Condition Assessment of Aged Ships

16th INTERNATIONAL SHIP AND
OFFSHORE STRUCTURES CONGRESS

20-25 AUGUST 2006
SOUTHAMPTON, UK
VOLUME 2
COMMITTEE V.6
CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF AGED SHIPS
COMMITTEE MANDATE
Concern for the development of methods for assessing the serviceability and safety of aged
steel ships. This shall include assessment of the structural condition (in view of corrosion,
fatigue cracking and local denting), methods for repair, quantification of strength of
deteriorated and repaired ships (as well as criteria for acceptable damage), with due account
of the uncertainties involved. Consideration shall be given to cost-benefit and risk-based
decision procedures for remedial actions.
COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Chairman: J K Paik
F Brennan
C A Carlsen
C Daley
Y Garbatov
L Ivanov
C M Rizzo
B C Simonsen
N Yamamoto
H Z Zhuang
KEYWORDS
Condition assessment, aged ships, age related deterioration, corrosion wastage, fatigue
cracking, local denting, cost-benefit remedial actions, risk assessment, risk-based inspection,
risk-based maintenance and repair.
265
ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships 267
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 269
2. CURRENT PRACTICES FOR CONDITION ASSESSMENT................................. 269

2.1 Condition Assessment Scheme............................................................................ 269
2.2 Enhanced Survey Programme.............................................................................. 270
2.3 Condition Assessment Programme...................................................................... 272
2.4 Guidelines for Surveys, Assessment and Repair ................................................. 272
2.5 Emergency Response Services ............................................................................ 272
2.6 Ship Inspection Report Programme..................................................................... 272
2.7 Insurance Inspection ............................................................................................ 273
3. MECHANISMS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION ...................................... 273

3.1 Corrosion Wastage............................................................................................... 273
3.2 Fatigue Cracking.................................................................................................. 275
3.3 Local Denting....................................................................................................... 276
4. DAMAGE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT METHODS.............................. 277

4.1 Corrosion Detection and Measurements.............................................................. 279
4.1.1 Current Practice............................................................................... 279
4.1.2 Other Advanced Methods ............................................................... 280
4.2 Fatigue Crack Detection and Measurement......................................................... 281
4.3 Mechanical Damage Detection and Measurement.............................................. 282
4.4 Uncertainties and their Sources Associated with Damage
Detection and Measurement ................................................................................ 282
5. MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION .............. 283

5.1 Corrosion Wastage Models ................................................................................. 284
5.2 Fatigue Cracking Damage Models ...................................................................... 287
5.3 Corrosion Fatigue Models ................................................................................... 288
5.4 Local Denting Damage Models........................................................................... 288
6. CORRECTIVE / PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR AGE RELATED

DETERIORATION ..................................................................................................... 288
6.1 Corrosion Correction / Protection Measures ....................................................... 288
6.2 Fatigue Crack Correction / Protection Measures................................................. 290
6.3 Mechanical Damage Correction / Protection Measures...................................... 292
7. RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF AGED SHIPS ......................................................... 292

7.1 Status Assessment ................................................................................................ 292
7.2 Load Models ........................................................................................................ 293
7.3 Strength Models................................................................................................... 294
7.4 Limit State Criteria............................................................................................... 294
7.5 Hull Girder Strength Reliability Analysis............................................................ 295
7.6 Target Reliability Index ....................................................................................... 295
268 ISSC Committee V.6: Condition Assessment Of Aged Ships
8. INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR ..................................................... 296

8.1 Acceptance Criteria for Remedial Actions.......................................................... 296
8.2 Cost-Benefit and Risk-Based Inspection and Maintenance ................................ 297
8.2.1 Risk-Based Inspections ................................................................... 298
8.2.2 Risk-Based Maintenance and Repair .............................................. 300
8.3 Repair Methods.................................................................................................... 303
9. FUTURE TRENDS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ........................................... 304
REFERENCES...................................................................................................................... 305
1. INTRODUCTION
Ship structures while in service are likely to be subject to age related deterioration such as
corrosion wastage, fatigue cracking or mechanical damage (e.g., local denting) which can
give rise to significant issues in terms of safety, health, environment and financial
expenditures. Indeed, it has reportedly been recognized that such age related deterioration is
almost always involved in the catastrophic failures of ship structures including total losses.
While such accidents typically cause a great concern to the public, maintenance and repair
of aged structures is also very costly and complex. It is thus of great importance to develop
advanced technologies which can allow for proper management and control of such age
related deterioration. This report presents current practices, recent advances and future
trends on condition assessment of aged ships involving inspection, maintenance and repair
schemes. As related techniques for ships made of composite materials or aluminium alloys
may differ to a lesser or greater, this report deals with only steel ships.
2. CURRENT PRACTICES FOR CONDITION ASSESSMENT
The safety network for ship structures is made up of the joint efforts of a number of
stakeholders such as ship owners, class societies, shipyards, insurers, banks & investors,
flag states, ports & terminals, cargo owners and charterers. Some of these stakeholders
exercise their contribution by setting the requirements and some by conducting physical
work such as inspection, maintenance, repairs and upgrades.
IMO (International Maritime Organization) and class societies are in the process of
developing rules and regulations utilizing risk-based methods. The Goal Based Standards
(GBS) initiative and Formal Safety Assessment (FSA) are two examples of such
developments. To date, this systematic risk-based approach has not been adopted directly
for defining surveys or acceptance criteria for ships.
Current practices for condition assessment of aging ships have to a large extent been based
on experience gained over the years on deterioration processes, through painful lessons
from accidents and cost of maintenance. In the following sections, current practices for
condition assessment of aged ships are reviewed.
2.1 Condition Assessment Scheme
As a consequence of the Erika accident in 1999, and later the Prestige accident in 2002, the
phasing out of single hull tankers was accelerated in amendments to IMO Regulation 13G
of MARPOL Annex I. The amended Regulation 13G allows for a certain extent of
continued trading provided that a Condition Assessment Scheme (CAS) is carried out with a
satisfactory result. In short, the CAS is an enhanced scheme to the survey scope at the third
renewal survey defined by the Enhanced Survey Programme (ESP) - IACS UR Z 10.1 and
IMO Res A 744 (18). The main differences between CAS and ESP are related to survey
planning, survey reporting, flag state involvement and the strict timeline needs to be
followed.
Certain flag states have regional requirements beyond the international requirements of
IMO. These can be motivated by concern for national waters and may be considered to fall
under the flag state’s function as a port state. Thus, the United States has implemented the
OPA90 (Oil Pollution Act of 1990) to enforce special quality requirements to tankers and
their operation to allow entrance to U.S. waters.
Port states are coastal states with ships passing their territorial waters and entering their
ports. These states have special concern for the safety of ships and people either on the
ships or land as well as the protection of the environment. Often the flag and port state
responsibilities are exercised by the same national maritime administration. Most port states
have agreed on common procedures for port state controls and sharing of information on
quality issues. Port state controls are spot checks to gain a general impression of a ship’s
condition.
2.2 Enhanced Survey Programme
Flag states generally delegate the authority to inspect ships to classification societies. This is
regulated in SOLAS Ch.1 Reg. 10. The class certificate, including the already defined ESP
for tankers and bulk carriers, therefore, becomes the cornerstone of the quality system for
aging ships (IACS 2002, 2004a, 2004b, 2005).
The ESP programme was developed on the basis of a critical evaluation of ship structures
together with an appreciation of current experience with corrosion and cracking as well as
the need to make quite transparent and specific procedures to avoid loopholes that could
lead to insufficient follow up and, consequently, substandard ships. During the subsequent
years a number of improvements have been made to the programme to pursue these
principles, in particular after the Erika and Prestige accidents.
While class surveys were previously often the only thorough evaluation of the hull structure,
a basic element of the safety network today is that owners have implemented a proper
maintenance system where all damages and defects should be reported to class to identify
critical areas. Furthermore, the owner is responsible for proper planning of class surveys
including, for example, proper cleaning and de-scaling and safe access facilities for the
surveys.
The ESP programme survey schedules and extent of surveys are based on the understanding
that, with the sheer size of the vessels, the real condition can only be revealed with detailed
close-up inspections and extensive thickness measurements, and that the deterioration
process happens slowly over time. It is therefore considered more effective to have fewer
thorough surveys rather than more frequent superficial ones.
The cornerstone of the inspection process has therefore become the Special Periodical
Survey (SPS), conducted every 5 years, and requiring close-up access to critical structure
and components. This survey can sometimes take weeks to complete. For older ships, it was
considered that 5 years would be too long time between such detailed surveys. As a result,
the Intermediate Survey (IS) was also tightened up with a similar, though less extensive,
survey as the SPS. After the Erika and Prestige accidents, these IS surveys were tightened
further and made identical to the SPS from 17.5 years age and onwards.
Furthermore, ballast tanks will be subject to an Annual Survey (AS) when, during an SPS or
IS, it is found with, for example, no protective coating from the time of construction, a
protective coating in less than ‘good’ condition or ‘substantial corrosion’. The rating of the
coating (good, fair, poor) must be done according to the guidance given in IACS
Recommendation 87 (IACS 2004b) for tankers and in the guidelines by the Tanker
Structure Cooperative Forum (TSCF 1997). ‘Substantial Corrosion’ is an extent of
corrosion such that assessment of the corrosion pattern indicates wastage in excess of 75%
of allowable margins. A record of substantial corrosion will be made even if the owner
selects to coat the area and arrest further corrosion. This practice by the classification
societies has a large influence on the actual repair and maintenance performed by the
owners, because most oil majors do not charter ships with a record of substantial corrosion.
TABLE 1
EXAMPLE OF REQUIRED FREQUENCY OF INSPECTIONS OF BALLAST TANKS
DEPENDING ON THE COATING CONDITION, ACCORDING TO IACS (2004)
Year 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Good S I S I S I S
Fair
or S A A I A S A A I A S A A I A S
Poor
Note: S = special survey; I = intermediate survey; A = annual survey.
One driver behind the ESP was to ensure a consistent quality of hull surveys. This was
addressed by making detailed and prescriptive requirements for the actual surveys as
indicated in Table 1. The scope and scheduling was developed based on a generic risk
assessment of critical structures, and detailed and comprehensive requirements for reporting
what had been previously surveyed and found.
As the close-up survey quality is very dependent on the trustworthiness of the thickness
measurements, a special certification scheme was implemented as part of the ESP on
thickness measurement companies. Guidelines for ultrasonic thickness measurements are
given by IACS (2005) in general terms and by the individual classification societies at a
detailed level, e.g., DNV (2004a,b).
2.3 Condition Assessment Programme
During the late 80s and 90s, a number of financial institutions started to question the value
of aged tankers and some charterers started to restrict the use of aged vessels (beyond 15 to
20 years age) without special inspections beyond the minimum requirements of IACS. The
classification societies met these demands by offering a special, voluntary Condition
Assessment Programme (CAP) with extended inspection and thickness measurements. The
programme results in a rating of the ships from excellent to poor.
This programme is today requested by a number of oil companies as a basis for chartering
older tankers, e.g., beyond 15 to 20 years of age. As an extra safety precaution they
typically require these ships to be rated above the minimum requirement stipulated by the
classification societies to maintain the class certificates.
2.4 Guidelines for Surveys, Assessment and Repair
The Tanker Structure Cooperative Forum (TSCF 1992, 1995, 1997, 2000) was established
to implement industry guidelines for maintenance and inspection of tankers. The TSCF
members, classification societies, ship owners and charterers have issued a guidance manual
for tanker structures. These guidelines and the procedures for ESP have largely been
harmonised and TSCF gives valuable guidance for maintenance and repair of ship
structures. Such guidelines have been issued by IACS (1999, 2002, 2004a) for general
cargo ships and bulk carriers. The guidelines follow the same format as the guidelines for
tankers issued by TSCF (1997).
2.5 Emergency Response Services
Driven by the Exxon Valdez accident and OPA90, several classification societies and
consultants have developed special schemes to assist ship owners handle emergencies like
collision, grounding, fire, explosion, heavy weather damage, etc. to safeguard the ship, crew
and the environment. An important part of this assistance is to apply sophisticated
numerical models of the ships with respect to hull strength and stability in damaged
condition as a basis for simulating the consequences for emergency ballasting requirements,
temporary repairs and the rescue operation. In such cases, ultimate strength and fitness for
purpose criteria may have to be evaluated rather than the allowable working stress based
rule requirements for an intact vessel.
2.6 Ship Inspection Report Programme
Charterers of tanker tonnage implemented special vetting survey schemes with inspection of
ships and requirements on ship owners. An overview of these is described by Intertanko
(2003) in its Guide to Vetting process. The system was introduced by the Oil Companies
International Marine Forum (OCIMF) which was established in 1970 as a response to the
Torrey Canyon accident in 1970 to increase public awareness of marine pollution. A
cornerstone of the vetting system is the Ship Inspection Report Programme (SIRE)
launched in 1993 as a ship condition-vetting programme with a transparent database for the
ship stakeholders. The aim of the system is to reveal the general condition related to all
quality and safety systems onboard. For hull condition, it addresses general condition, the
repair history and refers to the class (ESP) certificates and its status.
2.7 Insurance Inspection
Insurance companies normally base their assessment on a number of issues like past
experience with the particular ship or ship owners and status of the class certificate. During
the late 80s and early 90s, however, they also extended their involvement. They decided to
follow up a certain number of the insured fleet, say 5%, annually with their own inspections,
typically a one-day inspection, looking for special critical areas and the general appearance
of the ships to identify ships suspected to be substandard.
3. MECHANISMS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION
In ship structures, age related deterioration is primarily meant to be corrosion wastage,

fatigue cracking and local dent damage. Repair or renewal of heavily damaged structure is
in general complex and costly. Thus, it is important to better understand the mechanism of
such deterioration.
3.1 Corrosion Wastage
Marine corrosion is the degradation of metals in the marine environment. Initiation and
progression of marine corrosion may be related to corrosive effects such as electrochemical,
galvanic, inter-granular, crevice and erosion actions.
There are several different types of corrosion wastage in mild and low alloy steels in marine
environments such as uniform (general) corrosion and pitting, groove and weld metal
corrosion. For corrosion management and control, both localized and general corrosion
must be considered. The former can cause oil or gas leaks, while the latter is more likely to
lead to structural strength problems. Factors affecting marine immersion corrosion in a
closed or open space include the type of structural material, the corrosion protection scheme
(e.g., coating, cathodic protection), the type of cargo or stored material (e.g., oil, seawater),
the cycle of loading / unloading of cargo or stored material, and humidity, temperature,
oxygen and water velocity.
(a) Upper Deck Plate (b) Upper Deck Plate (c) Upper Deck Plate
Dew FeOOH
deposition of elemental S
Dew FeOOH
2H2O+ O 2＋４ｅ-→ 4OH- SO2 + H2O → H2SO3 → S
2 H 2S+O 2 → 2S+2H 2O (FeOOH reaction) the deposition of elemental S is
Fe→ Fe 2++2e-→ Fｅ(OH) 3→ α FeOOH
2 H2S+SO 2 → 3S+2H 2O independent of the corrosion reaction
(d) Upper Deck Plate (e) Upper Deck Plate
Inert Gas H2O O 2 SO2 CO2

Crude Oil H 2S H 2 O
→ Inside the Tank
flaking off H2S+O 2+H2O coexistance
elemental S FeOOH
new FeOOH forms on the outer flaking off of the FeOOH / S layer
surface by diffusion of Fe 2+ through S by vibration or deformation
Figure 1: Mechanisms of general corrosion to the back face of an oil tanker upper deck
(SRAJ 2002)
Figure 1 shows a schematic representation of the mechanisms that generate general

corrosion at the back face of the upper deck of oil tankers (SRAJ 2002). In the cargo oil
tank, H2O, O2, CO2, H2S and SO2 originated from the crude oil coexisting with the inert gas.
The dew occurs on the back face of the upper deck plate due to day-night temperature
fluctuations. Then, solid sulphur (S) is extracted on the plate surface by reaction (perhaps)
on the surface of iron oxide (FeOOH). The stratified corrosion product consisting of a layer
of elemental S and iron rust is then formed. The corrosion rate depends on the density of
H2S, among other factors. The reaction of S precipitation on the FeOOH surface has no
relationship with the reaction of steel corrosion as shown in Fig.1. Although flaking-off of
the corrosion product occurs repeatedly from this layer of elemental S, chemical analysis
confirms that the corrosion rate is not accelerated significantly by this phenomenon.
Figure 2 shows pitting corrosion generation mechanisms to the top plate in a cargo oil tank
(SRAJ 2002). Pitting initiates from a defect in the protective covering. The covering may be
an oil coat, mill-scale or corrosion product. The initial damage may be caused by the flow
of crude oil, local moisture, COW (crude oil washing) or seawater washing (etc). This type
of damage resembles pits generated as defects to the paint coating.
It is observed that corrosion in cargo hold areas is more likely to be general corrosion when
coating protection is not provided. Pitting corrosion is more likely with paint coatings
(Nakai et al. 2005). It is also observed that the shapes of pits in bulk carrier coating differ
from those found in tanker coatings. This may be due to differences in the corrosion
environments around these pits.
Generation of Pitting Corrosion Progress of Pitting Corrosion
sludge, heavy oil coat

damage by COW oil coat (cathode)
water water
mill- scale defect mill- scale sulphurated iron film

water water
(cathode)
drop of dew, deposit, film

flow of water water water elemental S FeOOH (cathode)
Fe2++2e-
S0+2e- S2-
Fe Fe3++e- Fe2+
Figure 2: Mechanisms of pitting corrosion to the top plate of a oil tanker cargo tank
(SRAJ 2002)
In recent years, based on extensive work based on marine corrosion science principles,
Melchers (1997, 2002, 2003a, 2004a), has provided useful insights into corrosion loss
including pitting depth. He also studied the effects of environmental parameters including
the effects of water velocity, depth, dissolved oxygen, surface finish, and water pollution
(Melchers 2003c, 2004b, 2005a, Melchers & Jeffrey 2004, 2005).
3.2 Fatigue Cracking
Under the action of repeated loading, fatigue cracks can initiate in areas of stress
concentration in a structure. Initial defects can form during fabrication and can conceivably
remain undetected for a long time. Cracks may initiate from such defects, and propagate. In
addition to propagation under repeated cyclic loading, cracks may also grow in an unstable
way under monotonically increasing extreme loads, which can conceivably lead to
catastrophic structural failure. This possibility is tempered by material ductility, and by the
presence of reduced stress intensity regions that may serve as crack arresters.
In general, fatigue damage at a crack initiation site is affected by many factors such as
material properties (e.g., elastic modulus, ultimate tensile stress), high local stresses (e.g.,
stress concentration, residual stresses), size of components, nature of stress variation
(e.g., stress variation during the loading and unloading cycles, number of wave induced
stress range cycles), and environmental and operational factors including corrosion and
performance of coatings. Potential flaws (e.g., poor materials, porosity, slag inclusions,
undercuts, lack of fusion, incomplete weld root penetration) and misalignments can also
significantly increase stress concentrations at weld toes.
To achieve greater fatigue durability in a structure, therefore, stress concentrations, flaws

and structural degradation including corrosion and fatigue effects should be avoided or
minimized. In an active marine environment, this is very challenging. Thus, practically
the best that can be achieved is that their levels and effects must be anticipated in design,
and must be monitored and effectively controlled during construction and service. At the
design stage the effect of stress concentrations intentionally present is assessed in order
to ensure that the fatigue life of the structure is longer than the design service life with an
adequate factor of safety. Construction defects are in practice to be monitored and
controlled by appropriate construction standards. However, to the extent that such
standards are often generic to a type of vessel and based mainly on what can be
economically achieved, they need to be selectively enhanced in many cases depending on
individual structural characteristics.
Structural fracture modes associated with cracks can often be classified into three groups:
brittle, ductile and rupture. When the strain at fracture of a material is very small, it is called
brittle fracture. In steel structures made of ductile material with adequately high fracture
toughness, however, the fracture strain can be comparatively large. When the material is
broken by necking associated with large plastic flow, it is called rupture. As a failure mode,
ductile fracture is an intermediate phenomenon between brittle fracture and rupture.
A more elaborate description of and literature surveys on fatigue cracking mechanisms may
be found in ISSC reports on fatigue and fracture.
3.3 Local Denting
Mechanical damage to plate panels of ship structures depends on where the plates are used.
To inner bottom plates of bulk carriers cargo holds, mechanical damage can take place by
mishandled loading or unloading of cargoes. Inner bottom plates suffer mechanical damage
during the loading of iron ore, from iron ore striking the plates. When unloading bulk
cargoes such as iron ore or coal, excavators can strike and dent inner bottom plates. It is
also of interest to note that deck plates of offshore platforms may be subjected to impacts
due to objects dropped from a crane. Such mechanical damage can result in denting,
cracking, or residual stresses or strains due to plastic deformation, and, as well, the coating
may be damaged.
Figure 3 shows some photographs of local denting that can occur during typical bulk cargo
loading using a grab, see Figs.3 (a) and (b). Local denting also occurs during unloading of
cargo because the grab collides with structural members during such work. In some cases
the impacts result in a hole, see Fig.3(c). It is apparent that the extent of dents due to the
claw of the grab is usually large, see Fig.3(d). Local denting causes damage of the paint
coating on the back face which can initiate corrosion, see Fig.3(e).
(a) (b)
(c)
(d) (e)
Figure 3: Local dent damage; (a) Grab loading; (b) Local dent due to impact by grab; (c)
Continuous dent over tank top; (d) Local dent due to grab claw; (e) Damage to paint coating
due to local denting
4. DAMAGE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT METHODS
Non Destructive Examination (NDE) techniques are typically applied in detection and
measurements of age related deterioration in ship structures. While a number of
documents to describe NDE are available in the literature, Halmshaw (1997), Porter
(1992) and Bøving (1989) provide comprehensive guides, covering specific topics
related to marine structures. Several practical difficulties are associated with NDE
inspection of marine structures. Demsetz et al. (1996) provides a detailed breakdown of
the factors influencing ship structural inspection in terms of ship type and condition,
surveyor’s experience and motivation, environment, etc.
An overview of current practice is given, e.g., by Ma et al. (1998, 1999), Ayyub et al.
(2002) and Bruce et al. (2003). ICSOC (1986), TSCF (1992, 1995, 1997) and IACS
(1999, 2002, 2004a, 2005) provide related guidelines for detecting and measuring
structural degradation in aged ships. Continuous monitoring devices have been recently
introduced on ships. Slaughter et al. (1997) made a state-of-the-art review on hull
response monitoring systems with particular attention to ice transit. Task TK-2.7 of
MARSTRUCT (2005) analyzes class requirements, mainly based on working
experiences. Table 2 indicates various methods useful for detecting and measuring age
related ship structural damage.
4.1 Corrosion Detection and Measurements
4.1.1 Current Practice
Visual inspections, mainly governed by skill and experience, are the first means to
evaluate the corrosion of structures. It is recommended to apply light color paintings so
that rust spots can be detected easily. It is much more difficult to quantify the extent of
coating breakdown and to rank the condition of the coating according to, e.g., the IACS
ranking system (IACS 2005; UR Z7). Information for quantitative analysis is considered
“commercial in service” and is rarely carried out by means of computer aided imaging
analysis, even though modern digital cameras are relatively inexpensive.
Close-up visual inspections are accurately defined by IACS (IACS 2005; UR Z7): “… a
survey where the details of structural components are within the close visual inspection
range of the surveyor, i.e., normally within reach of hand”. Rules require close-up
surveys of critical areas, depending on the ship’s age and type, as not all structures can
be inspected close-up due to access difficulties. This requires that critical hidden areas be
inspected but the general corrosion wastage level of the whole structure is left to the
judgment of the surveyor.
Wide variations in the means of access result in differing conditions for close-up surveys
and thus differing accuracies of inspections. IMO (2003) recently proposed minimum
requirements for permanent and safe means of access to ships compartments.
Corrosion in ships is nowadays generally measured by ultrasonic sensors. The time

consumed to thoroughly test a large structure is the major disadvantage of this type of
point-by-point examination. Furthermore, surface preparation and a coupling medium are
required. When many corrosion pits are present it is difficult to remove any heavy rust
and even if the rust is removed, correct thickness measurement is difficult due to the
uneven surface.
A key question concerns which parameters are appropriate for evaluating corrosion;
average thickness, minimum thickness, pit intensity, etc. Class societies generally require
average thickness, pit maximum depth and pit intensity (as a percentage of the plate
surface). The trend is towards a more quantitative definition of corrosion intensity (e.g.,
JBP 2005, IACS 2005; UR Z7 and Z10). ABS (2000) reports very high localized
corrosion rates with respect to the Rules and interaction between corrosion, cracking and
buckling, and concludes that gauging, even if carried out according to the Rules, may not
represent reality in the cases examined.
Some class scantling software covers ship in-service assessment (e.g., BV Mars 2000,
DNV Nauticus Hull, GL Poseidon, LR ShipRight, RINA Leonardo Hull). Corroded
structures can be assessed according to the net scantling approach. Abd El-Ghany &
Farag (2000) propose an expert system providing an intelligent interface between NDE
and structural analysis by FEM (Finite Element Method).
4.1.2 Other Advanced Methods
Some corrosion measuring technologies are not commonly used in ship structures but are
widely applied in the more developed offshore field. Saidarasamoot et al. (2003) review
NDE wastage assessment technologies which do not assume coating breakdown.
Agarwala & Ahmad (2000) and Bøving (1989) also report several advanced corrosion
measurement methods. A few promising ones are summarized in the following.
Acoustic emission and natural frequency measurement are used on offshore structures as
cheap and reliable methods of detecting changes in structural response, generally
applicable to detect both general and pitting corrosion. Radiographic methods provide
images of the variations in the thickness of metallic components, though specialized
technicians following relevant safety standards are needed for these measurements.
Thermal imaging has been developed for the detection of hidden corrosion. The weight-
loss coupon method involves periodically monitoring a coupon exposed to corrosion.
Galvanic thin film micro sensors are used for in-situ monitoring of coating performance
and hidden corrosion. Electrochemical techniques are complicated and hard to use on
ships as they are influenced by temperature and pH, as well as by reduction and re-
oxidation behavior. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy has been developed to
measure the early stage degradation of coating and substrate corrosion underneath a paint
coating. Eddy current arrays give high resolution and easy reading outputs with fast
response, but require further development for application to large and geometrically
complex ship structures. Hydrogen measurement probes are sometimes used as corrosion
often proceeds with the evolution of hydrogen. Chemical sensors of various types
(fluorescent, color change) adopted in dye-penetrant testing have not proven very
practical because of the spread of corrosion in marine structures. Neither have strain
gauges, which need a calibration against a non-corroded element and are generally
affected by the corrosive environment as they need to be bonded to the structure. In
magnetic flux measurement a sensor is immerged to sense the current flow between
anodic and cathodic areas, thus providing a measure of metal loss. By using computer
control and processing, corrosion damage map can be produced.
4.2 Fatigue Crack Detection and Measurement
Cracking is a localized problem, and therefore local detection is needed. As ship

structural details are mainly typical, there may be repetition of cracking at geometrically
similar locations. Ma et al. (1999) note that it is essential to know critical areas prone to
cracks for performance of useful surveys. This is easier for standard details, but more
difficult in novel designs.
Cracks are most efficiently detected visually as too many locations would need to be
monitored by individual sensors. A visual examination should determine the type of
crack and assess whether it is likely to propagate. Dye penetrant and magnetic particle
tests can also be used after visual inspection, providing approximate measure of surface
crack length but not of crack depth. Photographic records of both may be kept.
TABLE 3
METHODS FOR FATIGUE CRACK MEASUREMENTS (TIKU & PUSSEGODA 2003)
Assessment methods other than visual inspections are generally seldom used for ship
structures because a single crack does not impair structural safety due to redundancy.
Tiku & Pussegoda (2003) compare several NDE methods for fatigue and fracture of ship
structures. Conventional techniques are ranked as per Table 3. Other, more advanced,
techniques include: Acoustic Emission, Infrared Thermography, Laser Shearography,
Potential Drop test (ACPD or DCPD), Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM),
Crack Propagation Gauges, and Automated Ball Indentation. Other methods are
commonly used in the offshore field for inspection as well as monitoring. Eddy current,
ultrasonics, ACPD, and DCPD are generally able to characterize crack dimensions and
location with different degrees of accuracy, and better than visual inspection (Ditchburn
et al. 1996).
Generally, crack detection needs off-service inspections. Ultrasonic surface guided

waves are proposed by Vanlanduit et al. (2003) for in-service monitoring. One of the
advantages of this method is that working stresses do not need to be released and
therefore open cracks can be detected, making this method much more sensitive. Talei-
Faz et al. (2004) introduced a novel digital photogrammetric method. The technique
allows for real time three-dimensional measurements of local deformations.
4.3 Mechanical Damage Detection and Measurement
For the time being, no particular detection and measurement technique appears to be
required by regulations. Consequently, only visual or close visual inspections are used, as
necessary, to assess if deformations are within specified limits (extension and dent
depth). However, it should be noted that mechanical damage, due, e.g., to an impact,
locally modifies the material properties and even the stiffness of a stiffened panel
because of the geometrical modifications.
Measurement of dent geometry and stresses was studied by Babbar et al. (2005) using the
Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) inspection method. The method provides information on
both geometry and stress effects but is quite difficult to interpret. Finite element analysis
and experimental tests are proposed to simulate the effects of a dent in a plate. This is to
be used to calibrate methods for mechanical damage detection and measurement.
Development and application of guided wave techniques for damage testing of a ship
hull is presented by Song et al. (2003). An approximate image of damage, utilizing a
discontinuity locus map, is constructed using the guided waves reflected from the
damage.
4.4 Uncertainties and their Sources Associated with Damage Detection and
Measurement
Uncertainties in the methods for detecting and measuring structural deterioration

originate from several sources; geometry, material properties, location of structural
components, life of coating, type of cargo, operational condition and loading cycles, sea
water and internal temperature, humidity and environment, measuring sensors and so on.
Manuals, guidelines and standards for NDE methods provide indications of accuracies of
methods and sensors (e.g., Halmshaw 1997, Porter 1992, Berens 1989, Bøving 1989).
However, scatter is largely due to operators and practical difficulties rather than to
measurement equipment. Typically, gauges used to determine residual plate thickness
have inherent errors mainly due to errors in sensor location (Ma et al. 1999). The latter
uncertainties are more difficult to define and quantify. Current practice is to statistically
analyze inspection data, as described, e.g., by Rudlin & Wolstenholme (1992), Rummel
et al. (1989), HSE (2000), to obtain suitable statistical distributions of Probability of
Detection (POD) and Probability of Sizing (POS).
Demsetz et al. (1996) and Demsetz & Cabrera (1999) present a review of the factors
which impact the likelihood that a person checking the structure of a ship for failures will
find an existing failure. POD statistical distributions in tanks structures are compared
with those in related engineering fields. An interesting benchmark on visual crack
detection by different inspectors is reported; prior knowledge of likely defect locations
has a key influence on POD.
Fatigue crack inspection for is usually performed by visually. Non-destructive testing

methods using ultrasonic or particle techniques are useful to assess defect size. They can
also be employed to detect more highly stressed and fatigue prone areas. The probability
of crack detection may depend on crack size, as shown in Fig.4. Upon inspection for
fatigue cracks, consideration should be given to accessibility and surface condition, e.g.,
painted, corroded, oil covered or slime covered.
Ivanov & Wang (2004) discuss the statistical analysis of corrosion measurements during
surveys in respect of their effects on ship structural scantlings. Li et al. (2003) propose a
Bayesian updating method for probability of detection of corrosion inspections. Moan et
al. (2000) inferred from in-service observations the POD of cracks in offshore structures,
useful for the assessment of the residual fatigue life. Goyet et al. (2004) report the
lessons learned from the experience of a class society; the implementation of risk based
inspection planning highlights that skill and experience are still necessary ingredients.
Figure 4: A schematic of probability of detection (POD) as a function of crack size (HSE

2000)
5. MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION
The progress of age related deterioration in ship structures is time-variant in nature. For
structural condition assessment and subsequently for the development of cost-beneficial
schemes for inspection, maintenance and repair, it is highly desirable to accurately predict
the initiation and progress of age related deterioration. This section reviews the
mathematical models for predicting time-variant deterioration due to aging.
5.1 Corrosion Wastage Models
Corrosion behaviour is represented schematically in Fig.5. Common causes of ship hull

corrosion are galvanic corrosion, direct chemical attack and anaerobic corrosion. The
progress of corrosion may be characterized by three phases, namely (a) durability or life of
the coating, b) a transition period, and c) corrosion progression.
Coating systems may be classified by their longevity; for example, IMO (1995) suggested
three coating system types I, II and III corresponding to coating durability of 5, 10 and 15
years respectively. Another classification has been developed by TSCF (2000) where 10, 15
and 25 years coating systems for ballast tanks is applied.
Coating breakdown is measured (often subjectively) by the percentage of surface that has
blistered, cracked or corroded. While various factors may be involved in coating
deterioration, including electrochemical (current, voltage) and/or mechanical (strain)
reactions (Martin et al. 1996), it is widely observed in practice that coating breakdown
occurs gradually and subsequently as a result corrosion increases progressively over the
surface (Melchers & Jiang 2006). Figure 6 shows the trend of coating breakdown as a
function of exposure time, after Melchers & Jiang (2006).
Nevertheless, it is common practice to define a coating ‘life’ as the time for a predefined
degree of corrosion, say 1% on average over the surface, to occur. Typically, coatings are
defined by the type of coating systems used, details of its application (e.g., surface
preparation, stripe coats, film thickness, humidity and salt control during application) and
relevant maintenance, among other factors. Coating life to a predefined state of breakdown
has been assumed to follow either the normal or log-normal probability distribution
(Yamamoto & Ikegami 1996).
The convex curve of Type A in Fig.5(b) shows the corrosion rate (i.e., the curve gradient)
decreasing as corrosion progresses. This type of behavior is common in many environments
and is brought about by the gradual build-up of protective rust layers. It is observed, for
example in the upper parts of cargo holds. The concave curve of Type B in Fig.5(b) is
representative of corrosion accelerating with time. This is characteristic of situations where
there is increasing structural surface strain from flexure of dynamically loaded structures
together with excessive thinning of structural components. It is often seen in very advanced
stages of corrosion with accelerated degradation (Herring & Titcomb 1981, Ohyagi 1987,
Contraros 2003). The linear curve of Type C in Fig.5(b) is characteristic of situations where
the rust layers are continually removed due to abrasion or wear or relatively minor surface
strains. It is typical of the lower parts of cargo holds of vessel used for aggressive cargoes.
(a)
Transition
Durability
Progress of corrosion
of coating
Corrosion depth
Type A (Convex)
Type B (Concave)
Type C (Linear)
Tc Tc+Tt
(b) Exposure time
Figure 5: A schematic of corrosion progress for marine steels as a function of exposure

time; (a) phenomenological representation (Melchers 1997); (b) mechanical representation
(Paik & Thayamballi 2003, 2006)
50
40
Coating Breakdown (%)
30
20
Surfaces
Users/Clients
10 Users/Clients
Independent Expert
Applicator/Supplier
Applicator/Supplier
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Exposure Period (years)
Figure 6: Percentage of surface area coating breakdown as a function of exposure period

(Melchers & Jiang 2006)
Gardiner & Melchers (2001, 2002a, 2003) studied corrosion processes in enclosed coal and
iron ore cargo spaces. Gudze et al. (2001, 2004) studied corrosion in naval vessel ballast
tanks and the influence of environmental parameters. By the statistical analysis of corrosion
measurement data, Paik and his colleagues developed time-variant corrosion models for 23
different member location / category groups of bulk carrier structures (Paik et al. 1998a,
2003d) and 34 different member location / category groups of tankers and FPSOs (Paik et
al. 2003c). Corrosion models together with corrosion margin proposals for ballast water
tank structures are given by Paik et al. (2004b) and Paik (2004). Guedes Soares & Garbatov
(1999a), Garbatov et al. (2004, 2005) and Qin & Cui (2002, 2003) have also formulated
time-variant corrosion wastage models.
The above-mentioned corrosion models are essentially empirical. Melchers (1997, 2003d)
proposed a more refined phenomenological model incorporating aspects of earlier models
and achieving mathematical consistency. Figure 7 compares various corrosion wastage
model functions in terms of corrosion depth versus time.
Transition
Durability
of coating
Progress of
Corrosion depth d (mm)
corrosion
c2
d =c1(t−τc −τt )
0 τc τc +τt Structure age t (years)

(a) (b)
dt( )
τc τt
d∞
O′ O B C t
(c) (d)
Figure 7: Various models for corrosion progress; (a) Melchers (1997); (b) Paik et al.
(1998a); (c) Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1999a); (d) Qin & Cui (2002, 2003)
It has been recognized that corrosion is a very complex phenomenon and influenced by
many factors. Identifying key issues that can lead to corrosion cannot be achieved through
statistical investigations of corroded aging ships alone. There is a need to develop models
based on corrosion mechanisms and to combine them with the corrosion wastage databases
to achieve a better understanding as well as improved prediction of corrosion in marine
structures (Gardiner & Melchers 2003).
Melchers and his colleague studied the effects of various influencing parameters in detail,
e.g., temperature (Melchers 2002); carbon content (Melchers 2003e); water velocity
(Melchers 2004b); compositional changes (Melchers 2004c); surface roughness (Melchers
& Jeffrey 2004). Panayotova (2004a, 2004b) and Guedes Soares et al. (2005) also studied
the effects of various influential factors, including salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen,
pH and flow velocity, and ship service life for different routes.
Strictly speaking, the corrosion models described above have been developed for prediction
of general (uniform) corrosion, but they may also be approximately applicable to pit
corrosion prediction as long as the features of pits are taken into account. Daidola et al.
(1997) give an empirical model based upon average values of pitting data using a number of
the deepest pits. A 300mm × 300mm sample square plate was used for their study. The
model assumes pit depth and pit width to be random variables following lognormal
distributions.
TSCF (1997) proposed guidance for evaluating the minimum remaining plate thickness at
pits for pitting densities smaller than 20% and TSCF (2000) reported that for some single
hull tankers less than 5 years old, the average pit depth was found to be 2 to 3 mm, with a
density of around 200 to 400 pits/in2: a maximum pit depth of 5 mm was found. Accelerated
pitting corrosion rates experienced were as high as 5 times those normally anticipated, and
these were thought to be due largely to microbial influenced corrosion (MIC) attack.
5.2 Fatigue Cracking Damage Models
Since cracks can conceivably lead to catastrophic failure of a structure, it is essential to

properly consider and establish relevant crack tolerant design procedures for structures, in
addition to implementation of close-up surveys and maintenance strategies. For reliability
assessment of aging structures under extreme loads, it is often necessary to take into account
a known (existing or assumed or anticipated) crack for the ultimate limit state analysis as a
parameter of influence (Paik & Thayamballi 2003). To make this possible, it is necessary to
develop a time-dependent fatigue crack model which can predict crack damage in location
and size as the ship ages.
Fatigue cracks propagate with time progressively in a ductile material. The time-variant
cracking damage model is composed of the three separate models, namely: (a) crack
initiation assessment or detection, (b) crack growth assessment, (c) failure assessment.
Crack initiation at a critical structural detail is typically predicted using the S-N curve
approach (S = stress range, N = number of cycle until crack occurrence). Cracks at critical
joints and details can be detected during inspection when the crack size is large enough,
usually about 15 to 30mm. In terms of integrity of aged ship structures, it is assumed that a
crack with a certain length at a critical joint or detail initiated some time earlier.
Crack growth is assessed by fracture mechanics. In this approach, a major task is to

establish the relevant crack growth equations or ‘laws’ as a function of time (years). The
crack growth rate is expressed as a function of the stress intensity factor at the crack tip,
based on the assumption that the yielded area around the crack tip is relatively small. The
Paris-Erdogan law is often used for this purpose (Cui 2003, Paik et al. 2003f).
The duration of these stages depends on the magnitude of the cyclic stresses or strains at the
crack initiation site and along the crack propagation path, environmental effects, and the
resistance of the material to the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks. Fatigue damage
modeling and its statistical description have been well defined and discussed in previous
ISSC reports, and so will not be repeated here.
5.3 Corrosion Fatigue Models
Normally both fatigue and corrosion will be present and their combined effects need to be
considered in that the decrease in net section due to corrosion will increase the stress levels,
which in turn increases the rate of crack growth directly or through corrosion fatigue
mechanisms (Crooker & Leis 1981). The effect of corrosion wastage on fatigue damage
assessment was studied by Garbatov et al. (2002).
As regards to fatigue life, the majority of codes and standards accept that unprotected joints
exposed to sea water have their fatigue lives reduced by approximately a factor of two
compared with those in air. Some more recent data has suggested that the factor of two is
non-conservative, and also that cathodic protection may not always provide effective fatigue
corrosion protection. In this regard, some larger reductions in life (factors 2.5-3) are
recommended in the latest guidance for offshore structures by UK Health and Safety
Executive (Def.)
5.4 Local Denting Damage Models
Local denting is also time-variant in nature, but its characteristics are often modelled as
time-invariant (Paik et al. 2003f). This is because the causes of local denting, unlike
corrosion and fatigue cracking, are not continuous. It may be more convenient to assume the
extent and magnitude of local denting damage for the practical purpose of residual strength
of aged ships.
6. CORRECTIVE / PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR AGE RELATED

DETERIORATION
6.1 Corrosion Correction / Protection Measures
TSCF (1992, 1997) has devoted significant effort to understanding and controlling
corrosion of ballast tanks in tanker structures. Classification societies have developed
nominal design corrosion values (NDCV) for the different parts of a ship structure and for
various vessel types (e.g., JBP 2005, JTP 2005). Guidelines for coating systems for
corrosion prevention of ship structures have also been developed (e.g., IMO 1995, IACS
2004b).
The measures for corrosion protection include corrosion margin additions, coatings,
cathodic protection, inhibitors and ballast water de-oxygenation, etc. The anti-corrosion
methods may be classified into two types, namely, active and passive. Active methods
protect a structural member from the exposure to the corrosion environment by a protective
substance covering the surface of the member. Painting or electrolytic protection are active
methods. On the other hand, passive methods are used to improve the effectiveness of
active methods. Passive methods make the protective substance long-lived by avoiding, for
example, structural discontinuities, stress concentrations, complex structural details,
fabrication errors and unnecessary welding attachments. Moreover, the addition of
corrosion margins is a kind of corrosion protection method from the viewpoint of
preventing the loss of structural integrity from the corrosion.
Painting is a simple and an effective anti-corrosion method. However, the efficiency of anti-
corrosion painting is influenced by surface preparation, the kind of paint, the application
procedure and the environmental conditions during application (Parente et al. 1997). For
ballast water tanks, cathodic protection is often employed together with coating. It is
important to observe the condition of the paint coating and the sacrificial anode to maintain
the effectiveness of an anti-corrosion system (Sugimoto & Ishizuka 2004).
(a) (b)
Figure 8: (a) Generation of pitting corrosion and (b) recoating within an early stage
In the cargo holds of bulk carriers, corrosion generated from defects in the paint coating due
to contact with bulk cargo is frequent, see Fig.8(a). Since a supplementary anti-corrosion
method cannot be adopted in the cargo hold area of bulk carriers, it is necessary to remove
the rust and to recoat within the early stages, see Fig.8(b). Although IACS UR-Z10.2
classifies the coating condition of tankers and bulk carriers as ‘Good’, ‘Fair’ and ‘Poor’ to
refer to maintenance work, it is important to maintain the paint coating even at early stages
of deterioration. A more detailed classification of the condition of paint coating
deterioration may be necessary (Emi et al. 1994).
In ballast water tanks, oxygen is a critical factor that accelerates the corrosion rate.
Therefore, an alternative to prevent or mitigate corrosion wastage is to remove oxygen from
the ballast water. It is noticed that the corrosion rate is reduced by as much as 90% when
oxygen levels are maintained below 0.5% (Tamburri et al. 2003). Various methods to de-
oxygenate ballast water are available, e.g., by vacuum, biological processes or the use of
inert gas. It is today recognized that the introduction of inert gas into ballast water is one of
the effective ways (Tamburri & Ruiz 2005).
6.2 Fatigue Crack Correction / Protection Measures
Methods to prevent fatigue failure may again be classified into two types, namely, active
and passive. Active methods directly improve the fatigue performance of the material or the
weld joint itself, while passive methods improve fatigue performance by reducing the
applied stress.
Resistance to crack initiation can be increased by hardening the surface of material. This is
normally done with machine parts. Carburizing, case hardening and hardening/tempering
are typical examples of this method. The degree of fatigue strength improvement depends
on the hard layer thickness, the processing temperature of the surface layer and the heat
treatment (Tokaji et al. 2004, Farfan et al. 2004, Sudhakar 2000). It is recognized that
carburizing can also improve the corrosion resistance (Tokaji et al. 2004).
Resistance to fatigue crack growth can be increased by controlling the microstructure of the
material (Nakajima et al. 2004, Konda et al. 2003, 2004). Such innovative structural steels
have already been put to practical use and applied to ship structures.
In the first stage of cracking, including crack initiation, the effects of residual stress are
significant. In the case of machinery elements, in order to improve fatigue strength, the
method of creating a compressive residual stress field in the surface layer by shot peening is
often used. In the case of welded joints, where fatigue strength is decreased due to the
existence of large weld residual tensile stresses, fatigue strength can be improved by
relaxing the weld residual stress (Cheng et al. 2003). In this case, the degree of
improvement in fatigue strength depends on the relation between the mean stress including
residual stress, the applied stress range and the yield stress of the material. The
improvement in fatigue strength by relaxation of weld residual stress is greater in the low
stress/high cycle region (Huo et al. 2005).
Decreasing the stress concentration at a hot spot area contributes to the improvement of
fatigue strength because the initiation and progress of fatigue cracks are influenced by the
local stress condition. Especially in the case of welded joints, removing the under-cut or
notch, which results in stress concentrations at the weld toe, is very effective. Grinding,
dressing, and profile control, etc. are often employed for improving or avoiding the under-
cut or notch (Kirkhope et al. 1997). These fatigue strength improvement methods in welded
joints are summarized in Fig.9.
Burr Grinding
MACHINING
Disk Grinding
METHODS
Waterjet Eroding
WELD GEOMETRY TIG Dressing

REMELTING
IMPROVEMENT
METHODS
METHOD Plasma Dressing
Weld Profile
SPECIAL WELDING Control (AWS)
TECHNIQUES
Special Electrodes
Shot Peening
Hammer Peening
PEENING
METHODS
Needle Peening
MECHANICAL
Ultrasonic Peening
METHODS
Initial Overloading
OVERLOADING
RESIDUAL METHODS
STRESS Local Compression
METHOD
Thermal Stress
Relief (PWHT)
THERMAL
Spot Heeting
METHODS
Gunnert’ s Method
Figure 9: Classification of some weld improvement methods (Kirkhope et al. 1997)
The above method refers to the notch stress. Fatigue strength can also be improved by
decreasing the hot spot stress, which is caused by a structural discontinuity. In a hull
structure, a nominal stress level is generally determined by the arrangements and the
scantlings of the structural members. Therefore, improvement in fatigue strength can be
achieved by decreasing the stress concentration due to a structural discontinuity, by altering
the structural detail around the hot spot area. Since fabrication errors such as misalignment,
angular misalignment and plate distortion cause secondary bending stresses, it is important
to control fabrication errors to improve the fatigue performance (Kendrick et al. 2005).
Figure 10: A new unloading system
6.3 Mechanical Damage Correction / Protection Measures
In order to prevent mechanical damage such as local dents, careful operation of the grub
crane is necessary. However, impact of the grub with structural members is unavoidable
during unloading of bulk cargoes. A new unloading system shown in Fig.10 might be
appropriate instead of the conventional system. However, since such a new system would
have considerable cost, it is not likely to gain wide adoption, at least not in the short term.
Having adequate scantlings to withstand the grub load is one practical and fundamental
solution. Plate thickness requirements considering the weight of grub are necessary (JBP
2005).
7. RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF AGED SHIPS
Complex systems containing large numbers of interdependent variables with associated

uncertainties cannot be dealt with effectively in a wholly deterministic manner but are often
entirely by probabilistic means. Ship structures are complex systems and the following
sections describe the state-of-the-art with respect to elements of probabilistic and
deterministic analyses appropriate for reliability analysis of aged ships. While a
comprehensive review of studies regarding reliability assessment of aged ships up to the
year of 2001 was made by Paik & Frieze (2001), this report surveys related studies since
then.
7.1 Status Assessment
This report has already considered age related damage mechanisms in terms of their
prediction and prevention. A status assessment of a vessel will include not only the effects
of these damage mechanisms and their quantification but also needs to consider the
manufactured quality and the likely susceptibilities to various damage mechanisms. Chapter
4 dealt with Non Destructive Testing (NDT) and Structural Integrity Monitoring. From a
reliability perspective, the measure of quality of NDT information is of great importance.
Dover et al. (2003) set out a framework for POD and POS of inspection systems applied to
fixed and floating offshore structures. There is no reason why this approach should not be
applied to ship structures.
In the editorial in the Journal of Marine Structures special issue relating to bulk carriers,
Grundy (2003) states, “The international association of dry cargo ship-owners reported the
loss of 134 ships and 740 lives in the decade 1991 –2000. The losses are mostly attributed
to structural failure. The average age of the ships lost exceeds 19 years, somewhat higher
than the average age of the fleet. There are few losses of ships less than 10 years old.” For
this reason the assessment of the reliability of materials properties requires an understanding
of the evolution of ship steels over the past thirty years. Sumpter & Kent (2003) presented
such an analysis focusing on the fracture toughness of ship steels. They provide an insight to
the issue by pointing to casualty rates due to brittle fracture; probability of fracture (events
per ship year) in terms of operating temperature relative to Charpy 27 Joule temperature (T-
T27J) oC is predicted. They state “brittle fractures have decreased from once every 10 ship
years at the time of the Liberty ships, to once every 100 ship years in the 1950s, and now
stand at around once every 10,000 ship years”, they continue that “… although brittle
fracture in ships may no longer be common, fatigue cracking is still widespread.” It is,
however, also worth noting that brittle fracture still occurs (e.g., Bulk Carrier Lake Carling)
and the risk associated with cleavage fracture is highly dependent upon temperature and
strain rate (Drouin 2006).
Ship surveys need to characterise geometrical aspects not only of local details but also
perhaps more importantly for aging ship structures, general section and plate of thinning
due to corrosion. Structural hull girder strength and dynamic response can be considerably
affected by gross corrosion effects. Pitting, dents and other local effects are generally
important in their role in fatigue crack initiation. Chapter 6 dealt with many aspects which
are generally accounted for in risk and reliability assessments in terms of structural response
models.
7.2 Load Models
Vassalos et al. (2003) reported a reliability based approach to green water hatch loading
based primarily on observations made on model tests. Models for cargo loading/unloading
are reasonably well developed but are very dependent on the cargo type and detailed design
of the vessel. Still water ship girder collapse is still however a frequently occurring event.
Kamenov-Toshkov et al. (2006) present an approximate method for the calculation of the
design wave induced bending moment for any given ship’s operational life. The basic
assumption of the method is that the type of probabilistic distribution of the wave-induced
bending moment within different time periods does not change. Only the values of the
distribution parameters change. The method was developed for strength assessment of
ageing vessels, for which their remaining life is smaller than the originally assumed design
operational life. It does, however, only estimate an extreme loading condition and does not
consider damage under cumulative loading or extreme loading events such as green seas
loading on hatch covers or loading during loading/unloading.
The above load models are used to estimate extreme loading events in order to perform
quasi-static failure analyses. Trading ship structures unlike offshore structures (e.g., FPSOs)
and other engineering structures experience very different operational loading depending on
their design, cargo, heading and other environmental effects. The offshore industry can
define typical service loading spectra so that predictions can be made of cumulative fatigue
damage (e.g., Etube 2001), but every trading ship will have associated with it a unique load
history. New structural monitoring systems promise to fill the requirement to provide
accurate loading histories for individual vessels and allow predictions to be made regarding
future load spectra and with this more accurate fatigue crack growth predictions.
Uncertainties relating to the monitoring systems themselves need to be addressed.
7.3 Strength Models
Strength models for reliability analysis need to be developed at the structural component
level as well as the global system level. A strength model at the global system level in terms
of hull girder section modulus is presented by Ivanov et al (2003); corrosion wastage as
well as structural dimensions (plate thickness) of structural components is dealt with as
parameters of influence in the strength model. Ultimate hull girder strength models are
presented by Paik et al. (2003f), by considering four hull girder collapse modes, namely,
primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary failure modes.
Strength models at the structural component level have of course been developed taking
account of age related deterioration; The effect of general corrosion on plate ultimate
strength was studied by Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1999a). The effect of pit and general
corrosion on the ultimate strength of plate elements was studied numerically and
experimentally by Paik & Thayamballi (2002) and Paik et al. (2003a, 2004a). The reduction
of plate ultimate strength due to pit corrosion under axial compressive loads is governed by
the minimum cross sectional area at the location of maximum pit corrosion wastage (Paik et
al. 2003a), while that under edge shear loads is likely governed by the pitted surface area
(Paik et al. 2004a). Nakai et al. (2005) performed numerical and experimental studies on
buckling and ultimate strength of corroded hold frame structures.
Fatigue cracking can also reduce ultimate strength significantly. The effect of fatigue
cracking on the buckling ultimate strength of plates and stiffened panels was studied by Paik
& Thayamballi (2002, 2003), Satish Kumar & Paik (2004) and Paik et al. (2005). The
effect of local denting on the ultimate strength of plate elements was studied by Paik et al.
(2003b) on plates under axial compressive loads and also by Paik (2005) on plates under
edge shear loads.
7.4 Limit State Criteria
As emphasized by Frieze & Paik (2004) and international rules and standards (ISO DIS
18072-1, ISO CD 18072-2, JBP 2005, JTP 2005), it is now well recognized that limit state
approaches are much better basis than the allowable working stresses for design and
strength assessment than traditional ship design methods. Limit states can be categorized
into four types, namely, serviceability, ultimate, fatigue and accidental. The limit state
criterion for reliability analysis in a particular situation for condition assessment of aged
ships can then be given as a function of the associated demand (loads) and capacity
(strength), taking into account the effects of time-variant, aged related deterioration.
7.5 Hull Girder Strength Reliability Analysis
Instantaneous reliability is a measure of the failure probability at a defined time whereas, in

the presence of degradation mechanisms, ship hull ultimate strength is a decreasing function
of time, therefore, probability of failure is also a function of time. This is a particularly
useful analysis as reliability can be presented over a number of years and the effects of
repairs can also be incorporated into the reliability assessment.
The effect of corrosion on the ultimate strength reliability of ship hulls was studied by Paik
et al. (1998b, 1998c) and Paik & Thayamballi (2002). The effect of fatigue damage on hull
girder strength reliability was studied by Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1996a, 1996b, 1996c).
The effect of combined corrosion and fatigue cracking on hull girder strength reliability of
aged ships was studied by Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1998, 1999) and on ultimate hull
girder strength reliability by Akpan et al. (2002). In Akpan et al. (2002), time-dependent
random function models for corrosion, fatigue crack growth and corrosion-enhanced fatigue
cracks that weaken the capacity of a ship hull are presented and the second-order reliability
method used to calculate instantaneous reliability of the primary tanker hull structure.
Paik et al. (2003f) and Paik & Thayamballi (2005) studied the effect of all types of aged
related deterioration such as corrosion wastage, fatigue cracking and local denting on the
ultimate hull girder strength reliability of aged ships and ship-shaped offshore units
(FPSOs).
7.6 Target Reliability Index
Figure 11 shows the reliability indices of some types of ships, which have been previously
obtained by different investigators and calculation methods, as a function of the year of
publication (Paik & Frieze 2001). It is seen from Fig. 11 that the calculated reliability index
decreases as the calculation is made in more recent years. This trend does not mean that
vessels themselves are becoming less reliable as well, at least not to the extent implied by
the trends shown. It certainly is true that ship structures have become more efficient over
time. However, more importantly, some of the calculation results shown are perhaps more
notional than others, and the failure modes considered have become more sophisticated as
well. Also, most calculations tend to use the design wave environment as the notional basis
although actual experience may be relatively more benign, and hard to pin down
particularly for trading vessels.
10.0
Tanker first yield (20 years)
Tanker deck buckling (1 year)
9.0 Tanker deck buckling (20 years)
Tanker hull girder (1 year)
8.0 Tanker hull girder (20 years)
FPS deck buckling (1 year)
FPS deck buckling (20 years)
7.0 FPS hull girder (1 year)
Reliability index, β
FPS hull girder (20 years)

6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year of calculation, Y
Figure 11: Variation of calculated notional reliability indices β over the passage of
years for ships during 1974 to 2000 (FPS = floating, production and storage unit) (Paik
& Frieze 2001)
8. INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
8.1 Acceptance Criteria for Remedial Actions
Structural damage and deterioration imply deficiency caused by excessive corrosion, design
faults, material defects or bad workmanship, navigation in extreme weather conditions,
loading and unloading procedures, wear and tear, contact (with quay side, ice, underwater
objects, etc.), but not as a direct consequence of accidents such as collisions, groundings
and fire / explosion. Deficiencies are normally recognized as material wastage, fractures and
deformations.
There are no officially published criteria for acceptable damage. What is available
worldwide today is the renewal criteria of the class societies, IACS and IMO. They
primarily control the geometric properties of the hull structure and its structural
components. The maximum permissible reduction of the hull girder section modulus should
not be greater than 10% from its ‘as-built’ value. The control of the structural components
such as longitudinals or transverse frames is reduced to control of their thickness.
Replacement of the stiffeners is required when their thickness reduction is around 25-30%,
depending on the ship's type and the location of the stiffeners.
These are not the only requirements in classification society rules for the structure
of aging ships. Besides the section modulus of the hull girder and the thickness of
the structural components, one should also check the local buckling strength of the
structure, although in very simplistic format (control of the ratio between the width
and thickness of plates and the ratio between web height to its thickness or flange
width to its thickness).
TSCF (1992, 1995, 1997) provides guidance on the criteria of corrosion wastage causing
strength reduction of the hull structure. For example, when the thickness reduction of the
longitudinals is beyond 15%, further assessment of the structure is required. The ‘further
assessment’ involves strength analysis of corroded structural components that needs to
consider all structural characteristics including plate thickness.
It is evident that acceptance criteria based on the reduction of ultimate strength of

local structural components due to structural damage are more relevant than those
based on plate thickness, particularly when pitting corrosion, fatigue cracking and
local denting as well as general corrosion are involved simultaneously (Paik et al.
2003f).
It has now been recognized that the probabilistic or risk-based acceptance criteria are
desirable (e.g., ABS 2003, 2004). Such methods can implement the acceptable of risk in the
renewal criteria in a more rational manner.
8.2 Cost-Benefit and Risk-Based Inspection and Maintenance
Risk is defined as the probability of occurrence of a hazard times its consequence. In design
and operation of ship structures, there are a number of hazards that must be dealt with.
Wherever potential hazards are present, a risk exists.
Engineering systems such as ships and offshore structures are designed to ensure
economical operation throughout the anticipated service life in compliance with given
requirements and acceptance criteria. In order to ensure that given acceptance criteria are
fulfilled throughout the service life of the engineering system, the deterioration must be
managed and controlled together with corrective / protective measures. It is highly desirable
that all these be performed by cost-benefit and risk-based methods.
Planning of inspections concerns the identification of what to inspect, how to inspect, where
to inspect and how often to inspect. Even though inspections may be used as an effective
means for controlling the degradation of the considered engineering system and thus imply
a potential benefit, they may also have considerable impact on the operation of the system
and other economic consequences themselves. For this reason it is necessary to plan
inspections such that a balance is achieved between the expected benefit of the inspections
and the corresponding economical consequences implied by the inspections themselves.
Risk-based methods for inspection and maintenance can significantly reduce lifecycle cost
by basing inspection and repair intervals on the risk of incurring damage rather than on
arbitrary periods. Risk-based methods for inspection and maintenance can reduce inspection
cost and downtime and may actually increase ship reliability and safety by defining explicit
failure probabilities for all important components and functions. The cost justification for
embedding inspection and monitoring devices into structures is reduction in total ownership
cost. The components of total cost can be affected by the cost of periodic inspections, the
frequency of inspections, the restoration cost saved by earlier detection, and the reduction in
failure probability given constraints in the cost of frequency of inspections. In some cases,
the structure may be out of service during the time of the inspection, in which case the cost
of the inspection is also affected by the capability of the inspection methods and internal
devices used in the structure.
Component Risk-based Inspection plan

RBI team setup
grouping and baselining prioritization development
RBI program Analysis of inspection

Inspection execution
updating results
Figure 12: Main steps for developing risk-based inspection programmes (ABS 2003)
8.2.1 Risk-Based Inspections
During the last 10 to 15 years, reliability based and risk based approaches have been
developed for the planning of inspections as reported by Skjong (1985), Madsen et al.
(1986), Fujita et al. (1989). These approaches have by now developed into practical
applicable procedures and are widely applied (Goyet et al. 1994, Sindel & Rackwitz 1996,
Moan et al. 1997, Garbatov & Guedes Soares 1998). These approaches have a basis in
decision theory to minimize overall service life costs including direct and implied costs of
failures, repairs and inspections.
Most recently, classification societies provide guidance notes for risk-based inspection and
maintenance (e.g., ABS 2003, 2004). Figure 12 shows main steps for developing risk-based
inspection program, followed by ABS (2003). Inspections in themselves may not affect the
likelihood of structural failure, but any excessive deterioration can be found by relevant
inspections and the subsequent actions such as repairs, replacements or adjustments can be
taken. The aim of risk-based inspection (RBI) is to develop an inspection plan that can
prevent the failures and their resulting safety, environmental or economic concerns.
Application of risk assessment technologies are summarized, together with examples during
design and operation, in Paik & Thayamballi (2006), among others.
The consequence of component failure will depend on the component and its importance
for the operation of the structure. The risk associated with the component is the product of
the probability of component failure and the consequence of failure. Risk based inspection
is based on a quantification of risk not only on a component basis but also for all
components in the installation. Different inspection strategies with different inspection
efforts, inspection quality and costs will have different effects on the risk. By comparing the
risk associated with different inspection strategies the inspection strategy implying the
smallest risk can be identified on that to achieve an acceptable risk level at minimum cost.
Ku et al. (2004) outlined the essential reliability calculations of a risk-based inspection

programme. Structural reliability analysis takes deterministic FEM stress / fatigue analysis
results, coupled with uncertain degradation mechanisms and tracks the time-varying
structural reliability of the components under consideration. By performing this exercise,
when and how often the structural components should be inspected can be determined.
Formulating an inspection and maintenance program such that overall service life costs are
minimized using classical decision theory can be found in textbooks, e.g., Raiffa &
Schalifer (1961) and Benjamin & Cornell (1970), providing a consistent and systematic
framework for its solution.
For offshore jacket structure and ship hull, deterioration must be controlled by inspection in
order to avoid fatigue damage so significant that the overall structural strength becomes
inadequate. The inspection planning problem for such structures has been addressed in
numerous publications (Goyet et al. 1994, Lotsberg et al. 2000).
Emi et al. (1993) studied the assessment of fatigue strength, inspection and maintenance
management plans for ships, and formulated guidelines for inspections. The criteria for
close-up inspections were based upon the results of fatigue strength analysis carrying out
fracture simulations of cracks and risk assessment.
Fujimoto (1994) presented a method for sequential cost minimization for the inspection-
planning problem of fatigue deteriorating structures. The method aims at finding an optimal
inspection strategy so that the total cost expected in the period between the present
inspection and the next is minimal.
Matoba et al. (1994) suggested a methodology of preventive maintenance of ships, which

includes three basic components: structural enhancement, structural inspection, and
structural monitoring at sea. They offered a guideline for maintenance control of ships
against fatigue.
Optimal inspection procedures based on reliability models were also discussed by Cramer et
al. (1992) and a method of inspection planning for ships was presented by Ostergaard et al.
(1996).
A general fatigue analysis procedure for ship structural details was developed and updated
Bea et al. (1991) and Bea (1994). Various models and techniques were employed to study
the fatigue of ship structures. Some technical developments in the fatigue research of the
ship structural maintenance project were presented by Hu & Bea (1997). First, the fatigue
assessment procedure was summarized and next the fatigue loading process was discussed
with aspects related to wide banded loading and loading sequence. Fatigue reliability and
updating models were then addressed followed by a discussion of effective fatigue damage
control.
Following the work of Rackwitz (2000), and in accordance with the principles of decision
theory, the acceptable probability of failure for an engineering system or any other activity
for that matter should be established on the basis of an optimization where the
consequences of failure are assessed in terms of preferences expressed, e.g., in monetary
terms. This approach is facilitated by the fundamental work by Nathwani et al. (1997)
addressing the value of the individual to society by means of the Life Quality Index.
However, the practical implementation of such approaches still lies ahead and approaches
relying on (less optimal) judgmental power of the individual decision-maker must be
pursued in the meanwhile.
8.2.2 Risk-Based Maintenance and Repair
A theoretical framework for risk-based optimal inspection and repair planning for ship
structures subjected to corrosion deterioration has been proposed by Li et al. (2004). The
planning problem was formulated as an optimization problem where the expected lifetime
costs were minimized with a constraint on the minimum acceptable reliability index.
In maintenance planning, optimization can be achieved by appropriate selection of

inspection intervals, inspection methods, repair, quality, and so on. The interval between
inspections in the case of floating structures depends on economical considerations, on
expected losses due to maintenance downtime, and on the requirements of classification
societies. In general, classification societies require fixed intervals between inspections but
owners may decide on shorter intervals on economics considerations.
The approach presented by Garbatov & Guedes Soares (2001) defined the optimal strategy
for maintenance planning from a comparison of cost considerations. The approach
demonstrated how repair cost can be used as a criterion in reliability based maintenance
planning and in particular how to vary the inspection interval in order to obtain the
minimum rate of repair cost. In some cases, to maintain the reliability level above a certain
acceptable value means costs will not dominate and the reliability criterion will be the
governing one. Several inspection strategies have been studied and discussions with respect
to reliability and repair cost were presented.
The simulated strategies for inspection planning pointed out that the application of repair
cost optimization for floating structures involves many uncertainties related to the costs of
the shipyard that would perform the repair, together with that of inspection procedures.
Evaluation of alternative criteria for maintenance planning in terms of repair cost and
availability of the platform is difficult. The minimum repair cost could be related to the
requirements of classification societies. However, this does not mean that the maintenance
effort is optimized. When maintenance is intensified the costs associated with inspection
and repair increase. The search for a maintenance effort that will optimize the use of
available resources should consider the lifetime cost of the solution. However, a balance
between reliability and economic criteria could be the key to inspection strategy as has been
defined by Garbatov & Guedes Soares (2001). Repair cost can be used as a criterion in
reliability based maintenance planning and, in particular, how to vary the inspection interval
in order to obtain the minimum repair cost.
Many ships have experienced fatigue cracking of their critical structural details but rarely
have traditional fatigue analyses been used to guide repair decisions. Instead, repair
decisions are often based on previous experience. General strategies for critical crack repair
suggested by Ma & Bea (1995), included re-welding the cracks; replacement of the cracked
plate; modification of the detail or increase of the scantlings.
The assessments of ship hull reliability have to allow for structural maintenance planning.
The formulation has to account for fatigue, corrosion, and their interaction considering
explicitly the possibility of fatigue cracks in all joints of the midship section as well as
corrosion of each individual plate in the midship section.
The decision to repair a ship is not based on the status of one specific crack or one specific
corroded plate but instead on a generalized state of deterioration. This can be modelled by a
global variable such as for example the midship section modulus, which changes with time
with the growth of strength degradation phenomena. Therefore, the expected value of crack
sizes and of the plate thickness as a function of time has to be described. Consequently, the
midship section modulus should be modelled as a random variable whose mean and
standard deviation change with time.
The needs for such an approach has been discussed in Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1996c),
where a method was developed to assess the reliability of the ship hull subjected to potential
cracks initiated at the weldments between stiffeners and the plating. Crack propagation
included the effect of the longitudinal stresses associated with the overall bending of the
hull. The simultaneous effect of a random number of cracks was accounted for by
considering the decrease in the net sectional area that is available to resist the vertical
bending of the hull.
However, inspection and repair work performed during a ship’s lifetime does not allow a
dramatic spreading of cracks to be developed. This effect was incorporated in the time
variant formulation of ship hull reliability by Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1996b). That
formulation and the corresponding results yielded the required information to assess the
effect of inspections and repairs at different points in time on the reliability of the hull
girder, as shown for tankers and containers by Garbatov & Guedes Soares (1996).
The other important strength degradation phenomenon is corrosion and the effect of repair.
Plate replacement in a ship hull subjected to corrosion was modelled in a similar way as the
fatigue problem, by equating the repaired state of the structure to the state of the structure at
an earlier time in its life as shown by Guedes Soares & Garbatov (1996d). The formulation
accounted for the contribution of individual plate elements, which were allowed to have
different properties. However, elements that are subjected to similar conditions will exhibit
similar corrosion rates. This was recognized in a further approach Guedes Soares &
Garbatov (1997) that accounted explicitly for the correlation between the corrosion rates of
neighboring elements showing that differences of the order of 20% can be achieved.
Normally both fatigue and corrosion will be present and their combined effect needs to be
considered in that the decreased net section due to corrosion increases the stress levels,
which in turn increases the rate of crack growth. This effect has been considered in Guedes
Soares & Garbatov (1998) showing that depending on the repair policy adopted one of the
two phenomena (i.e., fatigue or corrosion) would be the dominating ones.
Ships are subjected to periodic major inspections and repair action, which has been every
four years but, recently, was increased to every five years (IACS 2005). Therefore, the
assessment of the reliability as a function of time needs to consider this reality. Reliability
prediction could be used to decide on the most useful interval between inspections but in
this case it must be based on the need to inspect a large number of potential cracks and
corroded plates. This requires a way to effectively average the results.
A formulation for the assessment of the reliability of a ship hull with respect to failure of
longitudinal members as result of fatigue and corrosion was presented by Guedes Soares &
Garbatov (1999a,b). The model allows for the existence of multiple cracks and accounts for
crack growth. The midship section modulus is described by a stochastic process. A new
model is presented for the effect of corrosion, which is a time dependent process with two
stages. In the first one, there is no corrosion due to a protective coating. Upon failure of the
protection system, general corrosion decreases plate thickness and affects the midship
section modulus. The inspection is modelled as a random process. One repair policy is
considered in the example consisting of plate replacement when its thickness reaches 75%
of the original thickness. The time dependent degrading effect of corrosion and crack
growth are also modelled as random processes. The reliability is predicted by a time variant
formulation and the effects of maintenance actions in increasing the reliability are shown.
The sensitivity of the reliability estimates with respect to several parameters is also studied.
The formulation has been applied to a tanker where four different inspection polices were
created for comparative analyses. They reflect good, average, bad and zero maintenance
actions.
Garbatov & Guedes Soares (2002) adopted a Bayesian approach to update some of the
parameters of the probability distributions governing the reliability assessment of
maintained floating structures. The approach was based on a time dependent fatigue
reliability formulation presented earlier but the description of the time to crack initiation,
crack growth law and probability of crack detection are updated using the information from
inspections.
Paik et al. (2003f) studied the time-variant reliability and risk of hull girder collapse
considering the effects of pit/general corrosion, fatigue cracking and local denting. They
showed that the repair scheme for heavily deteriorated members needs to be based on the
reduction of ultimate strength reliability of the system and its individual members rather
than on plate thickness only.
Ivanov et al. (2003) developed reliability-based renewal criteria for aging ship hull
structures. Reliability based management of inspection, monitoring, maintenance and repair
of various types of offshore structures was developed by Moan (2004) and Moan et al.
(2004). The authors focused on management of hull damage due to crack growth and
corrosion whilst operational experiences with respect to degradation of various types of
offshore structures are summarized. Li et al. (2004) studied risk-based approaches for cost-
benefit inspection and repair of corroded hull structures.
8.3 Repair Methods
When scantlings have deteriorated to minimum levels permitted by the classification society
involved, the wasted plating and stiffeners are to be cropped and renewed (DNV 2000). If
the deformation is local and of a limited extent, it could generally be faired out. Deformed
plating in association with a generalized reduction in thickness should be partly or
completely renewed.
Buckling can also occur in way of local structure. In such cases, the damaged area is to be
cropped and partly renewed. If the deformations are extensive, replacement of the plating,
partly or completely, may be necessary. If the deformation is not in association with a
generalized reduction in thickness or is due to excessive loading, additional strengthening
should be considered.
The fatigue cracking that occurs at the boundary of weld connections as a result of latent
defects should be veed-out, appropriately prepared and re-welded. For fatigue cracking at
plating or stiffeners, the structure should be cropped and partly renewed. For fatigue
cracking of some structures, re-welding and renewal may not be a permanent solution and
an attempt should be made to improve the design and construction in order to obviate a
recurrence. IACS (IACS 1999, 2002, 2004a) provides detailed guidelines for repair
methods.
Figure 13: A schematic of the Sandwich Plate System (SPS 2005)
An alternative repair method is the use of adhesive bonded patches which is applied to
offshore structures. This method is beneficial because it may not interrupt production of
the installation, while only the damaged area may need to be shut down. Another benefit
of this repair method is that no fire hazard exists during repair because no hot work is
undertaken. Composite (fibre reinforced plastic) patches can be bonded or laminated
over the structure to bridge and reinforce corroded or cracked areas. The use of
composite patch repair methods has proven to be successful in naval ships, bridge and
some infrastructure (Oil & Gas 2001).
Another new technology for repair is the so-called Sandwich Plate System (SPS), which
consists of two metal plates bonded to a compact elastomer core, see Fig. 13. The
elastomer provides continuous support to the plates and stops local plate buckling and
eliminates the need for stiffeners. SPS replaces conventional stiffened metal plates in
maritime, offshore and civil engineering structures. It is used for new construction and
also, as SPS overlay, for repair and conversion. SPS overlay bonds a new top plate to the
existing structure in a process that is quick and economical (SPS 2005). The SPS
technology is certified by several classification societies and is beginning to be widely
used, e.g., for new construction of barges and repair of damaged hull parts in the parallel
mid-body, although some speculation still remain in terms of shear and fatigue strengths.
9. FUTURE TRENDS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
This report presents current practices, recent advances and future trends for condition
assessment of aged steel ships. Related deterioration such as corrosion, fatigue cracking and
local denting, their mechanism, methods for their detection and measurements,
mathematical models for their prediction, and their correction / protection measures, are
reviewed. Reliability analysis and risk-based decision procedures for cost-benefit
inspection and remedial actions are surveyed.
It has been appreciated that in recent years, proactive and close-up inspection, maintenance
and repair techniques have been developed and used in practice. As a ship ages, various
types of deterioration such as corrosion, fatigue cracks, impact damage, indications of
inadequate design or fabrication and coating breakdown appear.
Inspection is then required to detect such deterioration before a catastrophic, polluting or

expensive failure results. Relevant inspections can find any excessive deterioration so as to
take adequate remedial action such as repair, replacement or adjustment. The inspections
themselves do not affect the likelihood of structural failure.
Traditionally, inspection frequencies have been determined by prescriptive practices usually

based on time-based or calendar-based intervals. When plenty of operational experience is
available, such traditional practices are generally considered to be adequate. However, such
practice does not take account of the likelihood of structural failure nor the failure
consequences.
In some cases, the activities of inspection or repair are not enough, while they are excessive
in other cases. Furthermore, the current practices are difficult to ensure whether or not the
activities performed are adequate in terms of the safety and reliability improvements and
cost-benefits.
In this regard, a systematic approach which can achieve a balance between risk and cost-
benefit is needed. Risk-based inspection can provide an excellent tool to evaluate the
likelihood and consequences of structural failures and provide an optimum inspection
process which effectively reduces the associated risk of failure keeping the costs of
inspection and remedial actions minimal. The risk-based inspection approach can develop
the cost-benefit inspection plan that can prevent the failures of the structure resulting in
safety, environmental or economic concerns.
The same is true for maintenance activities. A risk-based maintenance and repair scheme is
a systematic process of applying risk management and control techniques for improving the
reliability of structural components which govern the system reliability.
It is apparent that a number of problems areas still remain to be resolved in terms of risk-
based method applications for cost-benefit inspection, maintenance and repair of aging
ship structures. This report has highlighted the need for better understanding of
uncertainties in inspection and monitoring information in addition to damage models and
material strength to assist the development of risk based condition assessment of aged
ships.
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16th INTERNATIONAL SHIP AND

OFFSHORE STRUCTURES CONGRESS

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 269

2. CURRENT PRACTICES FOR CONDITION ASSESSMENT................................. 269

3. MECHANISMS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION ...................................... 273

4. DAMAGE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT METHODS.............................. 277

5. MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION .............. 283

6. CORRECTIVE / PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR AGE RELATED

7. RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF AGED SHIPS ......................................................... 292

8. INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR ..................................................... 296

9. FUTURE TRENDS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ........................................... 304

2. CURRENT PRACTICES FOR CONDITION ASSESSMENT

2.1 Condition Assessment Scheme

2.2 Enhanced Survey Programme

Note: S = special survey; I = intermediate survey; A = annual survey.

2.3 Condition Assessment Programme

2.4 Guidelines for Surveys, Assessment and Repair

2.5 Emergency Response Services

2.6 Ship Inspection Report Programme

2.7 Insurance Inspection

3. MECHANISMS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION

In ship structures, age related deterioration is primarily meant to be corrosion wastage,

3.1 Corrosion Wastage

(d) Upper Deck Plate (e) Upper Deck Plate

Inert Gas H2O O 2 SO2 CO2

Figure 1 shows a schematic representation of the mechanisms that generate general

Generation of Pitting Corrosion Progress of Pitting Corrosion

sludge, heavy oil coat

mill- scale defect mill- scale sulphurated iron film

drop of dew, deposit, film

3.2 Fatigue Cracking

To achieve greater fatigue durability in a structure, therefore, stress concentrations, flaws

3.3 Local Denting

4. DAMAGE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT METHODS

4.1 Corrosion Detection and Measurements

4.1.1 Current Practice

Corrosion in ships is nowadays generally measured by ultrasonic sensors. The time

4.1.2 Other Advanced Methods

4.2 Fatigue Crack Detection and Measurement

Cracking is a localized problem, and therefore local detection is needed. As ship

Generally, crack detection needs off-service inspections. Ultrasonic surface guided

4.3 Mechanical Damage Detection and Measurement

Uncertainties in the methods for detecting and measuring structural deterioration

Fatigue crack inspection for is usually performed by visually. Non-destructive testing

Figure 4: A schematic of probability of detection (POD) as a function of crack size (HSE

5. MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF AGE RELATED DETERIORATION

5.1 Corrosion Wastage Models

Corrosion behaviour is represented schematically in Fig.5. Common causes of ship hull

Figure 5: A schematic of corrosion progress for marine steels as a function of exposure

Figure 6: Percentage of surface area coating breakdown as a function of exposure period

0 τc τc +τt Structure age t (years)

5.2 Fatigue Cracking Damage Models

Since cracks can conceivably lead to catastrophic failure of a structure, it is essential to

Crack growth is assessed by fracture mechanics. In this approach, a major task is to

5.3 Corrosion Fatigue Models

5.4 Local Denting Damage Models

6. CORRECTIVE / PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR AGE RELATED

6.1 Corrosion Correction / Protection Measures

6.2 Fatigue Crack Correction / Protection Measures

WELD GEOMETRY TIG Dressing

Figure 9: Classification of some weld improvement methods (Kirkhope et al. 1997)

Figure 10: A new unloading system

6.3 Mechanical Damage Correction / Protection Measures