetics 13

• Heinz von Foerster, (1995), Ethics and Second-Order Cybernetics (http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/4-2/

text/foerster.html).
• Steve J. Heims (1993), Constructing a Social Science for Postwar America. The Cybernetics Group, 1946-1953,
Cambridge University Press, London, UK.
• Paul Pangaro (1990), "Cybernetics — A Definition", Eprint (http://pangaro.com/published/cyber-macmillan.
html).
• Stuart Umpleby (1989), "The science of cybernetics and the cybernetics of science" (ftp://ftp.vub.ac.be/pub/
projects/Principia_Cybernetica/Papers_Umpleby/Science-Cybernetics.txt), in: Cybernetics and Systems", Vol.
21, No. 1, (1990), pp. 109–121.
• Michael A. Arbib (1987, 1964) Brains, Machines, and Mathematics (http://www.amazon.com/
Brains-Machines-Mathematics-Michael-Arbib/dp/0387965394) Springer.
• B.C. Patten, and E.P. Odum (1981), "The Cybernetic Nature of Ecosystems", The American Naturalist 118,
886-895.
• Hans Joachim Ilgauds (1980), Norbert Wiener, Leipzig.
• Steve J. Heims (1980), John von Neumann and Norbert Wiener: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life
and Death, 3. Aufl., Cambridge.
• Stafford Beer (1974), Designing Freedom, John Wiley, London and New York, 1975.
• Gordon Pask (1972), " Cybernetics (http://www.cybsoc.org/gcyb.htm)", entry in Encyclopædia Britannica
1972.
• Helvey, T.C. The Age of Information: An Interdisciplinary Survey of Cybernetics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Educational Technology Publications, 1971.
• W. Ross Ashby (1956), Introduction to Cybernetics. Methuen, London, UK. PDF text (http://pespmc1.vub.ac.
be/books/IntroCyb.pdf).
• Norbert Wiener (1948), Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, (Hermann &
Cie Editeurs, Paris, The Technology Press, Cambridge, Mass., John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1948).

External links
General
• Norbert Wiener and Stefan Odobleja - A Comparative Analysis (http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Comp/
CompJurc.htm)
• Reading List for Cybernetics (http://www.cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/notabene/cybernetics.html)
• Principia Cybernetica Web (http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/DEFAULT.html)
• Web Dictionary of Cybernetics and Systems (http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/indexASC.html)
• Glossary Slideshow (136 slides) (http://www.gwu.edu/~asc/slide/s1.html)
• Basics of Cybernetics (http://www.smithsrisca.demon.co.uk/cybernetics.html)
• What is Cybernetics? (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hjAXkNbPfk) Livas short introductory videos on
YouTube
• A History of Systemic and Cybernetic Thought. From Homeostasis to the Teardrop (http://www.pclibya.com/
cybernetic_teardrop.pdf)
Societies
• American Society for Cybernetics (http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/)
• IEEE Systems, Man, & Cybernetics Society (http://www.ieeesmc.org/)
• The Cybernetics Society (http://www.cybsoc.org)
Cryptography 14

Cryptography
Cryptography (or cryptology; from
Greek κρυπτός, kryptos, "hidden,
secret"; and γράφειν, gráphin,
"writing", or -λογία, -logia, , "study",
respectively)[1] is the practice and
study of hiding information. Modern
cryptography intersects the disciplines
of mathematics, computer science, and
electrical engineering. Applications of
cryptography include ATM cards,
computer passwords, and electronic
commerce.

Cryptology prior to the modern age

was almost synonymous with Simple explanation of encryption and decryption methods
encryption, the conversion of
information from a readable state to
apparent nonsense. The sender retained
the ability to decrypt the information
and therefore avoid unwanted persons
being able to read it. Since WWI and
the advent of the computer, the
methods used to carry out cryptology
have become increasingly complex and
its application more widespread.

Modern cryptography follows a

strongly scientific approach, and
designs cryptographic algorithms
German Lorenz cipher machine, used in World War II to encrypt
around computational hardness
very-high-level general staff messages
assumptions that are assumed hard to
break by an adversary. Such systems
are not unbreakable in theory but it is infeasible to do so for any practical adversary. Information-theoretically secure
schemes that provably cannot be broken exist but they are less practical than computationally-secure mechanisms.
An example of such systems is the one-time pad.

Alongside the advancement in cryptology-related technology, the practice has raised a number of legal issues, some
of which remain unresolved.

Terminology
Until modern times cryptography referred almost exclusively to encryption, which is the process of converting
ordinary information (called plaintext) into unintelligible gibberish (called ciphertext).[2] Decryption is the reverse,
in other words, moving from the unintelligible ciphertext back to plaintext. A cipher (or cypher) is a pair of
algorithms that create the encryption and the reversing decryption. The detailed operation of a cipher is controlled
both by the algorithm and in each instance by a key. This is a secret parameter (ideally known only to the
communicants) for a specific message exchange context. A "cryptosystem" is the ordered list of elements of finite
Cryptography 15

possible plaintexts, finite possible cyphertexts, finite possible keys, and the encryption and decryption algorithms
which correspond to each key. Keys are important, as ciphers without variable keys can be trivially broken with only
the knowledge of the cipher used and are therefore useless (or even counter-productive) for most purposes.
Historically, ciphers were often used directly for encryption or decryption without additional procedures such as
authentication or integrity checks.
In colloquial use, the term "code" is often used to mean any method of encryption or concealment of meaning.
However, in cryptography, code has a more specific meaning. It means the replacement of a unit of plaintext (i.e., a
meaningful word or phrase) with a code word (for example, wallaby replaces attack at dawn). Codes are no
longer used in serious cryptography—except incidentally for such things as unit designations (e.g., Bronco Flight or
Operation Overlord)—since properly chosen ciphers are both more practical and more secure than even the best
codes and also are better adapted to computers.
Cryptanalysis is the term used for the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information without
access to the key normally required to do so; i.e., it is the study of how to crack encryption algorithms or their
implementations.
Some use the terms cryptography and cryptology interchangeably in English, while others (including US military
practice generally) use cryptography to refer specifically to the use and practice of cryptographic techniques and
cryptology to refer to the combined study of cryptography and cryptanalysis.[3] [4] English is more flexible than
several other languages in which cryptology (done by cryptologists) is always used in the second sense above. In the
English Wikipedia the general term used for the entire field is cryptography (done by cryptographers).
The study of characteristics of languages which have some application in cryptography (or cryptology), i.e.
frequency data, letter combinations, universal patterns, etc., is called cryptolinguistics.

History of cryptography and cryptanalysis

Before the modern era, cryptography was concerned solely with message confidentiality (i.e.,
encryption)—conversion of messages from a comprehensible form into an incomprehensible one and back again at
the other end, rendering it unreadable by interceptors or eavesdroppers without secret knowledge (namely the key
needed for decryption of that message). Encryption was used to (attempt to) ensure secrecy in communications, such
as those of spies, military leaders, and diplomats. In recent decades, the field has expanded beyond confidentiality
concerns to include techniques for message integrity checking, sender/receiver identity authentication, digital
signatures, interactive proofs and secure computation, among others.

Classic cryptography
Reconstructed ancient Greek scytale
(rhymes with "Italy"), an early cipher
device
The earliest forms of secret writing required little more than local pen and
paper analogs, as most people could not read. More literacy, or literate
opponents, required actual cryptography. The main classical cipher types are
transposition ciphers, which rearrange the order of letters in a message (e.g.,
'hello world' becomes 'ehlol owrdl' in a trivially simple rearrangement
scheme), and substitution ciphers, which systematically replace letters or
groups of letters with other letters or groups of letters (e.g., 'fly at once'
becomes 'gmz bu podf' by replacing each letter with the one following it in
the Latin alphabet). Simple versions of either have never offered much
confidentiality from enterprising opponents. An early substitution cipher was
the Caesar cipher, in which each letter in the plaintext was replaced by a letter

some fixed number of positions further down the alphabet. It was named after Julius Caesar who is reported to have
used it, with a shift of 3, to communicate with his generals during his military campaigns, just like EXCESS-3 code
Cryptography 16

in boolean algebra. There is record of several early Hebrew ciphers as well. The earliest known use of cryptography
is some carved ciphertext on stone in Egypt (ca 1900 BC), but this may have been done for the amusement of literate
observers. The next oldest is bakery recipes from Mesopotamia. Cryptography is recommended in the Kama Sutra as
a way for lovers to communicate without inconvenient discovery.[5]
The Greeks of Classical times are said to have known of ciphers (e.g., the scytale transposition cipher claimed to
have been used by the Spartan military).[6] Steganography (i.e., hiding even the existence of a message so as to keep
it confidential) was also first developed in ancient times. An early example, from Herodotus, concealed a
message—a tattoo on a slave's shaved head—under the regrown hair.[2] Another Greek method was developed by
Polybius (now called the "Polybius Square").[7] More modern examples of steganography include the use of invisible
ink, microdots, and digital watermarks to conceal information.
Ciphertexts produced by a classical cipher (and some modern ciphers) always reveal statistical information about the
plaintext, which can often be used to break them. After the discovery of frequency analysis perhaps by the Arab
mathematician and polymath, Al-Kindi (also known as Alkindus), in the 9th century, nearly all such ciphers became
more or less readily breakable by any informed attacker. Such classical ciphers still enjoy popularity today, though
mostly as puzzles (see cryptogram). Al-Kindi wrote a book on cryptography entitled Risalah fi Istikhraj al-Mu'amma
(Manuscript for the Deciphering Cryptographic Messages), in which described the first cryptanalysis techniques,
including some for polyalphabetic ciphers.[8] [9]
Essentially all ciphers remained vulnerable to cryptanalysis using the
frequency analysis technique until the development of the polyalphabetic
cipher, most clearly by Leon Battista Alberti around the year 1467, though
there is some indication that it was already known to Al-Kindi.[9] Alberti's
innovation was to use different ciphers (i.e., substitution alphabets) for
various parts of a message (perhaps for each successive plaintext letter at the
limit). He also invented what was probably the first automatic cipher device, a
16th-century book-shaped French cipher
wheel which implemented a partial realization of his invention. In the machine, with arms of Henri II of France
polyalphabetic Vigenère cipher, encryption uses a key word, which controls
letter substitution depending on which letter of the key word is used. In the
mid-19th century Charles Babbage showed that polyalphabetic ciphers of this
type remained partially vulnerable to extended frequency analysis
techniques.[2]

Although frequency analysis is a powerful and general technique against

many ciphers, encryption has still been often effective in practice; many a
would-be cryptanalyst was unaware of the technique. Breaking a message
without using frequency analysis essentially required knowledge of the cipher Enciphered letter from Gabriel de Luetz
d'Aramon, French Ambassador to the
used and perhaps of the key involved, thus making espionage, bribery,
Ottoman Empire, after 1546, with partial
burglary, defection, etc., more attractive approaches to the cryptanalytically decipherment
uninformed. It was finally explicitly recognized in the 19th century that
secrecy of a cipher's algorithm is not a sensible nor practical safeguard of message security; in fact, it was further
realized that any adequate cryptographic scheme (including ciphers) should remain secure even if the adversary fully
understands the cipher algorithm itself. Security of the key used should alone be sufficient for a good cipher to
maintain confidentiality under an attack. This fundamental principle was first explicitly stated in 1883 by Auguste
Kerckhoffs and is generally called Kerckhoffs' principle; alternatively and more bluntly, it was restated by Claude
Shannon, the inventor of information theory and the fundamentals of theoretical cryptography, as Shannon's
Maxim—'the enemy knows the system'.

Different physical devices and aids have been used to assist with ciphers. One of the earliest may have been the
scytale of ancient Greece, a rod supposedly used by the Spartans as an aid for a transposition cipher (see image
Cryptography 17

above). In medieval times, other aids were invented such as the cipher grille, which was also used for a kind of
steganography. With the invention of polyalphabetic ciphers came more sophisticated aids such as Alberti's own
cipher disk, Johannes Trithemius' tabula recta scheme, and Thomas Jefferson's multi-cylinder (not publicly known,
and reinvented independently by Bazeries around 1900). Many mechanical encryption/decryption devices were
invented early in the 20th century, and several patented, among them rotor machines—famously including the
Enigma machine used by the German government and military from the late '20s and during World War II.[10] The
ciphers implemented by better quality examples of these machine designs brought about a substantial increase in
cryptanalytic difficulty after WWI.[11]

The computer era

The development of digital computers and electronics after WWII made possible much more complex ciphers.
Furthermore, computers allowed for the encryption of any kind of data representable in any binary format, unlike
classical ciphers which only encrypted written language texts; this was new and significant. Computer use has thus
supplanted linguistic cryptography, both for cipher design and cryptanalysis. Many computer ciphers can be
characterized by their operation on binary bit sequences (sometimes in groups or blocks), unlike classical and
mechanical schemes, which generally manipulate traditional characters (i.e., letters and digits) directly. However,
computers have also assisted cryptanalysis, which has compensated to some extent for increased cipher complexity.
Nonetheless, good modern ciphers have stayed ahead of cryptanalysis; it is typically the case that use of a quality
cipher is very efficient (i.e., fast and requiring few resources, such as memory or CPU capability), while breaking it
requires an effort many orders of magnitude larger, and vastly larger than that required for any classical cipher,
making cryptanalysis so inefficient and impractical as to be effectively impossible. Alternate methods of attack
(bribery, burglary, threat, torture, ...) have become more attractive in consequence.
Extensive open academic research into cryptography is relatively
recent; it began only in the mid-1970s. In recent times, IBM
personnel designed the algorithm that became the Federal (i.e.,
US) Data Encryption Standard; Whitfield Diffie and Martin
Hellman published their key agreement algorithm,;[12] and the
RSA algorithm was published in Martin Gardner's Scientific
American column. Since then, cryptography has become a widely
used tool in communications, computer networks, and computer
security generally. Some modern cryptographic techniques can
only keep their keys secret if certain mathematical problems are
intractable, such as the integer factorization or the discrete Credit card with smart-card capabilities. The
logarithm problems, so there are deep connections with abstract 3-by-5-mm chip embedded in the card is shown,
enlarged. Smart cards combine low cost and portability
mathematics. There are no absolute proofs that a cryptographic
with the power to compute cryptographic algorithms.
technique is secure (but see one-time pad); at best, there are proofs
that some techniques are secure if some computational problem is
difficult to solve, or this or that assumption about implementation or practical use is met.

As well as being aware of cryptographic history, cryptographic algorithm and system designers must also sensibly
consider probable future developments while working on their designs. For instance, continuous improvements in
computer processing power have increased the scope of brute-force attacks, thus when specifying key lengths, the
required key lengths are similarly advancing. The potential effects of quantum computing are already being
considered by some cryptographic system designers; the announced imminence of small implementations of these
machines may be making the need for this preemptive caution rather more than merely speculative.[13]

Essentially, prior to the early 20th century, cryptography was chiefly concerned with linguistic and lexicographic
patterns. Since then the emphasis has shifted, and cryptography now makes extensive use of mathematics, including
Cryptography 18

aspects of information theory, computational complexity, statistics, combinatorics, abstract algebra, number theory,
and finite mathematics generally. Cryptography is, also, a branch of engineering, but an unusual one as it deals with
active, intelligent, and malevolent opposition (see cryptographic engineering and security engineering); other kinds
of engineering (e.g., civil or chemical engineering) need deal only with neutral natural forces. There is also active
research examining the relationship between cryptographic problems and quantum physics (see quantum
cryptography and quantum computing).

Modern cryptography
The modern field of cryptography can be divided into several areas of study. The chief ones are discussed here; see
Topics in Cryptography for more.

Symmetric-key cryptography
Symmetric-key cryptography refers to encryption methods in which both the sender and receiver share the same key
(or, less commonly, in which their keys are different, but related in an easily computable way). This was the only
kind of encryption publicly known until June 1976.[12]
The modern study of symmetric-key ciphers relates mainly to the study
of block ciphers and stream ciphers and to their applications. A block
cipher is, in a sense, a modern embodiment of Alberti's polyalphabetic
cipher: block ciphers take as input a block of plaintext and a key, and
output a block of ciphertext of the same size. Since messages are
almost always longer than a single block, some method of knitting
together successive blocks is required. Several have been developed,
some with better security in one aspect or another than others. They are
the modes of operation and must be carefully considered when using a
block cipher in a cryptosystem.

The Data Encryption Standard (DES) and the Advanced Encryption

Standard (AES) are block cipher designs which have been designated One round (out of 8.5) of the patented IDEA
cryptography standards by the US government (though DES's cipher, used in some versions of PGP for
[14] high-speed encryption of, for instance, e-mail
designation was finally withdrawn after the AES was adopted).
Despite its deprecation as an official standard, DES (especially its
still-approved and much more secure triple-DES variant) remains quite popular; it is used across a wide range of
applications, from ATM encryption[15] to e-mail privacy[16] and secure remote access.[17] Many other block ciphers
have been designed and released, with considerable variation in quality. Many have been thoroughly broken; see
Category:Block ciphers.[13] [18]

Stream ciphers, in contrast to the 'block' type, create an arbitrarily long stream of key material, which is combined
with the plaintext bit-by-bit or character-by-character, somewhat like the one-time pad. In a stream cipher, the output
stream is created based on a hidden internal state which changes as the cipher operates. That internal state is initially
set up using the secret key material. RC4 is a widely used stream cipher; see Category:Stream ciphers.[13] Block
ciphers can be used as stream ciphers; see Block cipher modes of operation.
Cryptographic hash functions are a third type of cryptographic algorithm. They take a message of any length as
input, and output a short, fixed length hash which can be used in (for example) a digital signature. For good hash
functions, an attacker cannot find two messages that produce the same hash. MD4 is a long-used hash function
which is now broken; MD5, a strengthened variant of MD4, is also widely used but broken in practice. The U.S.
National Security Agency developed the Secure Hash Algorithm series of MD5-like hash functions: SHA-0 was a
flawed algorithm that the agency withdrew; SHA-1 is widely deployed and more secure than MD5, but cryptanalysts
Cryptography 19

have identified attacks against it; the SHA-2 family improves on SHA-1, but it isn't yet widely deployed, and the
U.S. standards authority thought it "prudent" from a security perspective to develop a new standard to "significantly
improve the robustness of NIST's overall hash algorithm toolkit."[19] Thus, a hash function design competition is
underway and meant to select a new U.S. national standard, to be called SHA-3, by 2012.
Message authentication codes (MACs) are much like cryptographic hash functions, except that a secret key can be
used to authenticate the hash value[13] upon receipt.

Public-key cryptography
Symmetric-key cryptosystems use the same key for encryption and decryption of a message, though a message or
group of messages may have a different key than others. A significant disadvantage of symmetric ciphers is the key
management necessary to use them securely. Each distinct pair of communicating parties must, ideally, share a
different key, and perhaps each ciphertext exchanged as well. The number of keys required increases as the square of
the number of network members, which very quickly requires complex key management schemes to keep them all
straight and secret. The difficulty of securely establishing a secret key between two communicating parties, when a
secure channel does not already exist between them, also presents a chicken-and-egg problem which is a
considerable practical obstacle for cryptography users in the real world.
In a groundbreaking 1976 paper, Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman
proposed the notion of public-key (also, more generally, called
asymmetric key) cryptography in which two different but
mathematically related keys are used—a public key and a private
key.[20] A public key system is so constructed that calculation of one
key (the 'private key') is computationally infeasible from the other (the
'public key'), even though they are necessarily related. Instead, both
Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman, authors of keys are generated secretly, as an interrelated pair.[21] The historian
the first published paper on public-key
David Kahn described public-key cryptography as "the most
cryptography
revolutionary new concept in the field since polyalphabetic substitution
emerged in the Renaissance".[22]

In public-key cryptosystems, the public key may be freely distributed, while its paired private key must remain
secret. The public key is typically used for encryption, while the private or secret key is used for decryption. Diffie
and Hellman showed that public-key cryptography was possible by presenting the Diffie–Hellman key exchange
protocol.[12]
In 1978, Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Len Adleman invented RSA, another public-key system.[23]
In 1997, it finally became publicly known that asymmetric key cryptography had been invented by James H. Ellis at
GCHQ, a British intelligence organization, and that, in the early 1970s, both the Diffie–Hellman and RSA
algorithms had been previously developed (by Malcolm J. Williamson and Clifford Cocks, respectively).[24]
The Diffie–Hellman and RSA algorithms, in addition to being the first publicly known examples of high quality
public-key algorithms, have been among the most widely used. Others include the Cramer–Shoup cryptosystem,
ElGamal encryption, and various elliptic curve techniques. See Category:Asymmetric-key cryptosystems.
Cryptography 20

In addition to encryption, public-key cryptography can be used to

implement digital signature schemes. A digital signature is reminiscent of
an ordinary signature; they both have the characteristic that they are easy
for a user to produce, but difficult for anyone else to forge. Digital
signatures can also be permanently tied to the content of the message being
signed; they cannot then be 'moved' from one document to another, for any
attempt will be detectable. In digital signature schemes, there are two
algorithms: one for signing, in which a secret key is used to process the
message (or a hash of the message, or both), and one for verification, in
Padlock icon from the Firefox Web browser,
meant to indicate a page has been sent in
SSL or TLS-encrypted protected form.
However, such an icon is not a guarantee of
security; any subverted browser might
mislead a user by displaying such an icon
when a transmission is not actually being
protected by SSL or TLS.

which the matching public key is used with the message to check the
validity of the signature. RSA and DSA are two of the most popular digital signature schemes. Digital signatures are
central to the operation of public key infrastructures and many network security schemes (e.g., SSL/TLS, many
VPNs, etc.).[18]

Public-key algorithms are most often based on the computational complexity of "hard" problems, often from number
theory. For example, the hardness of RSA is related to the integer factorization problem, while Diffie–Hellman and
DSA are related to the discrete logarithm problem. More recently, elliptic curve cryptography has developed in
which security is based on number theoretic problems involving elliptic curves. Because of the difficulty of the
underlying problems, most public-key algorithms involve operations such as modular multiplication and
exponentiation, which are much more computationally expensive than the techniques used in most block ciphers,
especially with typical key sizes. As a result, public-key cryptosystems are commonly hybrid cryptosystems, in
which a fast high-quality symmetric-key encryption algorithm is used for the message itself, while the relevant
symmetric key is sent with the message, but encrypted using a public-key algorithm. Similarly, hybrid signature
schemes are often used, in which a cryptographic hash function is computed, and only the resulting hash is digitally
signed.[13]
Cryptography 21

Cryptanalysis
The goal of cryptanalysis is to find some weakness or
insecurity in a cryptographic scheme, thus permitting its
subversion or evasion.
It is a common misconception that every encryption
method can be broken. In connection with his WWII
work at Bell Labs, Claude Shannon proved that the
one-time pad cipher is unbreakable, provided the key
material is truly random, never reused, kept secret from
all possible attackers, and of equal or greater length than
the message.[25] Most ciphers, apart from the one-time
pad, can be broken with enough computational effort by
brute force attack, but the amount of effort needed may be
exponentially dependent on the key size, as compared to
the effort needed to use the cipher. In such cases,
effective security could be achieved if it is proven that the
effort required (i.e., "work factor", in Shannon's terms) is
beyond the ability of any adversary. This means it must
be shown that no efficient method (as opposed to the
time-consuming brute force method) can be found to
break the cipher. Since no such showing can be made
Variants of the Enigma machine, used by Germany's military and
civil authorities from the late 1920s through World War II, currently, as of today, the one-time-pad remains the only
implemented a complex electro-mechanical polyalphabetic cipher. theoretically unbreakable cipher.
Breaking and reading of the Enigma cipher at Poland's Cipher
There are a wide variety of cryptanalytic attacks, and they
Bureau, for 7 years before the war, and subsequent decryption at
[2]
Bletchley Park, was important to Allied victory. can be classified in any of several ways. A common
distinction turns on what an attacker knows and what
capabilities are available. In a ciphertext-only attack, the cryptanalyst has access only to the ciphertext (good modern
cryptosystems are usually effectively immune to ciphertext-only attacks). In a known-plaintext attack, the
cryptanalyst has access to a ciphertext and its corresponding plaintext (or to many such pairs). In a chosen-plaintext
attack, the cryptanalyst may choose a plaintext and learn its corresponding ciphertext (perhaps many times); an
example is gardening, used by the British during WWII. Finally, in a chosen-ciphertext attack, the cryptanalyst may
be able to choose ciphertexts and learn their corresponding plaintexts.[13] Also important, often overwhelmingly so,
are mistakes (generally in the design or use of one of the protocols involved; see Cryptanalysis of the Enigma for
some historical examples of this).
Cryptography 22

Cryptanalysis of symmetric-key ciphers typically

involves looking for attacks against the block ciphers or
stream ciphers that are more efficient than any attack
that could be against a perfect cipher. For example, a
simple brute force attack against DES requires one
known plaintext and 255 decryptions, trying
approximately half of the possible keys, to reach a
point at which chances are better than even the key
sought will have been found. But this may not be
enough assurance; a linear cryptanalysis attack against
DES requires 243 known plaintexts and approximately
243 DES operations.[26] This is a considerable Poznań monument (center) to Polish cryptologists whose breaking of
improvement on brute force attacks. Germany's Enigma machine ciphers, beginning in 1932, altered the
course of World War II
Public-key algorithms are based on the computational
difficulty of various problems. The most famous of these is integer factorization (e.g., the RSA algorithm is based on
a problem related to integer factoring), but the discrete logarithm problem is also important. Much public-key
cryptanalysis concerns numerical algorithms for solving these computational problems, or some of them, efficiently
(i.e., in a practical time). For instance, the best known algorithms for solving the elliptic curve-based version of
discrete logarithm are much more time-consuming than the best known algorithms for factoring, at least for
problems of more or less equivalent size. Thus, other things being equal, to achieve an equivalent strength of attack
resistance, factoring-based encryption techniques must use larger keys than elliptic curve techniques. For this reason,
public-key cryptosystems based on elliptic curves have become popular since their invention in the mid-1990s.

While pure cryptanalysis uses weaknesses in the algorithms themselves, other attacks on cryptosystems are based on
actual use of the algorithms in real devices, and are called side-channel attacks. If a cryptanalyst has access to, for
example, the amount of time the device took to encrypt a number of plaintexts or report an error in a password or
PIN character, he may be able to use a timing attack to break a cipher that is otherwise resistant to analysis. An
attacker might also study the pattern and length of messages to derive valuable information; this is known as traffic
analysis,[27] and can be quite useful to an alert adversary. Poor administration of a cryptosystem, such as permitting
too short keys, will make any system vulnerable, regardless of other virtues. And, of course, social engineering, and
other attacks against the personnel who work with cryptosystems or the messages they handle (e.g., bribery,
extortion, blackmail, espionage, torture, ...) may be the most productive attacks of all.

Cryptographic primitives
Much of the theoretical work in cryptography concerns cryptographic primitives—algorithms with basic
cryptographic properties—and their relationship to other cryptographic problems. More complicated cryptographic
tools are then built from these basic primitives. These primitives provide fundamental properties, which are used to
develop more complex tools called cryptosystems or cryptographic protocols, which guarantee one or more
high-level security properties. Note however, that the distinction between cryptographic primitives and
cryptosystems, is quite arbitrary; for example, the RSA algorithm is sometimes considered a cryptosystem, and
sometimes a primitive. Typical examples of cryptographic primitives include pseudorandom functions, one-way
functions, etc.
Cryptography 23

Cryptosystems
One or more cryptographic primitives are often used to develop a more complex algorithm, called a cryptographic
system, or cryptosystem. Cryptosystems (e.g. El-Gamal encryption) are designed to provide particular functionality
(e.g. public key encryption) while guaranteeing certain security properties (e.g. chosen-plaintext attack (CPA)
security in the random oracle model). Cryptosystems use the properties of the underlying cryptographic primitives to
support the system's security properties. Of course, as the distinction between primitives and cryptosystems is
somewhat arbitrary, a sophisticated cryptosystem can be derived from a combination of several more primitive
cryptosystems. In many cases, the cryptosystem's structure involves back and forth communication among two or
more parties in space (e.g., between the sender of a secure message and its receiver) or across time (e.g.,
cryptographically protected backup data). Such cryptosystems are sometimes called cryptographic protocols.
Some widely known cryptosystems include RSA encryption, Schnorr signature, El-Gamal encryption, PGP, etc.
More complex cryptosystems include electronic cash[28] systems, signcryption systems, etc. Some more 'theoretical'
cryptosystems include interactive proof systems,[29] (like zero-knowledge proofs,[30] ), systems for secret sharing,[31]
[32]
etc.
Until recently, most security properties of most cryptosystems were demonstrated using empirical techniques, or
using ad hoc reasoning. Recently, there has been considerable effort to develop formal techniques for establishing
the security of cryptosystems; this has been generally called provable security. The general idea of provable security
is to give arguments about the computational difficulty needed to compromise some security aspect of the
cryptosystem (i.e., to any adversary).
The study of how best to implement and integrate cryptography in software applications is itself a distinct field; see:
Cryptographic engineering and Security engineering.

Legal issues

Prohibitions
Cryptography has long been of interest to intelligence gathering and law enforcement agencies. Actually secret
communications may be criminal or even treasonous; those whose communications are open to inspection may be
less likely to be either. Because of its facilitation of privacy, and the diminution of privacy attendant on its
prohibition, cryptography is also of considerable interest to civil rights supporters. Accordingly, there has been a
history of controversial legal issues surrounding cryptography, especially since the advent of inexpensive computers
has made widespread access to high quality cryptography possible.
In some countries, even the domestic use of cryptography is, or has been, restricted. Until 1999, France significantly
restricted the use of cryptography domestically, though it has relaxed many of these. In China, a license is still
required to use cryptography. Many countries have tight restrictions on the use of cryptography. Among the more
restrictive are laws in Belarus, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Singapore, Tunisia, and Vietnam.[33]
In the United States, cryptography is legal for domestic use, but there has been much conflict over legal issues
related to cryptography. One particularly important issue has been the export of cryptography and cryptographic
software and hardware. Probably because of the importance of cryptanalysis in World War II and an expectation that
cryptography would continue to be important for national security, many Western governments have, at some point,
strictly regulated export of cryptography. After World War II, it was illegal in the US to sell or distribute encryption
technology overseas; in fact, encryption was designated as auxiliary military equipment and put on the United States
Munitions List.[34] Until the development of the personal computer, asymmetric key algorithms (i.e., public key
techniques), and the Internet, this was not especially problematic. However, as the Internet grew and computers
became more widely available, high quality encryption techniques became well-known around the globe. As a result,
export controls came to be seen to be an impediment to commerce and to research.
Cryptography 24

Export controls
In the 1990s, there were several challenges to US export regulations of cryptography. One involved Philip
Zimmermann's Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) encryption program; it was released in the US, together with its source
code, and found its way onto the Internet in June 1991. After a complaint by RSA Security (then called RSA Data
Security, Inc., or RSADSI), Zimmermann was criminally investigated by the Customs Service and the FBI for
several years. No charges were ever filed, however.[35] [36] Also, Daniel Bernstein, then a graduate student at UC
Berkeley, brought a lawsuit against the US government challenging some aspects of the restrictions based on free
speech grounds. The 1995 case Bernstein v. United States ultimately resulted in a 1999 decision that printed source
code for cryptographic algorithms and systems was protected as free speech by the United States Constitution.[37]
In 1996, thirty-nine countries signed the Wassenaar Arrangement, an arms control treaty that deals with the export of
arms and "dual-use" technologies such as cryptography. The treaty stipulated that the use of cryptography with short
key-lengths (56-bit for symmetric encryption, 512-bit for RSA) would no longer be export-controlled.[38]
Cryptography exports from the US are now much less strictly regulated than in the past as a consequence of a major
relaxation in 2000;[33] there are no longer very many restrictions on key sizes in US-exported mass-market software.
In practice today, since the relaxation in US export restrictions, and because almost every personal computer
connected to the Internet, everywhere in the world, includes US-sourced web browsers such as Mozilla Firefox or
Microsoft Internet Explorer, almost every Internet user worldwide has access to quality cryptography (i.e., when
using sufficiently long keys with properly operating and unsubverted software, etc.) in their browsers; examples are
Transport Layer Security or SSL stack. The Mozilla Thunderbird and Microsoft Outlook E-mail client programs
similarly can connect to IMAP or POP servers via TLS, and can send and receive email encrypted with S/MIME.
Many Internet users don't realize that their basic application software contains such extensive cryptosystems. These
browsers and email programs are so ubiquitous that even governments whose intent is to regulate civilian use of
cryptography generally don't find it practical to do much to control distribution or use of cryptography of this quality,
so even when such laws are in force, actual enforcement is often effectively impossible.

NSA involvement
Another contentious issue connected to cryptography in the United States is the influence of the National Security
Agency on cipher development and policy. NSA was involved with the design of DES during its development at
IBM and its consideration by the National Bureau of Standards as a possible Federal Standard for cryptography.[39]
DES was designed to be resistant to differential cryptanalysis,[40] a powerful and general cryptanalytic technique
known to NSA and IBM, that became publicly known only when it was rediscovered in the late 1980s.[41] According
to Steven Levy, IBM rediscovered differential cryptanalysis,[42] but kept the technique secret at NSA's request. The
technique became publicly known only when Biham and Shamir re-rediscovered and announced it some years later.
The entire affair illustrates the difficulty of determining what resources and knowledge an attacker might actually
have.
Another instance of NSA's involvement was the 1993 Clipper chip affair, an encryption microchip intended to be
part of the Capstone cryptography-control initiative. Clipper was widely criticized by cryptographers for two
reasons. The cipher algorithm was then classified (the cipher, called Skipjack, though it was declassified in 1998
long after the Clipper initiative lapsed). The secret cipher caused concerns that NSA had deliberately made the
cipher weak in order to assist its intelligence efforts. The whole initiative was also criticized based on its violation of
Kerckhoffs' principle, as the scheme included a special escrow key held by the government for use by law
enforcement, for example in wiretaps.[36]
Cryptography 25

Digital rights management

Cryptography is central to digital rights management (DRM), a group of techniques for technologically controlling
use of copyrighted material, being widely implemented and deployed at the behest of some copyright holders. In
1998, American President Bill Clinton signed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), which criminalized
all production, dissemination, and use of certain cryptanalytic techniques and technology (now known or later
discovered); specifically, those that could be used to circumvent DRM technological schemes.[43] This had a
noticeable impact on the cryptography research community since an argument can be made that any cryptanalytic
research violated, or might violate, the DMCA. Similar statutes have since been enacted in several countries and
regions, including the implementation in the EU Copyright Directive. Similar restrictions are called for by treaties
signed by World Intellectual Property Organization member-states.
The United States Department of Justice and FBI have not enforced the DMCA as rigorously as had been feared by
some, but the law, nonetheless, remains a controversial one. Niels Ferguson, a well-respected cryptography
researcher, has publicly stated[44] that he will not release some of his research into an Intel security design for fear of
prosecution under the DMCA. Both Alan Cox (longtime number 2 in Linux kernel development) and Professor
Edward Felten (and some of his students at Princeton) have encountered problems related to the Act. Dmitry
Sklyarov was arrested during a visit to the US from Russia, and jailed for five months pending trial for alleged
violations of the DMCA arising from work he had done in Russia, where the work was legal. In 2007, the
cryptographic keys responsible for Blu-ray and HD DVD content scrambling were discovered and released onto the
Internet. In both cases, the MPAA sent out numerous DMCA takedown notices, and there was a massive internet
backlash triggered by the perceived impact of such notices on fair use and free speech.

References
[1] Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford University Press. (1984)
[2] David Kahn, The Codebreakers, 1967, ISBN 0-684-83130-9.
[3] Oded Goldreich, Foundations of Cryptography, Volume 1: Basic Tools, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-521-79172-3
[4] "Cryptology (definition)" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ cryptology). Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th
edition ed.). Merriam-Webster. . Retrieved 2008-02-01.
[5] Kama Sutra, Sir Richard F. Burton, translator, Part I, Chapter III, 44th and 45th arts.
[6] V. V. I︠A︡shchenko (2002). " Cryptography: an introduction (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cH-NGrpcIMcC& pg=PA6& dq&
hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". AMS Bookstore. p.6. ISBN 0-8218-2986-6
[7] A Short History of Cryptography, Fred Cohen 1995, retrieved 8 June 2010 (http:/ / all. net/ books/ ip/ Chap2-1. html)
[8] Simon Singh, The Code Book, pp. 14-20
[9] Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi (April 1992), "The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions”, Cryptologia 16 (2): 97–126
[10] Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
[11] James Gannon, Stealing Secrets, Telling Lies: How Spies and Codebreakers Helped Shape the Twentieth Century, Washington, D.C.,
Brassey's, 2001, ISBN 1-57488-367-4.
[12] Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman, "New Directions in Cryptography", IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, vol. IT-22, Nov. 1976,
pp: 644–654. ( pdf (http:/ / citeseer. ist. psu. edu/ rd/ 86197922,340126,1,0. 25,Download/ http:/ / citeseer. ist. psu. edu/ cache/ papers/ cs/
16749/ http:zSzzSzwww. cs. rutgers. eduzSz~tdnguyenzSzclasseszSzcs671zSzpresentationszSzArvind-NEWDIRS. pdf/ diffie76new. pdf))
[13] AJ Menezes, PC van Oorschot, and SA Vanstone, Handbook of Applied Cryptography (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050307081354/
www. cacr. math. uwaterloo. ca/ hac/ ) ISBN 0-8493-8523-7.
[14] FIPS PUB 197: The official Advanced Encryption Standard (http:/ / www. csrc. nist. gov/ publications/ fips/ fips197/ fips-197. pdf).
[15] NCUA letter to credit unions (http:/ / www. ncua. gov/ letters/ 2004/ 04-CU-09. pdf), July 2004
[16] RFC 2440 - Open PGP Message Format
[17] SSH at windowsecurity.com (http:/ / www. windowsecurity. com/ articles/ SSH. html) by Pawel Golen, July 2004
[18] Bruce Schneier, Applied Cryptography, 2nd edition, Wiley, 1996, ISBN 0-471-11709-9.
[19] National Institute of Standards and Technology (http:/ / csrc. nist. gov/ groups/ ST/ hash/ documents/ FR_Notice_Nov07. pdf)
[20] Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman, "Multi-user cryptographic techniques" [Diffie and Hellman, AFIPS Proceedings 45, pp109–112, June
8, 1976].
[21] Ralph Merkle was working on similar ideas at the time and encountered publication delays, and Hellman has suggested that the term used
should be Diffie–Hellman–Merkle aysmmetric key cryptography.
[22] David Kahn, "Cryptology Goes Public", 58 Foreign Affairs 141, 151 (fall 1979), p. 153.
Cryptography 26

[23] R. Rivest, A. Shamir, L. Adleman. A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-Key Cryptosystems (http:/ / theory. lcs. mit. edu/
~rivest/ rsapaper. pdf). Communications of the ACM, Vol. 21 (2), pp.120–126. 1978. Previously released as an MIT "Technical Memo" in
April 1977, and published in Martin Gardner's Scientific American Mathematical recreations column
[24] Clifford Cocks. A Note on 'Non-Secret Encryption', CESG Research Report, 20 November 1973 (http:/ / www. fi. muni. cz/ usr/ matyas/
lecture/ paper2. pdf).
[25] "Shannon": Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication, University of Illinois Press, 1963, ISBN
0-252-72548-4
[26] Pascal Junod, "On the Complexity of Matsui's Attack" (http:/ / citeseer. ist. psu. edu/ cache/ papers/ cs/ 22094/ http:zSzzSzeprint. iacr.
orgzSz2001zSz056. pdf/ junod01complexity. pdf), SAC 2001.
[27] Dawn Song, David Wagner, and Xuqing Tian, "Timing Analysis of Keystrokes and Timing Attacks on SSH" (http:/ / citeseer. ist. psu. edu/
cache/ papers/ cs/ 22094/ http:zSzzSzeprint. iacr. orgzSz2001zSz056. pdf/ junod01complexity. pdf), In Tenth USENIX Security Symposium,
2001.
[28] S. Brands, "Untraceable Off-line Cash in Wallets with Observers" (http:/ / scholar. google. com/ url?sa=U& q=http:/ / ftp. se. kde. org/ pub/
security/ docs/ ecash/ crypto93. ps. gz), In Advances in Cryptology—Proceedings of CRYPTO, Springer-Verlag, 1994.
[29] László Babai. "Trading group theory for randomness" (http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=22192). Proceedings of the Seventeenth
Annual Symposium on the Theory of Computing, ACM, 1985.
[30] S. Goldwasser, S. Micali, and C. Rackoff, "The Knowledge Complexity of Interactive Proof Systems", SIAM J. Computing, vol. 18, num. 1,
pp. 186–208, 1989.
[31] G. Blakley. "Safeguarding cryptographic keys." In Proceedings of AFIPS 1979, volume 48, pp. 313–317, June 1979.
[32] A. Shamir. "How to share a secret." In Communications of the ACM, volume 22, pp. 612–613, ACM, 1979.
[33] RSA Laboratories' Frequently Asked Questions About Today's Cryptography (http:/ / www. rsasecurity. com/ rsalabs/ node. asp?id=2152)
[34] Cryptography & Speech (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051201184530/ http:/ / www. cyberlaw. com/ cylw1095. html) from Cyberlaw
[35] "Case Closed on Zimmermann PGP Investigation" (http:/ / www. ieee-security. org/ Cipher/ Newsbriefs/ 1996/ 960214. zimmerman. html),
press note from the IEEE.
[36] Levy, Steven (2001). Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government—Saving Privacy in the Digital Age. Penguin Books. p. 56.
ISBN 0-14-024432-8. OCLC 244148644 48066852 48846639.
[37] Bernstein v USDOJ (http:/ / www. epic. org/ crypto/ export_controls/ bernstein_decision_9_cir. html), 9th Circuit court of appeals decision.
[38] The Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies (http:/ / www. wassenaar.
org/ guidelines/ index. html)
[39] "The Data Encryption Standard (DES)" (http:/ / www. schneier. com/ crypto-gram-0006. html#DES) from Bruce Schneier's CryptoGram
newsletter, June 15, 2000
[40] Coppersmith, D. (May 1994). "The Data Encryption Standard (DES) and its strength against attacks" (http:/ / www. research. ibm. com/
journal/ rd/ 383/ coppersmith. pdf) (PDF). IBM Journal of Research and Development 38 (3): 243. doi:10.1147/rd.383.0243. .
[41] E. Biham and A. Shamir, "Differential cryptanalysis of DES-like cryptosystems" (http:/ / scholar. google. com/ url?sa=U& q=http:/ / www.
springerlink. com/ index/ K54H077NP8714058. pdf), Journal of Cryptology, vol. 4 num. 1, pp. 3–72, Springer-Verlag, 1991.
[42] Levy, pg. 56
[43] Digital Millennium Copyright Act (http:/ / www. copyright. gov/ legislation/ dmca. pdf)
[44] http:/ / www. macfergus. com/ niels/ dmca/ cia. html

Further reading
• Richard J. Aldrich, GCHQ: The Uncensored Story of Britain's Most Secret Intelligence Agency, HarperCollins,
July 2010.
• Becket, B (1988). Introduction to Cryptology. Blackwell Scientific Publications. ISBN 0-632-01836-4.
OCLC 16832704. Excellent coverage of many classical ciphers and cryptography concepts and of the "modern"
DES and RSA systems.
• Cryptography and Mathematics by Bernhard Esslinger, 200 pages, part of the free open-source package
CrypTool, PDF download (https://www.cryptool.org/download/CrypToolScript-en.pdf).
• In Code: A Mathematical Journey by Sarah Flannery (with David Flannery). Popular account of Sarah's
award-winning project on public-key cryptography, co-written with her father.
• James Gannon, Stealing Secrets, Telling Lies: How Spies and Codebreakers Helped Shape the Twentieth Century,
Washington, D.C., Brassey's, 2001, ISBN 1-57488-367-4.
• Oded Goldreich, Foundations of Cryptography (http://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~oded/foc-book.html),
in two volumes, Cambridge University Press, 2001 and 2004.
Cryptography 27

• Introduction to Modern Cryptography (http://www.cs.umd.edu/~jkatz/imc.html) by Jonathan Katz and

Yehuda Lindell.
• Alvin's Secret Code by Clifford B. Hicks (children's novel that introduces some basic cryptography and
cryptanalysis).
• Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi, "The Origins of Cryptology: the Arab Contributions," Cryptologia, vol. 16, no. 2 (April
1992), pp. 97–126.
• Handbook of Applied Cryptography (http://www.cacr.math.uwaterloo.ca/hac/) by A. J. Menezes, P. C. van
Oorschot, and S. A. Vanstone CRC Press, (PDF download available), somewhat more mathematical than
Schneier's Applied Cryptography.
• Christof Paar (http://www.crypto.rub.de/en_paar.html), Jan Pelzl, Understanding Cryptography, A Textbook
for Students and Practitioners. (http://www.cryptography-textbook.com) Springer, 2009. (Slides, video lectures
and other information are available on the web site.) Very accessible introduction to practical cryptography for
non-mathematicians.
• Introduction to Modern Cryptography by Phillip Rogaway and Mihir Bellare, a mathematical introduction to
theoretical cryptography including reduction-based security proofs. PDF download (http://www.cs.ucdavis.
edu/~rogaway/classes/227/spring05/book/main.pdf).
• Cryptonomicon by Neal Stephenson (novel, WW2 Enigma cryptanalysis figures into the story, though not always
realistically).
• Johann-Christoph Woltag, 'Coded Communications (Encryption)' in Rüdiger Wolfrum (ed) Max Planck
Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford University Press 2009). * "Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public
International Law" (http://www.mpepil.com)., giving an overview of international law issues regarding
cryptography.
• Jonathan Arbib & John Dwyer, Discrete Mathematics for Cryptography, 1st Edition ISBN 978-1-907934-01-8.

External links
• Free on-line course in cryptography (http://www.cryptography-textbook.com) by Christof Paar, two semesters
in English and German (klick on "On-line course"), site also contains a comprehensive set of cryptography slides
• Cryptography (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y272) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http:/
/www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p004y272/In_Our_Time_Cryptography))
• "DNA computing and cryptology: the future for Basel in Switzerland?" (http://www.basel-research.eu.com)
• Crypto Glossary and Dictionary of Technical Cryptography (http://ciphersbyritter.com/GLOSSARY.HTM)
• Attack/Prevention (http://www.attackprevention.com/Cryptology/) Resource for Cryptography Whitepapers,
Tools, Videos, and Podcasts.
• Cryptography: The Ancient Art of Secret Messages (http://www.pawlan.com/Monica/crypto/) by Monica
Pawlan - February 1998
• Handbook of Applied Cryptography (http://www.cacr.math.uwaterloo.ca/hac/) by A. J. Menezes, P. C. van
Oorschot, and S. A. Vanstone (PDF download available), somewhat more mathematical than Schneier's book.
• NSA's CryptoKids (http://www.nsa.gov/kids/).
• Overview and Applications of Cryptology (http://www.cryptool.org/download/CrypToolPresentation-en.pdf)
by the CrypTool Team; PDF; 3.8 MB—July 2008
• RSA Laboratories' frequently asked questions about today's cryptography (http://www.rsasecurity.com/
rsalabs/node.asp?id=2152)
• sci.crypt mini-FAQ (http://www.spinstop.com/schlafly/crypto/faq.htm)
• GCHQ: Britain's Most Secret Intelligence Agency (http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/staff/aldrich/
vigilant/lectures/gchq)
• A Course in Cryptography (http://www.cs.cornell.edu/courses/cs4830/2010fa/lecnotes.pdf) by Raphael
Pass and Abhi Shelat. A complete course in cryptography offered at Cornell in the form of lecture notes.
Pattern recognition 28

Pattern recognition
In machine learning, pattern recognition is the assignment of some sort of output value (or label) to a given input
value (or instance), according to some specific algorithm. An example of pattern recognition is classification, which
attempts to assign each input value to one of a given set of classes (for example, determine whether a given email is
"spam" or "non-spam"). However, pattern recognition is a more general problem that encompasses other types of
output as well. Other examples are regression, which assigns a real-valued output to each input; sequence labeling,
which assigns a class to each member of a sequence of values (for example, part of speech tagging, which assigns a
part of speech to each word in an input sentence); and parsing, which assigns a parse tree to an input sentence,
describing the syntactic structure of the sentence.
Pattern recognition algorithms generally aim to provide a reasonable answer for all possible inputs and to do "fuzzy"
matching of inputs. This is opposed to pattern matching algorithms, which look for exact matches in the input with
pre-existing patterns. A common example of a pattern-matching algorithm is regular expression matching, which
looks for patterns of a given sort in textual data and is included in the search capabilities of many text editors and
word processors. In contrast to pattern recognition, pattern matching is generally not considered a type of machine
learning, although pattern-matching algorithms (especially with fairly general, carefully tailored patterns) can
sometimes succeed in providing similar-quality output to the sort provided by pattern-recognition algorithms.
Pattern recognition is studied in many fields, including psychology, psychiatry, ethology, cognitive science and
computer science.

Overview
Pattern recognition is generally categorized according to the type of learning procedure used to generate the output
value. Supervised learning assumes that a set of training data (the training set) has been provided, consisting of a set
of instances that have been properly labeled by hand with the correct output. A learning procedure then generates a
model that attempts to meet two sometimes conflicting objectives: Perform as well as possible on the training data,
and generalize as well as possible to new data (usually, this means being as simple as possible, for some technical
definition of "simple", in accordance with Occam's Razor). Unsupervised learning, on the other hand, assumes
training data that has not been hand-labeled, and attempts to find inherent patterns in the data that can then be used to
determine the correct output value for new data instances. A combination of the two that has recently been explored
is semi-supervised learning, which uses a combination of labeled and unlabeled data (typically a small set of labeled
data combined with a large amount of unlabeled data). Note that in cases of unsupervised learning, there may be no
training data at all to speak of; in other words, the data to be labeled is the training data.
Note that sometimes different terms are used to describe the corresponding supervised and unsupervised learning
procedures for the same type of output. For example, the unsupervised equivalent of classification is normally
known as clustering, based on the common perception of the task as involving no training data to speak of, and of
grouping the input data into clusters based on some inherent similarity measure (e.g. the distance between instances,
considered as vectors in a multi-dimensional vector space), rather than assigning each input instance into one of a set
of pre-defined classes. Note also that in some fields, the terminology is different: For example, in community
ecology, the term "classification" is used to refer to what is commonly known as "clustering".
The piece of input data for which an output value is generated is formally termed an instance. The instance is
formally described by a vector of features, which together constitute a description of all known characteristics of the
instance. (These feature vectors can be seen as defining points in an appropriate multidimensional space, and
methods for manipulating vectors in vector spaces can be correspondingly applied to them, such as computing the
dot product or the angle between two vectors.) Typically, features are either categorical (also known as nominal, i.e.
consisting of one of a set of unordered items, such as a gender of "male" or "female", or a blood type of "A", "B",
Pattern recognition 29

"AB" or "O"), ordinal (consisting of one of a set of ordered items, e.g. "large", "medium" or "small"), integer-valued
(e.g. a count of the number of occurrences of a particular word in an email) or real-valued (e.g. a measurement of
blood pressure). Often, categorical and ordinal data are grouped together; likewise for integer-valued and real-valued
data. Furthermore, many algorithms work only in terms of categorical data and require that real-valued or
integer-valued data be discretized into groups (e.g. less than 5, between 5 and 10, or greater than 10).
Many common pattern recognition algorithms are probabilistic in nature, in that they use statistical inference to find
the best label for a given instance. Unlike other algorithms, which simply output a "best" label, often times
probabilistic algorithms also output a probability of the instance being described by the given label. In addition,
many probabilistic algorithms output a list of the N-best labels with associated probabilities, for some value of N,
instead of simply a single best label. When the number of possible labels is fairly small (e.g. in the case of
classification), N may be set so that the probability of all possible labels is output. Probabilistic algorithms have
many advantages over non-probabilistic algorithms:
• They output a confidence value associated with their choice. (Note that some other algorithms may also output
confidence values, but in general, only for probabilistic algorithms is this value mathematically grounded in
probability theory. Non-probabilistic confidence values can in general not be given any specific meaning, and
only used to compare against other confidence values output by the same algorithm.)
• Correspondingly, they can abstain when the confidence of choosing any particular output is too low.
• Because of the probabilities output, probabilistic pattern-recognition algorithms can be more effectively
incorporated into larger machine-learning tasks, in a way that partially or completely avoids the problem of error
propagation.
Techniques to transform the raw feature vectors are sometimes used prior to application of the pattern-matching
algorithm. For example, feature extraction algorithms attempt to reduce a large-dimensionality feature vector into a
smaller-dimensionality vector that is easier to work with and encodes less redundancy, using mathematical
techniques such as principal components analysis (PCA). Feature selection algorithms, attempt to directly prune out
redundant or irrelevant features. The distinction between the two is that the resulting features after feature extraction
has taken place are of a different sort than the original features and may not easily be interpretable, while the features
left after feature selection are simply a subset of the original features.

Problem statement (supervised version)

Formally, the problem of supervised pattern recognition can be stated as follows: Given an unknown function
(the ground truth) that maps input instances to output labels , along with training
data assumed to represent accurate examples of the mapping, produce a function
that approximates as closely as possible the correct mapping . (For example, if the problem is
filtering spam, then is some representation of an email and is either "spam" or "non-spam"). In order for this
to be a well-defined problem, "approximates as closely as possible" needs to be defined rigorously. In decision
theory, this is defined by specifying a loss function that assigns a specific value to "loss" resulting from producing an
incorrect label. The goal then is to minimize the expected loss, with the expectation taken over the probability
distribution of . In practice, neither the distribution of nor the ground truth function are known
exactly, but can be computed only empirically by collecting a large number of samples of and hand-labeling
them using the correct value of (a time-consuming process, which is typically the limiting factor in the amount of
data of this sort that can be collected). The particular loss function depends on the type of label being predicted. For
example, in the case of classification, the simple zero-one loss function is often sufficient. This corresponds simply
to assigning a loss of 1 to any incorrect labeling and is equivalent to computing the accuracy of the classification
procedure over the set of test data (i.e. counting up the fraction of instances that the learned function
labels correctly. The goal of the learning procedure is to maximize this test accuracy on a "typical" test set.
Pattern recognition 30

For a probabilistic pattern recognizer, the problem is instead to estimate the probability of each possible output label
given a particular input instance, i.e. to estimate a function of the form

where the feature vector input is , and the function f is typically parameterized by some parameters . In a
discriminative approach to the problem, f is estimated directly. In a generative approach, however, the inverse
probability is instead estimated and combined with the prior probability using Bayes'
rule, as follows:

When the labels are continuously distributed (e.g. in regression analysis), the denominator involves integration rather
than summation:

The value of is typically learned using maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimation. This finds the best value that
simultaneously meets two conflicting objects: To perform as well as possible on the training data and to find the
simplest possible model. Essentially, this combines maximum likelihood estimation with a regularization procedure
that favors simpler models over more complex models. In a Bayesian context, the regularization procedure can be
viewed as placing a prior probability on different values of . Mathematically:

where is the value used for in the subsequent evaluation procedure, and , the posterior probability
of , is given by

In the Bayesian approach to this problem, instead of choosing a single parameter vector , the probability of a
given label for a new instance is computed by integrating over all possible values of , weighted according to
the posterior probability:

Uses
Within medical science, pattern recognition is the basis for
computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) systems. CAD describes a
procedure that supports the doctor's interpretations and findings.
Typical applications are automatic speech recognition,
classification of text into several categories (e.g. spam/non-spam
email messages), the automatic recognition of handwritten postal
codes on postal envelopes, or the automatic recognition of images
of human faces. The last two examples form the subtopic image
analysis of pattern recognition that deals with digital images as The face was automatically detected by special
input to pattern recognition systems.[1] [2] software.
Pattern recognition 31

The method of signing one's name was captured with stylus and overlay starting 1990. The strokes, speed, relative
min, relative max, acceleration and pressure is used to uniquely identify and confirm identity. Banks were first
offered this technology, however, were content to collect from FDIC for any bank fraud and didnt want to
inconvience customers.

Algorithms
Algorithms for pattern recognition depend on the type of label output, on whether learning is supervised or
unsupervised, and on whether the algorithm is statistical or non-statistical in nature. Statistical algorithms can further
be categorized as generative or discriminative.

Classification algorithms (supervised algorithms predicting categorical labels)

• Maximum entropy classifier (aka logistic regression, multinomial logistic regression): Note that logistic
regression is an algorithm for classification, despite its name. (The name comes from the fact that logistic
regression uses an extension of a linear regression model to model the probability of an input being in a particular
class.)
• Naive Bayes classifier
• Decision trees, decision lists
• Support vector machines
• Kernel estimation and K-nearest-neighbor algorithms
• Perceptrons
• Neural networks (multi-level perceptrons)

Clustering algorithms (unsupervised algorithms predicting categorical labels)

• Categorical mixture models
• K-means clustering
• Hierarchical clustering (agglomerative or divisive)
• Kernel principal component analysis (Kernel PCA)

Regression algorithms (predicting real-valued labels)

Supervised:
• Linear regression and extensions
• Neural networks
• Gaussian process regression (kriging)
Unsupervised:
• Principal components analysis (PCA)
• Independent component analysis (ICA)
Pattern recognition 32

Categorical sequence labeling algorithms (predicting sequences of categorical labels)

Supervised:
• Hidden Markov models (HMMs)
• Maximum entropy Markov models (MEMMs)
• Conditional random fields (CRFs)
Unsupervised:
• Hidden Markov models (HMMs)

Real-valued sequence labeling algorithms (predicting sequences of real-valued labels)

Supervised (?):
• Kalman filters
• Particle filters
Unsupervised:
• ???

Parsing algorithms (predicting tree structured labels)

Supervised and unsupervised:
• Probabilistic context free grammars (PCFGs)

General algorithms for predicting arbitrarily-structured labels

• Bayesian networks
• Markov random fields

Ensemble learning algorithms (supervised meta-algorithms for combining multiple

learning algorithms together)
• Bootstrap aggregating ("bagging")
• Boosting
• Ensemble averaging
• Mixture of experts, hierarchical mixture of experts

References
This article was originally based on material from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing, which is licensed
under the GFDL.
[1] Richard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, David G. Stork (2001) Pattern classification (2nd edition), Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471-05669-3
[2] R. Brunelli, Template Matching Techniques in Computer Vision: Theory and Practice, Wiley, ISBN 978-0-470-51706-2, 2009 ( (http:/ / eu.
wiley. com/ WileyCDA/ WileyTitle/ productCd-0470517069. html) TM book)

Further reading
• Fukunaga, Keinosuke (1990). Introduction to Statistical Pattern Recognition (2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press.
ISBN 0-12-269851-7.
• Bishop, Christopher (2006). Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 0-387-31073-8.
• Koutroumbas, Konstantinos; Theodoridis, Sergios (2008). Pattern Recognition (4th ed.). Boston: Academic Press.
ISBN 1-59749-272-8.
• Bhagat, Phiroz (2005). Pattern Recognition in Industry. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044538-1.
Pattern recognition 33

• Hornegger, Joachim; Paulus, Dietrich W. R. (1999). Applied Pattern Recognition: A Practical Introduction to
Image and Speech Processing in C++ (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
ISBN 3-528-15558-2.
• Schuermann, Juergen (1996). Pattern Classification: A Unified View of Statistical and Neural Approaches. New
York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-13534-8.
• Godfried T. Toussaint, ed (1988). Computational Morphology. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
• Kulikowski, Casimir A.; Weiss, Sholom M. (1991). Computer Systems That Learn: Classification and Prediction
Methods from Statistics, Neural Nets, Machine Learning, and Expert Systems. Machine Learning. San Francisco:
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN 1-55860-065-5.

External links
• The International Association for Pattern Recognition (http://www.iapr.org)
• List of Pattern Recognition web sites (http://cgm.cs.mcgill.ca/~godfried/teaching/pr-web.html)
• Journal of Pattern Recognition Research (http://www.jprr.org)
• Pattern Recognition Info (http://www.docentes.unal.edu.co/morozcoa/docs/pr.php)
• Pattern Recognition (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00313203) (Journal of the Pattern
Recognition Society)
• International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence (http://www.worldscinet.com/ijprai/
mkt/archive.shtml)

Cupid
In Roman mythology, Cupid (Latin cupido, meaning "desire") is
the god of desire, affection and erotic love. He is the son of
goddess Venus and god Mars.
In popular culture, Cupid is frequently shown shooting his bow to
inspire romantic love, often as an icon of Valentine's Day. He is
now in the current culture the personification of love and courtship
in general.
For the equivalent deity in Greek mythology, see Eros.

Legend
In the Roman version, Cupid was the son of Venus (goddess of
love) and Mars.[1] [2] In the Greek version he was named Eros and
seen as one of the primordial gods (though other myths exist as
well). Cupid was often depicted with wings, a bow, and a quiver of Classical statue of Cupid with his bow
arrows. The following story is almost identical in both cultures;
the most familiar version is found in Ovid's Metamorphoses. When Cupid's mother Venus became jealous of the
princess Psyche, who was so beloved by her subjects that they forgot to worship Venus, she ordered Cupid to make
Psyche fall in love with the vilest thing in the world. While Cupid was sneaking into her room to shoot Psyche with a
golden arrow, he accidentally scratched himself with his own arrow and fell deeply in love with her.

Following that, Cupid visited Psyche every night while she slept. Speaking to her so that she could not see him, he
told her never to try to see him. Psyche, though, incited by her two older sisters who told her Cupid was a monster,
tried to look at him and angered Cupid. When he left, she looked all over the known world for him until at last the
Cupid 34

leader of the gods, Jupiter, gave Psyche the gift of immortality so that she could be with him. Together they had a
daughter, Voluptas, or Hedone, (meaning pleasure) and Psyche became a goddess. Her name "Psyche" means "soul."

Portrayal
In painting and sculpture, Cupid is often portrayed as a nude (or
sometimes diapered) winged boy or baby (a putto) armed with a
bow and a quiver of arrows.
The Hindu Kāma also has a very similar description. On gems and
other surviving pieces, he is usually shown amusing himself with
childhood play, sometimes driving a hoop, throwing darts,
catching a butterfly, or flirting with a nymph. He is often depicted
with his mother (in graphic arts, this is nearly always Venus),
playing a horn. In other images, his mother is depicted scolding or
even spanking him due to his mischievous nature. He is also
shown wearing a helmet and carrying a buckler, perhaps in
reference to Virgil's Omnia vincit amor or as political satire on
wars for love or love as war.

Cupid figures prominently in ariel poetry, lyrics and, of course,

elegiac love and metamorphic poetry. In epic poetry, he is less
often invoked, but he does appear in Virgil's Aeneid changed into
the shape of Ascanius inspiring Dido's love. In later literature, Caravaggio's Amor Vincit Omnia
Cupid is frequently invoked as fickle, playful, and perverse. He is
often depicted as carrying two sets of arrows: one set gold-headed, which inspire love; and the other lead-headed,
which inspire hatred.

The best-known story involving Cupid is the tale of Cupid and Psyche.

Notes
[1] Cotterell, Arthur. Cupid: A Dictionary of World Mythology (http:/ / www. oxfordreference. com/ views/ ENTRY. html?subview=Main&
entry=t73. e198) Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Accessed 26 April 2010
[2] John Lemprière, A classical dictionary; containing a copious account of all the proper names mentioned in ancient authors:: with the value
of coins, weights, and measures, used among the Greeks and Romans; and a chronological table (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=s6cTAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA225& dq=cupid+ father+ mother+ venus& lr=& as_brr=1& cd=4#v=onepage& q=cupid father mother
venus& f=false) (1820)

References
• Cotterell, Arthur & Storm, Rachel (2008). The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Mythology. Annes Publishing Ltd..
• Arthur Cotterell & Rachel Storm, The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Mythology, 2008 Annes Publishing Ltd.
• Fabio Silva Vallejo, Mitos y leyendas del mundo (Spanish), 2004 Panamericana Editorial.
Cupid and Psyche 35

Cupid and Psyche

The legend of Cupid and Psyche (also known as The Tale of Amour
and Psyche and The Tale of Eros and Psyche) first appeared as a
digressionary story told by an old woman in Lucius Apuleius' novel,
The Golden Ass, written in the 2nd century AD. Apuleius likely used
an earlier tale as the basis for his story, modifying it to suit the
thematic needs of his novel.

It has since been interpreted as a Märchen, an allegory and a myth.

Considered as a fairy tale, it is either an allegory or a myth, but the
folkloric tradition tends to blend these.[1]

Legend
Envious and jealous of the beauty of a mortal girl named Psyche,
Venus asks her son Cupid (known to the Greeks as Eros) to use his
golden arrows while Psyche sleeps, so that when she awakens, Venus
Cupid and Psyche, by Antonio Canova, c. 1808.
(Aphrodite in the Greek tradition) would have already placed a vile
creature for her to fall in love with. Cupid finally agrees to her
commands after a long (and failed) debate. As he flies to Psyche's room at night, he turns himself invisible so no one
can see him fly in through her window. He takes pity on her, for she was born too beautiful for her own safety. As he
slowly approaches, careful not to make a sound, he readies one of his golden arrows. He leans over Psyche while she
is asleep and before he can scratch her shoulder with the arrow, she awakens, startling him, for she looks right into
his eyes, despite his invisibility. This causes him to scratch himself with his arrow, falling deeply in love with her.
He cannot continue his mission, for every passing second he finds her more appealing. He reports back to Venus
shortly after and the news enrages her. Venus places a curse on Psyche that keeps her from meeting a suitable
husband, or any husband at that. As she does this, it upsets Cupid greatly, and he decides as long as the curse stays
on Psyche, he will no longer shoot arrows, which will cause the temple of Venus to fall.

After months of no one — man or animal — falling in love, marrying,

or mating, the Earth starts to grow old, which causes concern to Venus,
for nobody praises her for Cupid's actions. Finally, she agrees to listen
to Cupid's demands, according him one thing to have his own way.
Cupid desires Psyche. Venus, upset, agrees to his demands only if he
begins work immediately. He accepts the offer and takes off, shooting
his golden arrows as fast as he can, restoring everything to the way it
should be. People again fall in love and marry, animals far and wide
mate, and the Earth begins to look young once again.

When all continue to admire and praise Psyche's beauty, but none
Michelangelo Palloni, fresco Sleeping Psyche, c.
desire her as a wife, Psyche's parents consult an oracle, which tells
1688, Wilanów Palace.
them to leave Psyche on the nearest mountain, for her beauty is so
great that she is not meant for (mortal) man. Terrified, they have no
choice but to follow the oracle's instructions. But then Zephyrus, the west wind, carries Psyche away, to a fair valley
and a magnificent palace where she is attended by invisible servants until nightfall, and in the darkness of night the
promised bridegroom arrives and the marriage is consummated. Cupid visits her every night to sleep with her, but
demands that she never light any lamps, since he does not want her to know who he is until the time is right.
Cupid and Psyche 36

Cupid allows Zephyrus to take Psyche back

to her sisters and bring all three down to the
palace during the day, but warns that Psyche
should not listen to any argument that she
should try to discover his true form. The two
jealous sisters tell Psyche, then pregnant
with Cupid's child, that rumor is that she had
married a great and terrible serpent who
would devour her and her unborn child
when the time came for it to be fed. They
urge Psyche to conceal a knife and oil lamp
in the bedchamber, to wait till her husband
is asleep, and then to light the lamp and slay
Statue of Cupido and Psyche kissing, 2nd century AD. Room E of the House of
him at once if it is as they said. Psyche sadly Cupid and Psyche. Ostia Antica, Latium, Italy
follows their advice. In the light of the lamp
Psyche recognizes the fair form on the bed as the god Cupid himself. However, she accidentally pricks herself with
one of his arrows, and is consumed with desire for her husband. She begins to kiss him, but as she does, a drop of oil
falls from her lamp onto Cupid's shoulder and wakes him. He flies away, and she falls from the window to the
ground, sick at heart.

Psyche then finds herself in the city where one of her jealous elder sisters live. She tells her what had happened, then
tricks her sister into believing that Cupid has chosen her as a wife on the mountaintop. Psyche later meets her other
sister and deceives her likewise. Each sister goes to the top of the peak and jumps down eagerly, but Zephyrus does
not bear them and they fall to their deaths at the base of the mountain.
Psyche searches far and wide for her lover, finally stumbling into a temple where everything is in slovenly disarray.
As Psyche is sorting and clearing the mess, Ceres (Demeter to the Greeks) appears, but refuses any help beyond
advising Psyche that she must call directly on Venus, who caused all the problems in the first place. Psyche next
calls on Juno in her temple, but Juno gives her the same advice. So Psyche finds a temple to Venus and enters it.
Venus then orders Psyche to separate all the grains in a large basket of mixed kinds before nightfall. An ant takes
pity on Psyche, and with its ant companions, separates the grains for her.
Venus is outraged at her success and tells her to go to a field where
golden sheep graze and to retrieve some golden wool. A river-god tells
Psyche that the sheep are vicious and strong and will kill her, but if she
waits until noontime, the sheep will go to the shade on the other side of
the field and sleep; she can then pick the wool that sticks to the
branches and bark of the trees. Venus next asks for water flowing from
a cleft that is impossible for a mortal to attain and is also guarded by
great serpents. This time an eagle performs the task for Psyche.
L'Amour et Psyché,by François-Édouard Picot,
1819
Cupid and Psyche 37

Venus, furious at Psyche's survival, claims that the stress of caring for her son,
made depressed and ill as a result of Psyche's lack of faith, has caused her to lose
some of her beauty. Psyche is to go to the Underworld and ask the queen of the
Underworld, Proserpina (Persephone to the Greeks), to place a bit of her beauty
in a box that Venus had given to Psyche. Psyche decides that the quickest way to
the Underworld is to throw herself off some high place and die, and so she
climbs to the top of a tower. But the tower itself speaks to Psyche and tells her
the route that will allow her to enter the Underworld alive and return again, as
well as telling her how to get past Cerberus (by giving the three-headed dog a
small cake); how to avoid other dangers on the way there and back; and most
importantly, to eat nothing but coarse bread in the underworld, as eating anything
else would trap her there forever. Psyche follows the orders precisely, rejecting Psyché aux enfers by Eugène Ernest
all but bread while beneath the Earth. Hillemacher, 1865

However, once Psyche has left the Underworld, she decides to open the box and
take a little bit of the beauty for herself. Inside, she can see no beauty; instead an infernal sleep arises from the box
and overcomes her. Cupid (Eros), who had forgiven Psyche, flies to her, wipes the sleep from her face, puts it back
in the box, and sends her back on her way. Then Cupid flies to Mount Olympus and begs Jupiter (Zeus) to aid them.
Jupiter calls a full and formal council of the gods and declares that it is his will that Cupid marry Psyche. Jupiter then
has Psyche fetched to Mount Olympus, and gives her a drink made from ambrosia, granting her immortality.
Begrudgingly, Venus and Psyche forgive each other.

Psyche and Cupid have a daughter, called Voluptas (Hedone in Greek mythology), the goddess of "sensual
pleasures", whose Latin name means "pleasure" or "bliss".

Relations and origin

In Greek mythology, Psyche was the deification of the human soul. She was portrayed in ancient mosaics as a
goddess with butterfly wings (because psyche is also the Greek word for 'butterfly'). The Greek word psyche literally
means "spirit, breath, life or animating force".
Cupid and Psyche 38

Psyche was originally the youngest daughter of the king and queen of
Sicily, and the most beautiful person on the island. Suitors flocked to
ask for her hand. She eventually boasted that she was more beautiful
than Aphrodite (Venus) herself, and Aphrodite sent Eros to transfix her
with an arrow of desire, to make her fall in love with the nearest person
or thing available. But even Eros (Cupid) fell in love with her, and took
her to a secret place, eventually marrying her and having her made a
goddess by Zeus (Jupiter).

Though concerning gods and goddesses, Apuleius' Cupid and Psyche

was generally relegated to the status of a "mere" folktale (in English a
fairy tale). However, through Perrault's Mother Goose Tales and with
the popularity of other such collections in 17th century France, folk
tales become recognized in Europe as a legitimate literary genre.

Later adaptations
Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss in the Louvre,
William Adlington translated the tale into English in 1566.[2]
Paris.
At the conclusion of Comus (1634), the poet John Milton alluded to the
story of Cupid and Psyche.
"Celestial Cupid, her famed son, advanced,
Holds his dear Psyche sweet entranced,
After her wandering labours long,
Till free consent the gods among
Make her his eternal bride;
And from her fair unspotted side
Two blissful twins are to be born,
Youth and Joy; so Jove hath sworn."
The poet T. K. Harvey wrote:
"They wove bright fables in the days of old,
When reason borrowed fancy's painted wings;
When truth's clear river flowed o'er sands of gold,
And told in song its high and mystic things!
And such the sweet and solemn tale of her
The pilgrim heart, to whom a dream was given,
That led her through the world,– Love's worshipper,–
Psyche, by William Adolphe Bouguereau
To seek on earth for him whose home was heaven!
"In the full city,– by the haunted fount,–
Through the dim grotto's tracery of spars,–
'Mid the pine temples, on the moonlit mount,
Where silence sits to listen to the stars;
In the deep glade where dwells the brooding dove,
The painted valley, and the scented air,
Cupid and Psyche 39

She heard far echoes of the voice of Love,

And found his footsteps' traces everywhere.
"But nevermore they met! since doubts and fears,
Those phantom shapes that haunt and blight the earth,
Had come 'twixt her, a child of sin and tears,
And that bright spirit of immortal birth;
Until her pining soul and weeping eyes
Had learned to seek him only in the skies;
Till wings unto the weary heart were given,
And she became Love's angel bride in heaven!"
Shackerley Marmion wrote a verse version of the Apuleius story called Cupid and Psyche which was published in
1637.
Mary Tighe in her poem Cupid and Psyche first published in 1805 explains the origin of Cupid's love for Psyche.
She adds two springs in Venus' garden, one with sweet water and one with bitter. When Cupid starts to obey his
mother's command, he brings some of both to a sleeping Psyche but places only some of the bitter water on Psyche's
lips and prepares also to pierce her with an arrow:
Nor yet content, he from his quiver drew,
Sharpened with skill divine, a shining dart:
No need had he for bow, since thus too true
His hand might wound her all-exposed heart;
Yet her fair side he touched with gentlest art,
And half relenting on her beauties gazed;
Just then awaking with a sudden start
Her opening eye in humid lustre blazed,
Unseen he still remained, enchanted and amazed.
The dart which in his hand now trembling stood,
As o'er the couch he bent with ravished eye,
Drew with its daring point celestial blood
From his smooth neck's unblemished ivory:
Roman marble Cupid and Psyche after a
Heedless of this, but with a pitying sigh Hellenistic original of the 2nd century BC

The evil done now anxious to repair,

He shed in haste the balmy drops of joy
O'er all the silky ringlets of her hair;
Then stretched his plumes divine, and breathed celestial air.
In the later part of her tale, Tighe's Venus only asks one task of Psyche, to bring her the forbidden water, but in
performing this task Tighe's Psyche wanders into a country bordering on Spenser's Fairie Queene as Psyche is aided
by a mysterious visored knight and his squire Constance and must escape various traps set by Vanity, Flattery,
Ambition, Credulity, Disfida (who lives in a "Gothic castle"), Varia and Geloso. Spenser's Blatant Beast also makes
an appearance.
Tighe's work was appreciated by William Wordsworth and also an early influence on John Keats, whose short Ode
to Psyche appeared in 1820.
Cupid and Psyche 40

William Morris retold the story in verse in The Earthly Paradise (1868–70). Robert Bridges wrote Eros and Psyche:
A Narrative Poem in Twelve Measures (1885; 1894). A full prose adaptation was included as part of Walter Pater's
novel Marius the Epicurean in 1885. Josephine Preston Peabody wrote a version for children in her Old Greek Folk
Stories Told Anew (1897). Thomas Bulfinch wrote a short adaptation for his Age of Fable which borrowed Tighe's
account of Cupid's self-wounding. C.S. Lewis retold the story in his 1956 book Till We Have Faces.

Fairy tale variants

As Bruno Bettelheim notes in The Uses of Enchantment, Beauty and the Beast is a variant of Cupid and Psyche.

References
[1] Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Cupid and Psyche," reprinted in Pietas: Selected Studies in Roman Religion (Brill, 1980), pp. 84–92 online. (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=xWaOxU28Nn4C& pg=PA84& dq="Cupid+ and+ Psyche"+ inauthor:Wagenvoort& lr=& as_brr=0)
[2] Under the title The XI Bookes of the Golden Asse, Conteininge the Metamorphosie of Lucius Apuleius (London 1566).

External links
• Readers Theatre version of the Cupid and Psyche Tale (http://trickledownolympus.blogspot.com) Play version
of Cupid and Psyche, suitable for use in any 6th-12th grade classroom.
• Tales Similar to Beauty and the Beast (http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/beautybeast/other.html) (Texts of
Cupid and Psyche and similar monster or beast as bridegroom tales, mostly of AT-425C form, with hyperlinked
commentary).
• Robert Bridge's Eros and Psyche at archive.org (http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=creator:"Bridges,
Robert Seymour, 1844-1930" eros): pdf (http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013439025) or read online
(http://www.archive.org/stream/cu31924013439025#page/n81/mode/2up)
• Mary Tighe, Psyche or, the Legend of Love (1820) HTML (http://web.nmsu.edu/~hlinkin) or PDF (http://
web.nmsu.edu/~hlinkin/Psyche)
• Voluptas
• Ode to Voluptas (http://www.voluptas.info/) (Information about Voluptas, Daughter of Cupid & Psyche)
• Walter Pater, Marius the Epicurean, chapter 5 (1885)
• Gutenberg Project: Walter Pater, Marius the Epicurean, Vol. 1 (http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4057)
(Plain text.)
• Blackmask: Walter Pater, "Marius the Epicurean": chapter 5 (http://www.blackmask.com/books57c/
7mrs1dex.htm)
• Victorian Prose: Walter Pater, Marius the Epicurean, Vol. 1 (http://www.victorianprose.org/texts/Pater/
Works/mar_85_1.pdf) (PDF)
• Josephine Preston Peabody, Old Greek Folk Stories Told Anew (1897)
• The Baldwin Project: The Enchanted Palace (http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=peabody&
book=greek&story=cupid) and The Trial of Psyche (http://www.mainlesson.com/display.
php?author=peabody&book=greek&story=psyche)
• Rick Walton's Online Library: Cupid and Psyche (http://www.rickwalton.com/folktale/holid020.htm)
• Blackmask: Cupid and Psyche (http://www.blackmask.com/thatway/books130c/7ogrkdex.htm)
• Thomas Bulfinch, The Age of Fable (1913)
• D. L Ashliman: Folktexts: Cupid and Psyche (http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/cupid.html)
• Hermetic Philosophy: Cupid and Psyche (http://www.plotinus.com/myth_cupid_psyche.htm) (Illustrated
with painting and sculpture.)
• Andrew Staniland
Cupid and Psyche 41

• Beauty Of Psyche (http://www.andrewstaniland.co.uk/index.htm#beauty''The)

• Art
• Art Renewal Center: "Cupid & Psyche" by Sharrell E. Gibson (http://www.artrenewal.org/articles/2001/
Cupid_and_Psyche/cupidpsyche1.asp) (Examples and discussion of Cupid and Psyche in painting.)
• Material on the Musical by Sean Hartley and Jihwan Kim (2000)
• Theatrescene.net: Cupid and Psyche (http://www.theatrescene.net/ts\articles.nsf/0/
19AA3EDED1068A1A85256DBA004FBE2C?OpenDocument)
• Talkin Broadway: Cupid and Psyche (http://www.talkinbroadway.com/ob/09_24_03.html)
• Holly Woodward, Archipelago: Volume 4, Number 4
• & Psyche (http://www.archipelago.org/vol4-4/woodward.htm''Eros) (A short story based on the myth.)
• Acting Manitou in Maine produced a new musical version of Cupid and Psyche
• (http://www.actingmanitou.com) Link to the drama camp

Holy Grail
The Holy Grail is a sacred object figuring in literature and certain
Christian traditions, most often identified with the dish, plate, or cup
used by Jesus at the Last Supper and said to possess miraculous
powers. The connection of Joseph of Arimathea with the Grail legend
dates from Robert de Boron's Joseph d'Arimathie (late 12th century) in
which Joseph receives the Grail from an apparition of Jesus and sends
it with his followers to Great Britain; building upon this theme, later
writers recounted how Joseph used the Grail to catch Christ's blood
while interring him and that in Britain he founded a line of guardians to
keep it safe. The quest for the Holy Grail makes up an important
segment of the Arthurian cycle, appearing first in works by Chrétien de
Troyes.[1] The legend may combine Christian lore with a Celtic myth
of a cauldron endowed with special powers.

The Grail legend's development has been traced in detail by cultural

historians: It is a legend which first came together in the form of
written romances, deriving perhaps from some pre-Christian folklore
How at the Castle of Corbin a Maiden Bare in the
hints, in the later 12th and early 13th centuries. The early Grail
Sangreal and Foretold the Achievements of
romances centered on Percival and were woven into the more general Galahad: illustration by Arthur Rackham, 1917
Arthurian fabric. Some of the Grail legend is interwoven with legends
of the Holy Chalice.[2]

Origins

Grail
The Grail plays a different role everywhere it appears, but in most versions of the legend the hero must prove himself
worthy to be in its presence. In the early tales, Percival's immaturity prevents him from fulfilling his destiny when he
first encounters the Grail, and he must grow spiritually and mentally before he can locate it again. In later tellings the
Grail is a symbol of God's grace, available to all but only fully realized by those who prepare themselves spiritually,
like the saintly Galahad.
Holy Grail 42

Early forms
There are two veins of thought concerning the Grail's origin. The first, championed by Roger Sherman Loomis,
Alfred Nutt, and Jessie Weston, holds that it derived from early Celtic myth and folklore. Loomis traced a number of
parallels between Medieval Welsh literature and Irish material and the Grail romances, including similarities
between the Mabinogion's Bran the Blessed and the Arthurian Fisher King, and between Bran's life-restoring
cauldron and the Grail. On the other hand, some scholars believe the Grail began as a purely Christian symbol. For
example, Joseph Goering of the University of Toronto has identified sources for Grail imagery in 12th century wall
paintings from churches in the Catalan Pyrenees (now mostly removed to the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya,
Barcelona), which present unique iconic images of the Virgin Mary holding a bowl that radiates tongues of fire,
images that predate the first literary account by Chrétien de Troyes. Goering argues that they were the original
inspiration for the Grail legend.[3] [4]
Another recent theory holds that the earliest stories that cast the Grail in a Christian light were meant to promote the
Roman Catholic sacrament of the Holy Communion. Although the practice of Holy Communion was first alluded to
in the Christian Bible and defined by theologians in the 1st centuries AD, it was around the time of the appearance of
the first Christianized Grail literature that the Roman church was beginning to add more ceremony and mysticism
around this particular sacrament. Thus, the first Grail stories may have been celebrations of a renewal in this
traditional sacrament.[5] This theory has some basis in the fact that the Grail legends are a phenomenon of the
Western church (see below).
In several articles, Daniel Scavone, professor Emeritus of history at the University of Southern Indiana, puts forward
a hypothesis which identifies the Shroud of Turin as the real object that inspires the romances of the Holy Grail.[6]
Most scholars today accept that both Christian and Celtic traditions contributed to the legend's development, though
many of the early Celtic-based arguments are largely discredited (Loomis himself came to reject much of Weston
and Nutt's work). The general view is that the central theme of the Grail is Christian, even when not explicitly
religious, but that much of the setting and imagery of the early romances is drawn from Celtic material.

Etymology
The word graal, as it is earliest spelled, comes from Old French graal or greal, cognate with Old Provençal grazal
and Old Catalan gresal, meaning "a cup or bowl of earth, wood, or metal" (or other various types of vessels in
Southern French dialects).[7] The most commonly accepted etymology derives it from Latin gradalis or gradale via
an earlier form, cratalis, a derivative of crater or cratus which was, in turn, borrowed from Greek krater (a
two-handed shallow cup).[7] [8] [9] [10] [11] Alternate suggestions include a derivative of cratis, a name for a type of
woven basket that came to refer to a dish,[12] or a derivative of Latin gradus meaning "'by degree', 'by stages',
applied to a dish brought to the table in different stages or services during a meal".[13]
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, after the cycle of Grail romances was well established, late medieval
writers came up with a false etymology for sangréal, an alternative name for "Holy Grail." In Old French, san graal
or san gréal means "Holy Grail" and sang réal means "royal blood"; later writers played on this pun. Since then,
"Sang real" is sometimes employed to lend a medievalizing air in referring to the Holy Grail. This connection with
royal blood bore fruit in a modern bestseller linking many historical conspiracy theories (see below).
Holy Grail 43

Beginnings in literature

Chrétien de Troyes
The Grail is first featured in Perceval, le Conte du Graal (The Story of the Grail) by Chrétien de Troyes, who claims
he was working from a source book given to him by his patron, Count Philip of Flanders. In this incomplete poem,
dated sometime between 1180 and 1191, the object has not yet acquired the implications of holiness it would have in
later works. While dining in the magical abode of the Fisher King, Perceval witnesses a wondrous procession in
which youths carry magnificent objects from one chamber to another, passing before him at each course of the meal.
First comes a young man carrying a bleeding lance, then two boys carrying candelabras. Finally, a beautiful young
girl emerges bearing an elaborately decorated graal, or "grail."
Chrétien refers to his object not as "The Grail" but as un graal, showing the word was used, in its earliest literary
context, as a common noun. For Chrétien the grail was a wide, somewhat deep dish or bowl, interesting because it
contained not a pike, salmon or lamprey, as the audience may have expected for such a container, but a single Mass
wafer which provided sustenance for the Fisher King’s crippled father. Perceval, who had been warned against
talking too much, remains silent through all of this, and wakes up the next morning alone. He later learns that if he
had asked the appropriate questions about what he saw, he would have healed his maimed host, much to his honor.
The story of the Wounded King's mystical fasting is not unique; several saints were said to have lived without food
besides communion, for instance Saint Catherine of Genoa. This may imply that Chrétien intended the Mass wafer to
be the significant part of the ritual, and the Grail to be a mere prop.

Robert de Boron
Though Chrétien’s account is the earliest and most influential of all Grail texts, it was in the work of Robert de
Boron that the Grail truly became the "Holy Grail" and assumed the form most familiar to modern readers. In his
verse romance Joseph d’Arimathie, composed between 1191 and 1202, Robert tells the story of Joseph of Arimathea
acquiring the chalice of the Last Supper to collect Christ’s blood upon his removal from the cross. Joseph is thrown
in prison, where Christ visits him and explains the mysteries of the blessed cup. Upon his release Joseph gathers his
in-laws and other followers and travels to the west, and founds a dynasty of Grail keepers that eventually includes
Perceval.

Other early literature

After this point, Grail literature divides into two classes. The first concerns King Arthur’s knights visiting the Grail
castle or questing after the object; the second concerns the Grail’s history in the time of Joseph of Arimathea.
The nine most important works from the first group are:
• The Perceval of Chrétien de Troyes.
• Four continuations of Chrétien’s poem, by authors of differing vision and talent, designed to bring the story to a
close.
• The German Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach, which adapted at least the holiness of Robert’s Grail into the
framework of Chrétien’s story.
• The Didot Perceval, named after the manuscript’s former owner, and purportedly a prosification of Robert de
Boron’s sequel to Joseph d’Arimathie.
• The Welsh romance Peredur, generally included in the Mabinogion, likely at least indirectly founded on
Chrétien's poem but including very striking differences from it, preserving as it does elements of pre-Christian
traditions such as the Celtic cult of the head.
• Perlesvaus, called the "least canonical" Grail romance because of its very different character.
• The German Diu Crône (The Crown), in which Gawain, rather than Perceval, achieves the Grail.
• The Lancelot section of the vast Vulgate Cycle, which introduces the new Grail hero, Galahad.
Holy Grail 44

• The Queste del Saint Graal, another part of the Vulgate Cycle, concerning the adventures of Galahad and his
achievement of the Grail.
Of the second class there are:
• Robert de Boron’s Joseph d’Arimathie,
• The Estoire del Saint Graal, the first part of the Vulgate Cycle (but written after Lancelot and the Queste), based
on Robert’s tale but expanding it greatly with many new details.
• Verses by Rigaut de Barbezieux, a late 12th or early 13th century[14] Provençal troubador, where mention is made
of Perceval, the lance, and the Grail ("Like Perceval when he lived, who stood amazed in contemplation, so that
he was quite unable to ask what purpose the lance and grail served" - "Attressi con Persavaus el temps que vivia,
que s'esbait d'esgarder tant qu'anc non saup demandar de que servia la lansa ni-l grazaus"[15] ).
Though all these works have their roots in Chrétien, several contain pieces of tradition not found in Chrétien which
are possibly derived from earlier sources.

Conceptions of the Grail

The Grail was considered a bowl or
dish when first described by Chrétien
de Troyes. Hélinand of Froidmont
described a grail as a "wide and deep
saucer" (scutella lata et aliquantulum
profunda). Other authors had their own
ideas: Robert de Boron portrayed it as
the vessel of the Last Supper; and Galahad, Bors, and Percival achieve the Grail
Peredur had no Grail per se, presenting
the hero instead with a platter containing his kinsman's bloody, severed head. In Parzival, Wolfram von Eschenbach,
citing the authority of a certain (probably fictional) Kyot the Provençal, claimed the Grail was a stone that fell from
Heaven (called lapsit exillis), and had been the sanctuary of the Neutral Angels who took neither side during
Lucifer's rebellion. The authors of the Vulgate Cycle used the Grail as a symbol of divine grace. Galahad,
illegitimate son of Lancelot and Elaine, the world's greatest knight and the Grail Bearer at the castle of Corbenic, is
destined to achieve the Grail, his spiritual purity making him a greater warrior than even his illustrious father.
Galahad and the interpretation of the Grail involving him were picked up in the 15th century by Sir Thomas Malory
in Le Morte d'Arthur, and remain popular today.
Holy Grail 45

Later legend
Belief in the Grail and interest in its potential whereabouts has never
ceased. Ownership has been attributed to various groups (including the
Knights Templar, probably because they were at the peak of their
influence around the time that Grail stories started circulating in the
12th and 13th centuries).
There are cups claimed to be the Grail in several churches, for instance
the Saint Mary of Valencia Cathedral, which contains an artifact, the
Holy Chalice, supposedly taken by Saint Peter to Rome in the 1st
century, and then to Huesca in Spain by Saint Lawrence in the 3rd
century. According to legend, the monastery of San Juan de la Peña,
located at the south-west of Jaca, in the province of Huesca, Spain,
protected the chalice of the Last Supper from the Islamic invaders of
the Iberian Peninsula. Archaeologists say the artifact is a 1st century
Middle Eastern stone vessel, possibly from Antioch, Syria (now
Turkey); its history can be traced to the 11th century, and it now rests
One of the supposed Holy Grails in Valencia,
atop an ornate stem and base, made in the Medieval era of alabaster,
Spain
gold, and gemstones. It was the official papal chalice for many popes,
and has been used by many others, most recently by Pope Benedict
XVI, on July 9, 2006.[16] The emerald chalice at Genoa,[17] which was obtained during the Crusades at Caesarea
Maritima at great cost, has been less championed as the Holy Grail since an accident on the road, while it was being
returned from Paris after the fall of Napoleon, revealed that the emerald was green glass.

In Wolfram von Eschenbach's telling, the Grail was kept safe at the castle of Munsalvaesche (mons salvationis),
entrusted to Titurel, the first Grail King. Some, not least the monks of Montserrat, have identified the castle with the
real sanctuary of Montserrat in Catalonia, Spain. Other stories claim that the Grail is buried beneath Rosslyn Chapel
or lies deep in the spring at Glastonbury Tor. Still other stories claim that a secret line of hereditary protectors keep
the Grail, or that it was hidden by the Templars in Oak Island, Nova Scotia's famous "Money Pit", while local
folklore in Accokeek, Maryland says that it was brought to the town by a closeted priest aboard Captain John Smith's
ship. Turn of the century accounts state that Irish partisans of the Clan Dhuir (O'Dwyer, Dwyer) transported the Grail
to the United States during the 19th Century and the Grail was kept by their descendents in secrecy in a small abbey
in the upper-Northwest (now believed to be Southern Minnesota).[18]
Holy Grail 46

Modern interpretations
The story of the Grail and of the quest to find it became increasingly
popular in the 19th century, referred to in literature such as Alfred
Tennyson's Arthurian cycle the Idylls of the King. The combination of
hushed reverence, chromatic harmonies and sexualized imagery in
Richard Wagner's late opera Parsifal gave new significance to the grail
theme, for the first time associating the grail – now periodically
producing blood – directly with female fertility.[19] The high
seriousness of the subject was also epitomized in Dante Gabriel
Rossetti's painting (illustrated), in which a woman modelled by Jane
Morris holds the Grail with one hand, while adopting a gesture of
blessing with the other. Other artists, including George Frederic Watts
and William Dyce also portrayed grail subjects.

The Grail later turned up in movies; it debuted in a silent Parsifal. In

The Light of Faith (1922), Lon Chaney attempted to steal it. The Silver
Chalice, a novel about the Grail by Thomas B. Costain was made into
a 1954 movie. Lancelot du Lac (1974) was made by Robert Bresson.
Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975) (adapted in 2004 as the stage
production Spamalot) was a comedic adaptation. Excalibur attempted The Damsel of the Sanct Grael by Dante Gabriel
to restore a more traditional heroic representation of an Arthurian tale, Rossetti
in which the Grail is revealed as a mystical means to revitalise Arthur
himself, and of the barren land to which his depressive sickness is connected. Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade
and The Fisher King are more recent adoptions.

The Grail has been used as a theme in fantasy, historical fiction and science fiction; a quest for the Grail appears in
Bernard Cornwell's series of books The Grail Quest, set during The Hundred Years War. Michael Moorcock's
fantasy novel The War Hound and the World's Pain depicts a supernatural Grail quest set in the era of the Thirty
Years' War, and science fiction has taken the Quest into interstellar space, figuratively in Samuel R. Delany's 1968
novel Nova, and literally on the television shows Babylon 5 and Stargate SG-1 (as the "Sangraal"). Marion Zimmer
Bradley's The Mists of Avalon has the grail as one of four objects symbolizing the four Elements: the Grail itself
(water), the sword Excalibur (fire), a dish (earth), and a spear or wand (air). The grail features heavily in the novels
of Peter David's Knight trilogy, which depict King Arthur reappearing in modern-day New York City, in particular
the second and third novels, One Knight Only and Fall of Knight. The grail is central in many modern Arthurian
works, including Charles Williams's novel War in Heaven and his two collections of poems about Taliessin,
Taliessin Through Logres and Region of the Summer Stars, and in feminist author Rosalind Miles' Child of the Holy
Grail. The Grail also features heavily in Umberto Eco's 2000 novel Baudolino.
The Grail has also been treated in works of non-fiction, which generally seek to interpret its meaning in novel ways.
Such a tack was taken by psychologists Emma Jung and Marie-Louise von Franz, who utilized analytical psychology
to interpret the Grail as a series of symbols in their book The Grail Legend.[20] This type of interpretation had
previously been utilized, in less detail, by Carl Jung, and was later invoked by Joseph Campbell.[20]
Other works attempt to connect the Grail to conspiracy theories and esoteric traditions. In The Sign and the Seal,
Graham Hancock asserts that the Grail story is a coded description of the stone tablets stored in the Ark of the
Covenant. For the authors of Holy Blood, Holy Grail, who assert that their research ultimately reveals that Jesus may
not have died on the cross, but lived to wed Mary Magdalene and father children whose Merovingian lineage
continues today, the Grail is a mere sideshow: they say it is a reference to Mary Magdalene as the receptacle of
Jesus' bloodline.[21] [22]
Holy Grail 47

Such works have been the inspiration for a number of popular modern fiction novels. The best known is Dan
Brown's bestselling novel The Da Vinci Code, which, like Holy Blood, Holy Grail, is based on the idea that the real
Grail is not a cup but the womb and later the earthly remains of Mary Magdalene (again cast as Jesus' wife), plus a
set of ancient documents claimed to tell the true story of Jesus, his teachings and descendants. In Brown's novel, it is
hinted that Jesus was merely a mortal man with strong ideals, and that the Grail was long buried beneath Rosslyn
Chapel in Scotland, but that in recent decades its guardians had it relocated to a secret chamber embedded in the
floor beneath the Inverted Pyramid near the Louvre Museum. The latter location, like Rosslyn Chapel, has never
been mentioned in real Grail lore.

References
[1] Loomis, Roger Sherman (1991). The Grail: From Celtic Myth to Christian Symbol. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-02075-2 (http:/ / print. google.
com/ print?id=DGQcsXGYII4C)
[2] BBC History Gallery, Holy Grail (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ british/ hg_gallery_03. shtml)
[3] Goering, Joseph (2005). The Virgin and the Grail: Origins of a Legend. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10661-0. (http:/ / yalepress. yale.
edu/ yupbooks/ book. asp?isbn=0300106610)
[4] Rynor, Micah (October 20, 2005). "Holy Grail legend may be tied to paintings" (http:/ / www. news. utoronto. ca/ bin6/ 051020-1720. asp).
www.news.utoronto.ca.
[5] Barber, Richard (2004). The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01390-5. (http:/ / www. holygrail.
ws)
[6] D. Scavone: "Joseph of Arimathea, the Holy Grail, and the Edessa Icon," Arthuriana vol. 9, no. 4, 3-31 (Winter 1999) ( Article (http:/ / www.
shroud. it/ SCAVONE1. PDF) and abstract (http:/ / www. shroud. com/ scavone2. htm)) ;Scavone, “British King Lucius, the Grail, and Joseph
of Arimathea: The Question of Byzantine Origins.”, Publications of the Medieval Association of the Midwest 10 (2003): 101-42, vol. 10,
101-142 (2003).
[7] Diez, Friedrich. An etymological dictionary of the Romance languages, Williams and Norgate, 1864, p. 236.
[8] Nitze, William A. Concerning the Word Graal, Greal, Modern Philology, Vol. 13, No. 11 (Mar., 1916), pp. 681-684 .
[9] Jung, Emma and von Franz, Marie-Louise. The Grail Legend, Princeton University Press, 1998, pp. 116-117.
[10] Skeat, Walter William. Joseph of Arimathie, Pub. for the Early English Text Society, by N. Trübner & Co., 1871, pp. xxxvi-xxxvii
[11] Mueller, Eduard. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der englischen Sprache: A-K, chettler, 1865, p. 461.
[12] Barber, Richard. The Holy Grail: imagination and belief, Harvard University Press, 2004, p. 93.
[13] Richard O'Gorman , "Grail" in Norris J. Lacy, The Arthurian Encyclopedia, 1986
[14] Barber, Richard. The Holy Grail: imagination and belief, Harvard University Press, 2004, p 418
[15] Sayce, Olive. Exemplary comparison from Homer to Petrarch, DS Brewer, 2008, p. 143.
[16] Glatz, Carol (July 10, 2006). "At Mass in Valencia, pope uses what tradition says is Holy Grail" (http:/ / www. catholicnews. com/ data/
stories/ cns/ 0603899. htm). Catholic News.
[17] "The great church is called San Lorenzo, and it is very remarkable, particularly the porch. They keep in it the Holy Grai1, which is made of a
single emerald and is indeed a marvellous relic," observed Pedro Tafur, who was there in 1436 Pedro Tafur, Andanças e viajes (http:/ / depts.
washington. edu/ silkroad/ texts/ tafur. html#ch1).
[18] Wagner, Wilhelm, Romance and Epics of Our Northern Ancestors, Norse, Celt and Teuton, Norroena Society Publisher, New York, 1906.
[19] Donington, Robert (1963). Wagner's "Ring" and its Symbols: the Music and the Myth. Faber
[20] Barber, 248–252.
[21] Baigent, Michael; Leigh, Richard; Lincoln, Henry (1983). Holy Blood, Holy Grail. New York: Dell. ISBN 0-440-13648-2
[22] Juliette Wood, "The Holy Grail: From Romance Motif to Modern Genre", Folklore, Vol. 111, No. 2. (October 2000), pp. 169-190.
Holy Grail 48

External links
• The Holy Grail at the Camelot Project (http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/grlmenu.htm)
• The Holy Grail (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06719a.htm) at the Catholic Encyclopedia
• The Holy Grail today in Valencia Cathedral (http://www.valenciavalencia.com/sights-guide/
holy-grail-valencia.htm)
• The Holy Grail (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20030515.shtml), an episode of
In Our Time (BBC Radio 4), a 45 minute discussion is available for listening at the page.
• (French) XVth century Old French Estoire del saint Graal manuscript BNF fr. 113 (http://expositions.bnf.fr/
arthur/livres/estoire/index.htm) Bibliothèque Nationale de France, selection of illuminated folios, Modern
French Translation, Commentaries.

Nikah
Nikah, or nikkah, (Arabic: ‫ حاكنلا‬‎), is the matrimonial contract between a bride and bridegroom within Islamic
marriage.

Conditions
Nikah is based on several conditions. When these conditions are
fulfilled, then a man and a woman are proclaimed as husband and wife
and can live together and carry on their marital duties. These are some
of the conditions that must be fulfilled:
• Giving free consent to the marriage personally or through a close
relative such as a father (called a wali). A man and woman each say
in clear voice three times that they accept (name of the person,
including patronymic) as their husband/wife.
• The amount of Haq-e-Mahr is agreed upon, announced, and paid to
the bride on the spot or paid in the near future. Haq-e-Mahr is
money given to the bride from the groom as a form of insurance
should unfortunate circumstances arise.
• Two adult free Muslim men or one Muslim male adult and two
Muslim female adults witness the ceremony.
• The nikah is publicised or advertised widely.
A Muslim bride signing the nikkah nama
(marriage certificate)

Societal role
The nikah contract requires the consent of both parties very strictly if they are adults. There is a tradition in some
Muslim countries, to pre-arrange a marriage for young children. However, the marriage still requires consent of the
concerned man and woman when they reach adulthood when the wedding actually goes ahead. Islam does allow
divorce (talaq) so this contract is revocable. Marriage is seen as a necessity in Islam and is seen as helpful in
avoiding zina (extramarital sex/adultery) or cruelty. A marriage which is carried out unofficially without informing
the public is called nikah urfi.
Nikah 49

External links
• QuranicPath | Marriage of Believers [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. quranicpath. com/ quranicpath/ marriage. html

Poker
Poker is a family of card games that share
betting rules and usually (but not always)
hand rankings. Poker games differ in how
the cards are dealt, how hands may be
formed, whether the high or low hand wins
the pot in a showdown (in some games, the
pot is split between the high and low hands),
limits on bet sizes, and how many rounds of
betting are allowed.

In most modern poker games, the first round

of betting begins with some form of forced
bet by one of the players. In standard poker,
each player is betting that the hand he has
will be the highest ranked. The action then A game of Texas hold 'em in progress. "Hold 'em" is currently the most popular
form of poker.
proceeds clockwise around the table and
each player in turn must either match the
maximum previous bet or fold, losing the amount bet so far and all further interest in the hand. A player who
matches a bet may also "raise", or increase the bet. The betting round ends when all players have either matched the
last bet or have folded. If all but one player fold on any round, then the remaining player collects the pot and may
choose to show or conceal their hand. If more than one player remains in contention after the final betting round,
then the hands are revealed and the player with the winning hand takes the pot. With the exception of initial forced
bets, money is only placed into the pot voluntarily by a player who, at least in theory, rationally believes the bet has
positive expected value. Thus, while the outcome of any particular hand significantly involves chance, the long-run
expectations of the players are determined by their actions chosen based on probability, psychology and game
theory.

Poker has gained in popularity since the beginning of the 20th Century, and has gone from being primarily a
recreational activity confined to small groups of mostly male enthusiasts, to a widely popular spectator activity with
international audiences and multi-million dollar tournament prizes, with women being a constantly growing part of
that audience.

History
The history of poker is the subject of some debate. One of the earliest known games to incorporate betting, hand
rankings, and bluffing was the 15th century German game Pochspiel. Poker closely resembles the Persian game of
Âs Nas, though there is no specific description of Nas prior to 1890.[1] In the 1937 edition of Foster's Complete
Hoyle, R. F. Foster wrote: "the game of poker, as first played in the United States, five cards to each player from a
twenty-card pack, is undoubtedly the Persian game of as nas."[2] [3] By the 1990s some gaming historians including
Poker 50

David Parlett started to challenge the notion that poker is a direct derivative of As Nas.[2] There is evidence that a
game called poque, a French game similar to poker, was played around the region where poker is said to have
originated. The name of the game likely descended from the Irish Poca (Pron. Pokah) ('Pocket') or even the French
poque, which descended from the German pochen ('to brag as a bluff' lit. 'to knock').[4] Yet it is not clear whether the
origins of poker itself lie with the games bearing those names. It is commonly regarded as sharing ancestry with the
Renaissance game of primero and the French brelan. The English game brag (earlier bragg) clearly descended from
brelan and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time).[3] It is quite possible
that all of these earlier games influenced the development of poker as it exists now.
A modern school of thought rejects these ancestries,[5] as they focus on the card play in poker, which is trivial and
could have been derived from any number of games or made up on general cardplay principles.[6] The unique
features of poker have to do with the betting, and do not appear in any known older game.[5] In this view poker
originated much later, in the early or mid-18th century, and spread throughout the Mississippi River region by 1800.
It was played in a variety of forms, with 52 cards, and included both straight poker and stud. 20 card poker was a
variant for two players (it is a common English practice to reduce the deck in card games when there are fewer
players).[7] The development of poker is linked to the historical movement that also saw the invention of commercial
gambling.[8] [9]
English actor Joseph Crowell reported that the game was played in New Orleans in 1829, with a deck of 20 cards,
and four players betting on which player's hand was the most valuable. Jonathan H. Green's book, An Exposure of
the Arts and Miseries of Gambling (G. B. Zieber, Philadelphia, 1843), described the spread of the game from there to
the rest of the country by Mississippi riverboats, on which gambling was a common pastime. As it spread north
along the Mississippi River and to the West during the gold rush, it is thought to have become a part of the frontier
pioneer ethos.
Soon after this spread, the full 52-card English deck was used and the flush was introduced. The draw was added
prior to 1850 (when it was first mentioned in print in a handbook of games).[10] During the American Civil War,
many additions were made including stud poker (the five-card variant), and the straight. Further American
developments followed, such as the wild card (around 1875), lowball and split-pot poker (around 1900), and
community card poker games (around 1925).
The game and jargon of poker have become important parts of American culture and English culture. Such phrases
and clichés as ace in the hole, ace up one's sleeve, beats me, blue chip, call one's bluff, cash in, high roller, pass the
buck, poker face, stack up, up the ante, when the chips are down, wild card, and others are used in everyday
conversation, even by those unaware of their origins at the poker table.
Beginning in 1970 a series of developments led to poker becoming far
more popular than it was previously:
• Modern tournament play became popular in American casinos after
the World Series of Poker began, in 1970.[11] Notable champions
from these early WSOP tournaments include Johnny Moss,
Amarillo Slim, Bobby Baldwin, Doyle Brunson, and Puggy
Pearson.
• Later in the 1970s, the first serious poker strategy books appeared,
notably Super/System by Doyle Brunson (ISBN 1-58042-081-8) and
Caro's Book of Poker Tells by Mike Caro (ISBN 0-89746-100-2),
followed later by The Theory of Poker by David Sklansky (ISBN
Poker Room at the Trump Taj Mahal, Atlantic
1-880685-00-0). City, New Jersey
• By the 1980s, poker was being depicted in popular culture as a
commonplace recreational activity. For example, it was featured in at least 10 episodes of Star Trek: The Next
Generation as a weekly event of the senior staff of the fictional ship's crew.[12]
Poker 51

• In the 1990s, poker and casino gambling spread across the United States, most notably to Atlantic City, New
Jersey.[13]
• In 1998, Planet Poker dealt the first real money online poker game.
• In 1999, Late Night Poker debuted on British television, introducing poker for the first time to many
Europeans.[14]
Poker's popularity experienced an unprecedented spike at the beginning of the 21st century, largely because of the
introduction of online poker and hole-card cameras, which turned the game into a spectator sport. Not only could
viewers now follow the action and drama of the game on television, they could also play the game in the comfort of
their own home. Broadcasts of poker tournaments such as the World Series of Poker and World Poker Tour brought
in huge audiences for cable and satellite TV distributors. Because of the increased coverage of poker events, poker
pros became celebrities, with poker fans all over the world entering into tournaments for the chance to compete with
them. Television coverage also added an important new dimension to the poker professional's game, as any given
hand could now be aired later, revealing information not only to the other players at the table, but to anyone who
cared to view the broadcast.
Since 2003, major poker tournament fields have grown dramatically, in part because of the growing popularity of
online satellite-qualifier tournaments where the prize is an entry into a major tournament. The 2003 and 2004 World
Series of Poker champions, Chris Moneymaker and Greg Raymer, respectively, won their seats to the main event by
winning online satellites.[15] After the passage of the UIGEA in October 2006, attendance at live tournaments as well
as participation in live and online cash games initially slowed, however they are still growing and far more popular
today than they were prior to 2003. The growth and popularity of poker can be seen in the WSOP which had a record
7,319 entrants to the 2010 main event.[16]

Gameplay
In casual play, the right to deal a hand typically rotates among the players and is marked by a token called a dealer
button (or buck). In a casino, a house dealer handles the cards for each hand, but the button (typically a white plastic
disk) is rotated clockwise among the players to indicate a nominal dealer to determine the order of betting. The cards
are dealt clockwise around the table, one at a time.
One or more players are usually required to make forced bets, usually either an ante or a blind bet (sometimes both).
The dealer shuffles the cards, the player on the chair to their right cuts, and the dealer deals the appropriate number
of cards to the players one at a time, beginning with the player to their left. Cards may be dealt either face-up or
face-down, depending on the variant of poker being played. After the initial deal, the first of what may be several
betting rounds begins. Between rounds, the players' hands develop in some way, often by being dealt additional
cards or replacing cards previously dealt. At the end of each round, all bets are gathered into the central pot.
At any time during a betting round, if one player bets and no opponents choose to call (match) the bet and all
opponents instead fold, the hand ends immediately, the bettor is awarded the pot, no cards are required to be shown,
and the next hand begins. This is what makes bluffing possible. Bluffing is a primary feature of poker, one that
distinguishes it from other vying games and from other games that make use of poker hand rankings.
At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a showdown, in which the players
reveal their previously hidden cards and evaluate their hands. The player with the best hand according to the poker
variant being played wins the pot. A poker hand comprises five cards; in variants where a player has more than five
cards, the best five cards play.
Poker 52

Variants
Poker has many variations, all following a similar pattern of play and
generally using the same hand ranking hierarchy. There are three main
families of variants, largely grouped by the protocol of card-dealing
and betting:
Straight
A complete hand is dealt to each player, and players bet in one
round, with raising and re-raising allowed. This is the oldest
poker family; the root of the game as currently played was a
game known as Primero, which evolved into the game three-card
brag, a very popular gentleman's game around the time of the
American Revolutionary War and still enjoyed in the U.K.
today. Straight hands of five cards are sometimes used as a final
showdown, but poker is currently virtually always played in a
more complex form to allow for additional strategy.

Stud poker
Cards are dealt in a prearranged combination of face-down and
WSOP Main Event Table
face-up rounds, or streets, with a round of betting following
each. This is the next-oldest family; as poker progressed from
three to five-card hands, they were often dealt one card at a time, either face-down or face-up, with a betting
round between each. The most popular stud variant today, seven-card stud, deals two extra cards to each
player (three face-down, four face-up) from which they must make the best possible 5-card hand.

Draw poker
A complete hand is dealt to each player, face-down, and after betting, players are allowed to attempt to change
their hand (with the object of improving it) by discarding unwanted cards and being dealt new ones. Five-card
draw is the most famous variation in this family.
Community card poker (also known as flop poker)
A variation of Stud, players are dealt an incomplete hand of face-down cards, and then a number of face-up
community cards are dealt to the center of the table, each of which can be used by one or more of the players
to make a 5-card hand. Texas hold-em and Omaha are two well-known variants of the Community family.
Other games that use poker hand rankings may likewise be referred to as poker. Video poker is a single-player
computer game that functions much like a slot machine; most video poker machines play draw poker, where the
player bets, a hand is dealt, and the player can discard and replace cards. Payout is dependent on the hand resulting
after the draw and the player's initial bet.
Strip poker is a traditional poker variation where players remove clothing when they lose bets. Since it depends only
on the basic mechanic of betting in rounds, strip poker can be played with any form of poker; however, it is usually
based on simple variants with few betting rounds, like five card draw.
Another game with the poker name, but with a vastly different mode of play, is called Acey-Deucey or Red Dog
poker. This game is more similar to Blackjack in its layout and betting; each player bets against the house, and then
is dealt two cards. For the player to win, the third card dealt (after an opportunity to raise the bet) must have a value
in between the first two. Payout is based on the odds that this is possible, based on the difference in values of the first
two cards. Other poker-like games played at casinos against the house include three card poker and pai gow poker.
Poker 53

Notes
[1] Pagat.com: A History of Poker (http:/ / www. pagat. com/ vying/ pokerhistory. html) by David Parlett
[2] "History of Poker" (http:/ / www. cardplayer. com/ history_of_poker/ article/ 7-poque-or-poqas-to-pokuh). Cardplayer.com. 2009-03-06. .
Retrieved 2009-03-20.
[3] "MSN Encarta: Poker" (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ dictionary_1861738282/ poker. html). MSN Encarta: Poker. Encarta.msn.com. . Retrieved
2009-03-20.
[4] "Online Etymology Dictionary — term: poker" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=poker). Douglas Harper. . Retrieved
2007-10-03.
[5] Reuven and Gabrielle Brenner, and Aaron Brown, A World of Chance: Betting on Religion, Games, Wall Street, Cambridge University Press
(2008), ISBN 978-04701273152
[6] Stephen Longstreet, Win or Lose: A Social History of Gambling in America , Bobbs-Merrill (1977), ISBN 978-0-672-52253-6
[7] Aaron Brown, The Poker Face of Wall Street, John Wiley & Sons (2006), ISBN 978-0-470-12731-5
[8] David G. Schwartz, Roll the Bones: The History of Gambling, Gotham (2007), ISBN 978-1-59240-316-5
[9] Timothy O'Brien, Bad Bet : The Inside Story of the Glamour, Glitz, and Danger of America's Gambling Industry, Crown Business (1998),
ISBN 978-0-8129-2807-5
[10] Henry G. Bond (ed.), Bohn's New Handbook of Games, Henry F. Anners (1850)
[11] "World Series of Poker: A Retrospective" (http:/ / gaming. unlv. edu/ WSOP/ history. html). Gaming.unlv.edu. 2007-10-22. . Retrieved
2009-03-20.
[12] Poker News article (http:/ / www. pokernews. com/ news/ 2009/ 05/ poker-pop-culture-star-trek-the-next-generation-6576. htm)
[13] "United States of Poker: New Jersey" (http:/ / www. pokerplayernewspaper. com/ viewarticle. php?id=289). Pokerplayernewspaper.com. .
Retrieved 2009-03-20.
[14] "Late Night Poker: About the Show" (http:/ / www. channel4. com/ entertainment/ tv/ microsites/ P/ poker/ about_the_show. html).
Channel4.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-20.
[15] "Chris Moneymaker on" (http:/ / www. answers. com/ topic/ chris-moneymaker). Answers.com. 1975-11-21. . Retrieved 2009-03-20.
[16] "WSOP 2010 Results - World Series of Poker Champion Jonathan Duhamel" (http:/ / www. pokerstars. com/ wsop/ ). PokerStars.com.
2011-01-22. . Retrieved 2011-01-22.

External links
• Poker (http://www.dmoz.org/Games/Gambling/Poker/) at the Open Directory Project
• Poker (http://dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Games/Card_Games/Poker/) at the Yahoo! Directory
Article Sources and Contributors 54

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Саша Стефановић, 757 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 55

Cupid and Psyche  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416472940  Contributors: 2D, Abyca, Acissej123, Ahoerstemeier, Alex lareau, Alex.tan, Andonic, Andy Marchbanks,
Angie Y., Annielogue, Antiuser, Art LaPella, Astralplane, Avenged Eightfold, Bayye1, Biff2bad, BigDunc, Bloodofox, Bradloid07, Bsadowski1, BurgererSF, Bzero, CHSeattle, Cander0000,
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Pearl, Irishjames2909, Iwfi, J.delanoy, JAKoulouris, JTConroy88, Jakegothic, Jeremybloom, Jevansen, JivaAtma, John K, Kalidasa 777, Kate, Kedi the tramp, Kerowyn, Khaosworks, Kingpin13,
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Wmahan, Xiru, Yworo, 481 anonymous edits

Holy Grail  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=417146069  Contributors: (, (aeropagitica), 0207848m, 0XQ, 7, ABF, ARTMATRIX, Abaharaki, Adam Bishop, Addshore,
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Zeimusu, Zhou Yu, Zpb52, ^demon, 1457 anonymous edits

Nikah  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=417726214  Contributors: Anisa3k, Anonymous editor, Atropos, Bhadani, Bongwarrior, BrianGV, Carmichael95, Cfsenel, CltFn,
DanMS, Dawood82, Dont101, Editor2020, Emiellaiendiay, Everyking, Fatepur, Freestylefrappe, Gaius Cornelius, Gogo Dodo, Grenavitar, Ian Pitchford, Irishpunktom, Jandalhandler, JeffreyN,
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aaqib12, Varanya, Vice regent, Waggers, William Avery, Yuber, Zainubrazvi, Zero0000, 85 anonymous edits

Poker  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418544726  Contributors: (3ucky(3all, 0x6D667061, 1001001, 119, 16@r, 2005, 2D, 4twenty42o, 5 albert square, 6smarketing,
9Tank7, A purple wikiuser, ALargeElk, AaCBrown, Accurizer, Acroterion, ActivCard, Adam Bishop, Addshore, AdjustShift, AdrianMay, Ahoerstemeier, Aiden Fisher, Ais523, Ajg1977,
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Article Sources and Contributors 56

Nommonomanac, Nonc, Nsayer, Nuttycoconut, Ny80, Nygiants10, Ocaasi, Omicronpersei8, Onlinepokermasters, Onorem, Opelio, Oren0, Osswid, OwenX, Oxymoron83, PatrikR, Pcb21, PeepP,
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Burnett, Stephen Gilbert, Stephenb, Stephenchou0722, Stepheno, Stevage, SteveHFish, SteveLamacq43, Strohlio, Strongsauce, Strshljen, Stw, SubSeven, Supadawg, Susurrus, Svanslyck, Syop,
THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TOO, TYelliot, Ta bu shi da yu, Tadman, TastyPoutine, Tawker, Taxman, Taylor4452, Tbhotch, TedizKiller36, Teggis, Tempshill, Tfine80, That Guy, From That
Show!, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Wild Falcon, The big ass man, The806, TheNewPhobia, TheWikiCorrector, TheoClarke, Therealphildiamond, Thingg, Tide rolls, TigerShark,
Timneu22, Timo, Timtom23, Timwi, Titoxd, Tjdouglas, Tjmayerinsf, Tlusťa, Toby Woodwark, Tofubar, Tomaradze, Tombomp, Tomgreeny, Tommy2010, Toms2866, Tony Fox, TonyTheTiger,
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Uberdog, Uncle Dick, UnitedStatesian, Unknown, Unschool, Usrnme h8er, VIPRakeback, VSPokerking, Valeri67, Vanka5, Vary, Vegaswikian, Versageek, Versus22, ViciousGame, Vikreykja,
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anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 57

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika & his kids.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dr.A.B.Rajib_Hazarika_&_his_kids.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Rajah2770
Image:Model Cybernetic Factory.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Model_Cybernetic_Factory.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:
User:Mdd
Image:Science-symbol-13a.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Science-symbol-13a.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Psychoslave
Image:James Watt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_Watt.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Shizhao, Voyager
Image:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: LANL
Image:Honda ASIMO Walking Stairs.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Honda_ASIMO_Walking_Stairs.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Indolences,
Morio, Ronaldino, Wst
Image:wiki tarantula.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wiki_tarantula.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Arno / Coen
Image:JARVIK 7 artificial heart.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JARVIK_7_artificial_heart.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National Heart, Lung and
Blood Institute (NHLBI)
File:Crypto.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crypto.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Dev-NJITWILL
Image:Lorenz-SZ42-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lorenz-SZ42-2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Avron, Dbenbenn, Sissssou
Image:Skytala&EmptyStrip-Shaded.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skytala&EmptyStrip-Shaded.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Chrkl
File:16th century French cypher machine in the shape of a book with arms of Henri II.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:16th_century_French_cypher_machine_in_the_shape_of_a_book_with_arms_of_Henri_II.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0  Contributors: User:Uploadalt
File:Encoded letter of Gabriel Luetz d Aramon after 1546 with partial deciphering.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Encoded_letter_of_Gabriel_Luetz_d_Aramon_after_1546_with_partial_deciphering.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Uploadalt
Image:Smartcard3.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Smartcard3.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Channel R
Image:International Data Encryption Algorithm InfoBox Diagram.svg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:International_Data_Encryption_Algorithm_InfoBox_Diagram.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Surachit at
en.wikipedia
Image:Diffie and Hellman.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diffie_and_Hellman.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: ArnoldReinhold,
MichaelMaggs, Phr, William Avery, Ö
Image:Firefox-SSL-padlock.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Firefox-SSL-padlock.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Mozilla contributors
Image:Enigma.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Enigma.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: user:Jszigetvari
Image:2008-09 Kaiserschloss Kryptologen.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2008-09_Kaiserschloss_Kryptologen.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User:Ziko
Image:800px-Cool Kids of Death Off Festival p 146-face selected.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:800px-Cool_Kids_of_Death_Off_Festival_p_146-face_selected.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:MaGIc2laNTern, User:Przykuta
Image:Cupido4b.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cupido4b.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Tetraktys
Image:Amor Victorious.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amor_Victorious.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Diligent, G.dallorto, Pudding4brains,
Thuresson, Warburg, Wst, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Canova-Cupd and Psyche 300degree view.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canova-Cupd_and_Psyche_300degree_view.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Jastrow, Kaganer, Makthorpe, Sailko, Sergey kudryavtsev, Sparkit, Tetraktys
File:Uśpiona Psyche.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uśpiona_Psyche.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BurgererSF, 1 anonymous edits
File:Domus di Amore e Psiche Ostia Antica 2006-09-08 n2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Domus_di_Amore_e_Psiche_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08_n2.jpg  License:
Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Jastrow
Image:L'Amour et Psyché (Picot).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:L'Amour_et_Psyché_(Picot).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: JMaxR, Jospe, Juanpdp,
Kilom691, Mattes, Mu, Oxxo, Rocket000, Sergey kudryavtsev, Siebrand, Waldir, Zolo
File:Psyche aux enfers.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Psyche_aux_enfers.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Eugène Ernest Hillemacher
Image:Psyché.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Psyché.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Eric Pouhier
Image:Bouguereau-Psyche.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bouguereau-Psyche.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: William Adolphe Bouguereau
Image:Statua di Amore e Psiche.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Statua_di_Amore_e_Psiche.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Shii
File:Sangreal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sangreal.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arnaud 25, Michel BUZE, Svajcr, Valentinian, Verica Atrebatum,
Μυρμηγκάκι, 2 anonymous edits
File:Galahad grail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Galahad_grail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sir Edward Burne-Jones, overall design and figures;
William Morris, overall design and execution; , flowers and decorative details.
File:Holy-grail-valencia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Holy-grail-valencia.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Madder
File:holygrail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Holygrail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Erri4a, Goldfritha, Infrogmation, Kilom691,
Kresspahl, Luisa, Μυρμηγκάκι, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Nikah 003.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nikah_003.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Anakin101, Zainubrazvi, 2 anonymous
edits
Image:Holdem.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Holdem.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Todd Klassy
Image:Casino poker.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Casino_poker.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Cnyborg, Martin H., Notwist
File:2006 WSOP Main Event Table.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2006_WSOP_Main_Event_Table.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
 Contributors: Photos by flipchip / LasVegasVegas.com
License 58

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/