Texas Water Utility Handbook

CHAPTER 2
GROUND WATER SUPPLIES
ANDREW L. WILLIAMS, JR., P.E.
Consulting Engineer
Houston, Texas
Ground Water is important to each person and to each living crea-

ture. Proper management of both fresh and saline ground water re-
sources is vital for our life style. Ground water managers and their col-
leagues are important to each person served by their water systems. They
guard our health, safety, and economic wellbeing by providing adequate
quantities of acceptable quality water. In a large measure, our destiny
and standard of living depend on good water management.
Commitment to provide water is an awesome responsibility. Much
like marriage, contracting to provide water should not be undertaken
hastily, without adequate knowledge of anticipated costs, or without eq-
uitable provisions for meeting unanticipated changes. Changes are natu-
ral and occur constantly, both structurally and cyclically. Preparing for
changes merits our best efforts.
The satisfaction and pleasure in being able to provide life-sustaining
water are immeasurable. The challenges and the self-giving demands
of the water industry appeal to people who are dedicated to the Good
Samaritan life style. They are good neighbors and true friends. Welcome
to the great fraternity of water utility people.
Each ground water system is unique. The manager is challenged
to recognize the individual features of each system in each phase of explo-
ration, development and production. The benefits of optimal use of a
ground water system are obtained by detailed planning, sophisticated
testing and evaluating test data, careful drilling and developing of each
producing water well, proper selection of pumping equipment, and com-
petent well field operations. Each step in the development and operation
of a ground water system is essential to insuring a safe, reliable water
source with acceptable performance and service life.
Two-thirds of the world’s fresh water and 95 percent of the usable
fresh water is stored below the land surface as ground water. Remember
that less than 1 percent of the world’s water was drinkable before man
22 MANUAL OF WATER UT ILITY OPERATIONS
began polluting. We cannot afford water pollution - there is not enough

water available.
Ground Water Underlying Texas. - An aquifer is an under-
ground formation that is permeable enough to yield economic quantities
of water to wells. Aquitards and aquicludes are impermeable confining
beds. Seven major aquifers and sixteen minor aquifers underlie more
than half of Texas. From the northwest to the southeast, the major aqui-
fers occur on the land surface in outcrop areas called:
Ogallala (High Plains)
Edwards Trinity (Plateau)
Edwards (Balcones Fault Zone - Austin Region)
Edwards (Balcones Fault Zone - San Antonio Region)
Trinity Group
Carrizo - Wilcox Formations
Gulf Coast Group
The Gulf Coast Group includes the Chicot, Evangeline, and Upper
Jasper aquifers. Alluvium and bolson deposits occur in several regions.
The sixteen minor aquifers yield large quantities of water in small areas
or small quantities of water in large areas.
These aquifers store about 140 trillion gallons of rechargeable water
and receive about 1.6 trillion gallons average annual natural recharge.
One trillion gallons of water can be visualized as about one cubic mile
volume, or enough to fill the equivalent of about 10,000 -4strodomes.
Metropolitan Houston uses about one Astrodome of water each day.
More than half is pumped from wells. These wells tap aquifers averaging
about 300 feet in thickness composed of fine to medium-sized sands, with
about 20 percent pore space between sand grains. The volume of water
in the aquifer is 20 percent of its total thickness, which is equal to about
60 feet of water depth. Therefore, one may visualize the Houston area
as being covered with a 60-feet depth of water equal to the pore volume
of the aquifer underlying the area. Then consider a cross-section of aqui-
fer from outcrop to discharge or contact with salt water. Next, consider
the aquifer dimensions, volume, and movement of water in the Gulf
Coast region. These considerations vigorously exercise the imagination
to adequately conceive of the huge volumes of ground water in storage.
Texans currently use about 3.6 trillion gallons from wells annually.
About one-half of municipal water (0.43 trillion gallons) is obtained
from ground water sources located in almost every county of the state.
In some areas, however, the possible overdraft (excessive pumpage) of
ground water is lowering water levels, causing major water supply prob-
lems to occur now, or likely to occur in the foreseeable future.
GROUND WATER S UPPLIES 23
The adequacy of natural recharge to aquifers determines the feasi-

bility of the safe yield approach to ground water management. In areas
where natural recharge is negligible, mining at a decreasing annual rate
may be necessary and practical, dependent on aquifer hydrologic capa-
bilities. More conjunctive use of both ground and surface water may be
required to satisfy increasing demands for water. Regional management
of water resources may improve efficiency and extend ground water pro-
duction service life. Partial demineralization and blending of brackish
surface and ground water with existing water supplies may become more
feasible. Importation from remote sources may be necessary to meet in-
creased demands and to alleviate water problems, such as overdrafting
and land surface subsidence.
Hydrologic Cycle. - The natural circulation of water in the air,
above and below the ground surface, is called the hydrologic cycle. A
drop of water moves from ocean to cloud, to rain, to surface infiltration
or runoff, to ground water, and back to ocean. Along the cycle, the water
may move through surface to ground to surface water systems many
times and will change states from liquid to gas, to solid possibly, to liquid.
Figures 1 and 2 illustrate an hydrologic cycle.
q Sand 0 Shale
FIG . 2-1. - Hydrologic Cycle.
24 M ANUAL OF W ATER UTILITY OPERATIONS
PRECIPITATION
Rainfall. Snow. etc.
hh
RUNOFF PERCOLATION TRANSPIRATION
FIG . 2-2. - Hydrologic Cycle.
Production of Water from Wells. - Ground water can be captured

by pumping water wells. The wells function in somewhat the same way
that dams and reservoirs capture surface water. The well structure is
like the reservoir discharge penstock, in that it provides a means of access
to the ground water contained in the aquifer. The well pump is like the
dam gate, in that it controls the rate of withdrawal from the reservoir.
The aquifer filters suspended solids as water enters it, provides a conduit
for ground water flow, reduces water losses to the atmosphere, protects
and stabilizes water quality, and maintains artesian pressure when con-
fined by aquitards. The portion of the aquifer in which the water levels
in the well do not rise above the top of the aquifer is called a water table
aquifer. The portion of the aquifer enclosed by aquitards, in which the
water level in the water well rises above the top of the aquifer, is called
an artesian aquifer. A flowing artesian well taps an artesian aquifer un-
der sufficient pressure to cause the water level in the water well to rise
above the land surface. The water table is commonly called the water
level surface elevation inside the idle water well. Water levels fluctuate
with the rate and duration of pumping and other factors. For good ground
water management, it is essential to keep and frequently evaluate accu-
rate and long-term well and pump performance records. In both produc-
ing and idle wells, and observation wells, measurements of changes in
water levels, rate and duration of production, water quality, and operat-
ing characteristics should be recorded regularly.
Locating a water well or well field involves investigation, explora-
tion, evaluation, and ground water management through drilling, devel-
oping, equipping, and producing of the well system. Figure 3 illustrates
the futility of folklore in searching for ground water. Consult the experts.
GROUND WATER SUPPLIES
(An Age Old ProblemI)
FIG . 2-3. - Folklore Searching for Water. -
It is essential to consult with competent and locally experienced pro-

fessional ground water specialists, including engineers, scientists, tech-
nologists, and drillers. In feasibility studies, search for suitable aquifers,
evaluation of geologic, geophysical, and hydrologic characteristics of the
aquifers, analyses of existing wells, test drilling and water quality sam-
pling programming, design of water wells, test pumping evaluation,
pumping equipment selecting, assessment of safe yields and impacts on
regional hydrologic systems, there is no substitute for obtaining and im-
plementing the best technical advice available. The professional fees are
good investments toward enjoying the benefits of long-term, efficient,
and reliable ground water supplies.
Major technical concerns include well field location, number of
wells, pumping rates, well spacing, long term impacts on water levels,
quantity, and quality as related to the aquifer under study.
Abundant ground water sources are associated with plentiful sur-
face water, broad regional aquifers, deep filled valleys called bolson de-
posits, and long river flood plains called alluvium deposits. Texas has
a range of 8 to 56 inches normal annual precipitation, diminishing from
east to west along north-south somewhat irregular contours.
Fresh water is stored in significant volumes in some semi-arid and
arid areas underlain by bolson, alluvium, and other deposits which re-
ceive scant recharge. The deposits were laid down in earlier times under
different climatic conditions.
The water moves through most aquifers slowly, minimizing the ef-
fects of wet and dry weather cycles. Velocities may range from feet per
year to feet per day. Measurement of approximate velocity involves de-
termining the slope of the hydraulic gradient, porosity, and hydraulic
conductivity, and can involve the use of tracers or environmental isotopes
in the aquifer. The huge volumes of ground water stored in the aquifers
further minimize the impact of droughts.
The occurrence, movement, pumping, and conservation of ground
water can be analyzed mathematically. Many aspects of ground water
can be measured and monitored physically. The effects of pumping, re-
charging, and cleaning up pollution can be predicted over a wide range
of time intervals. Predictions on the performance of major well fields
drilled twenty to forty years ago have proven quite accurate. Ground wa-
ter managers can rely on competent ground water professionals to gener-
ate accurate projections of well field performance required for effective
long range planning and funding.
Life of a Typical Ground Water System. - The life of a typical
ground water system can be visualized in a sequential progression as fol-
lows:
Conceptual Studies
Feasibility Analyses
Siting of Test Drilling
Sampling Program
Design of Water Well Field
Drilling, Developing, and Pumping Wells
Selection and Installation of Pumping Equipment
Maintenance of Production Capacity by Restorative Pump and/
or Well Repairs, preferably when scheduled
Figures 4 and 5 illustrate typical test drilling project data, including:
Driller’s log describing thickness and appearance of formations pen-
etrated and sampled
Lithology log further describing formations
Alignment survey of bore to confirm suitability for casing and well
pump installation
Electrical induction log to show characteristics of position,
thickness, and general water quality or the test drilled
formations
Gamma Ray or (SP) for formation water quality data and forma-
GROUND W ATER S UPPLIES 21
.
FIG . 2-4. - Sample the Formations.
T-c
FIG 2-5. - Read the Logs.

tion evaluation
Special purpose logs to detect gas, radioactivity and mud cake
Caliper log to measure diameter of drilled or underreamed hole
Figure 6 depicts a method of water sampling from up to 20 feet
thickness of aquifer by pumping from a temporary water well. The screen
section is sealed above and below screen openings.
WATER QUALITY SAMPLING

FROM TEST WELL
DISCHARGE
7 PIPING
-CASING
- PUMP
-GRAVEL
-SCREEN
Fig. 2-6 - Sample by Pumping.
Figure 7 illustrates the decision to complete the test hole as a pro-

duction well or to abandon site.
GROUNDWATERSUPPLIES 29
FIG . 2-7. - Do You Complete the Test Hole as a Well?
Figure 8 depicts the first step in construction of a production water

well. The test hole is reamed to the top of the aquifer. The reamed hole
is about 4 inches larger in diameter than the casing. The casing is con-
nected by water tight welded joints. The annular space outside the casing
is pressure cemented from bottom to land surface. The casing provides
access to the aquifer and prevents entry of water from land surface and
from formations overlying the producing aquifer. The casing size is se-
onouTEc
CCNWJCfW
Culwo I
YINIWJY
0
2 c3
w-55 HOUR5
TO nAmNl
aEAuEc TIE51
~OMUPIPE omum
MOLI!
-PuuFm
CEUEW
HOLEOPSNW
WI
Pa01 01
CEUENT 5MOE
PILOTW
(ormmu)
EUEUT
l-4-l 5nm.uo
FIG . 2-8. - Construction of a Production Well.

lected to house the pump and to afford installation of screen and gravel
pack. The screen openings and gravel pack grain sizes are designed for
easy access of water to the well bore with minimum sand content.
Figure 9 depicts installation of screen with wash line for flushing
in advance of screen.
-v-
-SUNPACE
CASINQ
QNAVEL . , LAP PIPE
-: ;.
KY 1
WALL
CAKE
I----.d 4
UNDERREAMED
SECTION
FIG . 2-9. - Installation of Screen.
Figure 10 illustrates a development process using a tandem swab

straddle packer agitator. The perforations between the swabs allow injec-
tion of well development solutions and, during reverse flow, allow remov-
al of loosened fine grained solids. The agitator is lowered and raised re-
peatedly like a piston in a cylinder to wash, surge, clean, and remove
fine grain size solids from the well bore. The filter gravel settles and sta-
bilizes around the screen, filling the annulus outside the screen in the
underreamed hole. Additional filter gravel may be added during the life
of the well. The filter gravel is sized to retain the aquifer sands in place.
The screen opening, or gauge, is sized to retain the gravel filter in place.
A contingency reserve supply of filter gravel is stored between the well
casing and the lap section of the blank liner. The gravel can slip down-
ward to fill underlying voids in the gravel pack. The well screen liner
and gravel filter are designed for periodic cleansing and replacement
when required. The screen length equals the full thickness of the produc-
ing aquifer in optimal design for horizontal flow from the aquifer.
Segments of blank liner are placed opposite aquitards. Keystone shaped
screen openings are used to allow self cleaning and easy flow of very small
GROUND W ATER S UPPLIES 31
solids into the well bore. In addition to removal of mud cake on the face
of underreamed well bore, removal of the finer grained aquifer material
is frequently pumped from the well during development, pumping tests,
and, at times, during the initial service life of the well. Use of the contrac-
tor’s pumping equipment for development and the pumping tests is rec-
ommended to avoid wear to the owner’s permanent pump. Sand, silt, and
clay solids removal from the well could cause abrasive wear of pump
components.
Mechanical/Chemical
. -
. Wall Cake removed
. Gr~val sl~bilircd
. Formation llowing
l Test Pump devclopmcnl
l Sur@ng
.~Over producing
FIG . 2-10. - Development of Production Well, Phase 1.
Figure 11 illustrates the use of temporary pumping equipment to

complete well development by pumping and back washing to determine
the well’s performance characteristics. The test pumping equipment in-
cludes measurement apparatus for water level, rate of flow, and suspend-
ed solids content of water. Step tests of a few hours each are performed
to measure performance characteristics at varying pumping rates. The
production test extends for a longer time interval to demonstrate compli-
ance with specifications and guarantees. Trends in the regional aquifer
water levels are measured to accurately calculate specific capacity, well
efficiency, and to predict well performance over time. Specific capacity
is defined as the gallons per minute of water produced per foot of water
HYDRAULlC/CHEMlCAl.
ON OFF
FIG . 2-11. - Well Development, Phase 2.
SPECIFIC CAPACITY
Yield and Drawdown Relationship
-
YIELD = 500 (IPM
A
0 =
20 BPM
FOOT OF DRAWDOWN
I
9;
STATIC
DAAWDOWN = 25’ 1 T’T: XTER LEVEL
,PUMPIND
WATER LEVEL
FIG . 2-12. - Calculate Specific Capacity.

GROUND W ATER SUPPLIES 33
level drawdown. Measurements of time periods after starting and stop-

ping the well pump and the rate of production are important.
Figure 12 depicts calculation of specific capacity.
Well efficiency is calculated from the actual specific capacity or
actual drawdown measured by pumping tests and compared to the theo-
retical values obtained by applying Theis’ formula for confined aquifers.
An analogy to heat-flow theory has been used since 1935 to better under-
stand ground water behavior. An analogy of electrical current-flow is
used in ground water analog modeling. Digital models are used to simu-
late ground water movement.
FIG . 2-13. - Causes of Well Failure.
Figure 13 illustrates the changes caused by excessive sand (suspend-

ed solids) production in the screened area of a water well. Overdrafting
and/or plugging of the screen inlet area results in an increase in the wat-
er’s velocity through the screen opening. The increase in velocity in-
creases the suspended solids-carrying capacity of the pumped water.
These solids are frequently loose, fine grained, clay, silt, and sand par-
ticles. The individual water bearing layers may be confined between clay
layers and the voids created by solids removal become larger and larger
as excessive sand pumpage progresses. The clay “roof’ overlying the void
space in the aquifer may collapse and plug screen openings. An accelerat-
ed increase in water entrance velocity in the remaining open screens ac-

companies plugging of part of the screen openings. The solids content
of pumped water also can increase. Thus, the cycle continues until failure
of the well structure. Sloughing and caving of clay roofs interrupts water
flow from the aquifer to the well bore. Failure of the well pump occurs
through solids abrasion, loss of bearing supports, and excessive vibration
of rotating parts. Failure of the water storage facilities, transfer pumps,
and distribution system occurs by filling with solids pumped from the
well. All or any one of these failures can occur instantaneously or gradu-
ally as a result of several factors. Most well failures are probably caused
by improper well design, construction, development or operation. Prob-
ably, over pumping is the easiest cause of failure to detect and to correct.
For evaluating ground water system conditions, periodic measurements
of drawdown of water levels, solids content, water quality, and rates of
flow are the essential data. Analyses of the data by competent ground
water specialists at regular time intervals will serve as preventative or
corrective steps to maintain water production efficiency and reliability.
Plugging of screen openings can result from the precipitation of
hardness scale, algal growth, iron deposits, bacterial growth, or various
combinations. These conditions occur in relatively small local areas. Ex-
perienced ground water specialists can contribute technical guidance
needed for efficient restoration of well production. The use of solutions
composed of detergents, acids, wetting agents, vibratory explosives, and
disinfectants may be appropriate. Various methods of treatments, chem-
icals, mechanical actions, and techniques may be applicable for success-
ful restoration of a well.
One cause of well pump, storage tank, transfer pump, and distribu-
tion system failures can be avoided by controlling and separating the
pumped solids from the pumped water. Ideally, the pumped water is free
of suspended solids upon entry into the well; however, many useful water
wells yield some suspended solids on commencement of pumping. The
water entrance velocities at start-up far exceed the design rate until the
design head pressure is reached. Loose rust, scale, and aquifer particles
may be pumped to the surface on starting. A small trace of solids may
be produced continuously. Sand separators can be used to discharge sol-
ids to waste, and, thus, protect storage, transfer pumps, and distribution
system against solids accumulation.
Ground Water Conditioning may include aeration to improve taste
and odor, degasification to reduce methane, iron, and hardness content,
demineralization, softening, fluoridation, and disinfection by chlorina-
tion or ozonation. The alkalinity and acidity can be adjusted to inhibit
G ROUND W ATER SUPPLIES 35
corrosion of iron and steel and to mitigate scaling or precipitation. Se-

questering agents can be used to alleviate red water problems associated
with iron precipitation. The quality and temperature of ground water
are essentially stable, so that the water conditioning process requires mi-
nor, if any, adjustments over time.
Service Life Aspects. - Ground water supply systems are tradi-
tionally expected to provide water for at least thirty years, which normal-
ly equals the time required to retire the bonds sold to fund construction.
The pumping equipment normally requires repair or replacement of
components at about 8 year intervals; but the unique characteristics of
each individual system cause a wide variation in both service life and
replacement intervals.
In a nationwide study in 1982, inefficiencies in ground water irriga-
tion supply systems were estimated to cause the waste of 7.6 trillion BTU
of energy each year. These losses are largely the result of improper well
design, lack of maintenance, and improper pump and power unit selec-
tion. Energy waste in municipal systems merits continuous concern and
diligent efforts to control.
Aquifer characteristics limiting water withdrawal include grain
size, uniformity and distribution, thickness and permeability, confining
beds, degree of consolidation of grains, chemical composition of forma-
tions and water quality.
Water well characteristics affecting performance and efficiency in-
clude drilling method, casing and screen design and placement, gravel
filter design and placement, well development, and casing cementing or
sealing. Encrustation, corrosion, and sand pumping shorten service life
and reduce efficiency.
Pumping equipment performance is dependent on proper design,
selection, installation, operation, and selection of the power unit. Dam-
age occurs by cavitation, air or sand pumping, encrustation, plugging,
corrosion or any combination of these. Changes in operating conditions
can reduce pump performance efficiency.
Typically, about two-thirds of well construction cost involves labor,
drilling rig use and third party subcontract services. It is economically
prudent to design the well for maximum capacity and to specify quality
casing, screen, and gravel. The typical operating and maintenance costs
of water well and pumps may approximate 30 to 40 cents per 1,000 gal-
lons pumped in 1985 dollars.
Recording Well and Pump Performance Data Regularly is Im-
portant. - Ground water management is greatly enhanced by periodic
testing of water well performance and pumping equipment condition.
At least, annual review of test information will reveal changes in the

aquifer, the well and the pump. These changes may result from changed
conditions in the aquifer, the well, or the pump, separately or in combina-
tion. The importance of accurate and regularly scheduled data collection,
water quality analyses, and good record keeping practices becomes evi-
dent when planning to increase withdrawals by expanding well fields;
to modify withdrawal rates from wells; to restore production from a well;
and to plan preventative maintenance. Good records and preventative
maintenance are required in the efficient management of reliable ground
water systems. Scheduled periodic evaluation of data is the best tool
available to assess the impact of changes.
Sanitary Protection and Consideration. - The duties of the Wa-
ter Hygiene Division of the Texas Department of Health include the en-
forcement of the Rules and Regulations for Public Water Systems adopt-
ed by the Texas Board of Health. These rules govern the design of water
system facilities, changes in facilities, and minimum operating practices
to insure the production and distribution of safe, potable water.
Texans are so accustomed to the benefits of safe, potable water
statewide that little thought is given to sanitary considerations. We have
complete faith in the water industry’s commitment to delivering safe,
potable water. Through education and enforcement, the regulatory agen-
cies have contributed to establishing and maintaining proper water
systems in Texas for more than 100 years. These Rules, based on the
Civil Statutes of Texas, relate to review of plans and specifications for
facilities construction, including an engineering report on new, existing,
changes, or improvements to water system facilities. The water source
quality and quantity conditions must comply with the Rules contained
in Appendix B.
Comparison of Ground Water aud Surface Water Sources. - In
comparing ground water and surface water supplies, the advantages of
ground water obtained from favorable aquifers usually include the fol-
lowing:
The supply is located in or near the area of water use.
The design water quantity is available regardless of weather
changes.
The water quality is uniformly free of suspended solids, harmful
bacteria and viruses.
The water temperature is normally constant year round.
The water is potable as pumped after minimal disinfection, condi-
tioning, or treatment.
The construction, operating, and maintenance costs are less.
G ROUND W ATER SUPPLIES 37
In less favorable aquifers, the disadvantages of ground water may

include:
Higher mineral content
Inadequate quantities
Increased costs of deep wells and pump settings
Increased temperature which may require cooling before use
Subsidence of land surface
Encroachment of salt water
Activation of movement along faults
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The assistance of many persons contributed significantly to the fifth

revision of this chapter. Their interest and general support is gratefully
acknowledged. These persons include: Harl Barlitt, Alsay Corporation,
Charles Schaefer, Bovay Engineers, John Seifert, William F. Guyton
Associates, and Frances Williams, all of Houston, Texas.
REFERENCES
1. AWWA No. 10003 Glossary - Water and Waste Water Control Engineering, 3rd Ed.
2. AWWA A 100-84 Standard for Water Wells
3. AWWA E-101.77, American National Standard for Vertical Turbine Pumps - Line
Shaft and Submersible Type
4. AWWA M21, Ground Water
5. AWWA 200167, Improving Well and Pump Efficiency
6. AWWA, Small Systems Resource Book
7. AWWA 20223, Design and Construction ofSmall Water Systems - A Guide for Man-
agers
8. EPA-570/9-75-001 Manual of Water Well Construction Practices
9. NWWA, Ground Water - Defined, National Water Well Association, 6375 Riverside
Dr., Dublin, Ohio 43017
10. R. Allan Freeze and Cherry, John A., Ground Water, Prentice-Hall. 1977.
11. Water for Texas Vol 1 - Executive Summary, Vol. 2 - Technical Appendix, Texas Wa-
ter Development Board. 1984
CHAPTER 3
SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES
WILLIAM F. BUCHHOLZ. Jr.

Vice President, Camp Dresser & McKee Inc.
Texas receives an average of about 413 million acre-feet of rain per

year. Some of this becomes ground water, some is transpired back to the’
atmosphere by vegetation, and some is evaporated. The remainder enters
our streams and rivers and is available as surface water.
This chapter discusses the methods commonly used to study how
to best capture and control this water, the economic factors which influ-
ence the development of surface water projects, methods of operating
reservoirs, and the policy decisions made which govern all of these activi-
ties. Analyses can be simple and straightforward or complex, sometimes
involving recent computer techniques. This chapter presents the histori-
cal methods, touches on the more sophisticated methods, and mentions
recent changes which may alter our ways of thinking about surface water
supplies, and their utilization.
SURFACE WATER PATTERNS
Stream flows vary both geographically and with time. Geographi-

cally flow patterns match rainfall patterns. There is much more water
available in East Texas than in West Texas. Table 3-l illustrates this.
The average runoff in the Sabine Basin is more than twenty times that
in the Canadian Basin.
In addition to geographical variability there is variation with time.
West Texas streams are “flashy”; it is not unusual for the streams to
be dry except for two or three times a year, when they may breach their
banks and create havoc. The variations with time are more problematic
than the geographical variations for the analyst because it is only the
geographical over which the developer of a surface supply has any con-
trol.
THE NEED FOR RESERVOIRS
Texas has no natural lake entirely within its boundaries, yet, on the
38
S URFACE W ATER SUPPLIES 39
average, in much of Texas there is enough rain and thereby surface water
in the streams and rivers to satisfy local, long-term needs. The great vari-
ability in flows, however, means that at times there is too much water
and at other times not nearly enough: Texas’ typical pattern of flood and
droughts. These conditions of enough water “on the average” but with
more or less recurring cycles of very high and very low flows makes the
need for storage of water the obvious solution. If the shape of the basin
is appropriate, soil and other conditions are economically favorable,
building reservoirs is the natural and most advantageous choice.
TABLE 3-1. - Summary of Average Annual Runoff per Square Mile in Major Texas River
Basins during the Period 1940-1956. One Acre-Foot Equals 326,000 gal-
lons.
Contributing Drainage Average Runoff

Area in Texas 19404956
River Basin (Square Miles) (AC-Ft/YdSq Mi)
Canadian River Basin 9,405 34

Red River Basin 19,191 124
Sulphur River Basin 3,558 669
Cypress Creek Basin 2,812 569
Sabine River Basin 7,383 682
Neches River Basin 9,995 584
Trinity River Basin 17,845 326
San Jacinto River Basin 3,932 491
Brazes River Basin 35,400 149
Colorado River Basin 29,863 58
Lavaca-Navidad River Basin 2,475 256
Guadalupe River Basin 6,033 159
San Antonio River Basin 4,217 95
Nueces River Basin 16,954 28
Rio Grande River Basin 40,045 -14*
Coastal Basins 14,487 306
Rio Grande Drainage 1,777 35
Texas as a Whole 225,372 172
l Including effects of treaty provisions.
All of these conditions have existed and there is a long history of

constructing reservoirs in Texas; more than 5,700 of them now exist,
ranging in size from Lake Texoma, 5,380,OOO acre-feet, and Toledo
Bend, with 5,102,OOO acre-feet of storage, to the almost innumerable
small stock tanks built by farmers and ranchers. This has been driven
by Texas’ economy, which has been one of strong economic growth, both
agriculturally and industrially, an expanding population, and abundant
natural resources, creating the need for reservoirs and helping provide
40 MANUAL OF WATER UTILITY OPERATIONS
the money to build them.

Reservoirs benefit downstream users by reducing, or, in some cases
eliminating, downstream flooding, and benefit all users by storing water
for use during droughts by providing a secure source for drinking, indus-
try, and agriculture. Their existence also can produce recreation, gener-
ate electricity and provide aesthetic pleasure. Reservoirs are a way of
life in Texas.
ENGINEERING ANALYSIS OF RESERVOIR SITES
The multiple uses of reservoirs raises problems. Occasionally these

uses are complimentary, for example, storing water to prevent down-
stream flooding provides a supply during droughts. Also they can be con-
tradictory; releasing water to produce power may reduce the water avail-
able for other purposes. When deciding whether or not to build an im-
poundment, and if so the location, size and uses must be reconciled. In
addition is the question of who should pay and how much. These are com-
plex problems: technical, economic, and political.
General Site Selection. - A suitable reservoir site should be se-
lected on the basis of a number of interrelated engineering and economic
factors. There are eight engineering factors. The shape of the basin
should allow storing of large amounts of water by building relatively
small dams. A narrow, deep gorge fanning out into a broad valley is ideal.
Few such sites exist in East Texas, and in West Texas many sites are
just the opposite. Soil conditions are critical. Above all, soil should pro-
vide a solid foundation; it also should resist seepage and provide suitable
materials for construction. It is good if the area to be flooded presents
few problems; best is a sparsely populated, low value land, with few trees
and little vegetation, and no major roads or railroads. The shape should
prevent short-circuiting of stored water and the rise and fall of the water
level should not leave extensive mud flats on the bottom of the reservoir.
Related to the flooded basin is the downstream area which is to be protec-
ted; the uses of this protected land must be considered. All water rights
and water quality must be analyzed; finally, the environmental impacts
must be investigated. In Texas this is a major issue and in some instances
reservoir construction has been postponed for many years for environ-
mental conflicts to be resolved.
Period of Use. - The useful life of a reservoir is determined on
economic factors. The following must be considered:
1. The useful life of the structure and related equipment.
2. The ease with which the reservoir might be expanded.
S U R F A C E W ATER SU P P L I E S 41
3. The expected rate at which municipal, industrial, and agricul-

tural water needs will grow.
4. The interest rate used in financing construction.
5. Inflations’ effect
6. How the system will function in its early years when it is probably
underused compared to its later years.
Estimated life expectancy for dams have ranged from 25 years for
small structures to 50 years for large structures, but it is now common
to expect that for major facilities the minimum should be 50 years. Res-
ervoirs created during the depression of the 1930’s are functioning well
today.
There is a rule of thumb that for a major dam 20 years elapse from
concept to use. Thus, foresight and rigorous planning are essential to cre-
ating any reservoir. It is not possible to “wait to the last minute” to plan
a reservoir.
Basic Methods of Analysis. - When analyzing a potential reser-
voir site the initial question is: How much water should the reservoir hold,
and therefore, how big should the dam be? The answer depends upon
too-
5;
6
g coo- cmulrtln Yithdrawal
5 Rescwoir Full
2
E 5DO-
';
8
E 400-
5 0
5
CLmulatlve Ruloff
Stert of Dry Period
D~""""l'l 1
012 3 4 5 6 78 9 10 11 12
Ibaths
FIG . 3-l. - Typical Rippl or Mass Diagram showing Relationship Between Inflow and
Withdrawal.
how water flows into the reservoir and how water will be withdrawn from
it.
One way to answer this and related questions, is through the use
of a Mass Diagram, developed by Rippl in 1883. It is simple in its ele-
gance.
The method is illustrated in Figure 3-l. Cumulative runoff is plotted
against time. The cumulative rate of withdrawal is similarly plotted, with
the starting point tangent to the runoff plot at the start of the dry period.
The maximum difference between these two curves is the maximum defi-
ciency the reservoir will experience. If the cumulative draft line does not
intersect the cumulative runoff line, the reservoir will not completely re-
fill before the next cycle and this could cause trouble in future years.
With all of this information, it is possible to estimate how low the
water will get, when water will be spilled, and what the water level will
be at any one time. It is possible to use non-constant withdrawal rates
and to do the analysis mathematically rather than graphically, with
much more accurate results.
99.9 , , , , , , I I I I I I I I p’
146 mg onw in l@l yarn
99 137mgonwin5oywrs
123 mg onw II 20 years
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so-
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so-
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Straight linr of best fit
3-2. - Frequency Distribution of Required Storage plotted on Arithmetic-

Probability Paper.
S URFACE W A T E R S U P P L I E S 43
The Rippl Method may be carried out again and again for every
year of record, superimposing future withdrawal rates onto past runoff
rates. However, this method, in its clear simplicity, ignores a major obvi-
ous fact that past flows are not likely to repeat themselves precisely and
there are no assurances that the patterns of the past will be those of the
future. Historical flow data are statistical values. Therefore, statistical
methods have been developed to account for these variations. In the most
common method, frequency distribution plots are created. Data are ar-
ranged in order of magnitude and the percent of time a specific value
is equalled or exceeded is calculated and plotted against the values, typi-
cally on arithmetic-probability paper. See Figure 3-2. It is then possible
to choose a design storage value which is exceeded, say, only 5% of the
time; this means that once every 20 years, on the average, we may expect
to run out of water. To choose this value is a policy decision. Are policy
makers willing to accept this risk or would they prefer to be safer and
run out of water on the average only 1% of the time (once every 100
years), and are those who pay for the construction willing to pay the extra
cost for this protection? These are important questions.
It must be remembered that statistical analyses are based on histori-
cal records and are “on the average.” Existing records may include many
unusual years and thus not accurately reflect the future, and “on the
average” does not mean that if the 100 year storage value is exceeded
this year that it will not be exceeded again for 100 years; it may happen
again next year.
There are other difficulties with statistical analyses. Frequently,
records are available for fewer years than the proposed economic life of
the project; to extrapolate to a 100 year design condition with only 50
years of data is treacherous. Also, it is the years of high flow and of low
flow which are the years of interest and it is precisely these years where
the least data are available. Those data are the least reliable also. Finally,
Texas is developing rapidly and changing conditions alter runoff patterns
and ran off from a pasture 50 years ago may now be running off of a
suburban development; the past does not accurately predict the future.
Much study has gone into overcoming the deficiencies of mass diag-
rams and frequency analyses. The developed methods are complicated,
involve use of probabilistic, statistic and/or simulation techniques with
the help of sophisticated computer programs. Because of their complexi-
ty, these complicated advanced methods should be applied only by prop-
erly trained experts.
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF RESERVOIR SITES
Methods of Analysis. - Projects are analyzed economically for

two reasons. First, to see if building a project makes economic sense, and
second, if there are multiple project choices which might be built, to see
which is the best, that is, range the projects in an order of desirability.
There are a number of methods and each has its strengths and weak-
nesses. There is much theory and discussion about the different methods
but the consensus is that the Present Worth (PW) and Benefit/Cost Ra-
tio (B/C methods are the most applicable and that the PW method is
the better of these two.
In the PW method, the dollar value of the benefits accruing to a
project for each year of its life are discounted back to the present at a
certain interest rate (similar to calculating mortgage payments, but in
reverse) and from this is subtracted the cost of building the project and
the discounted operating and maintenance costs. If the benefits are
greater than the costs, the project should be built; if less, it should not.
This can be expressed as follows:
PW = Present Value of Benefits - Cost of Construction -

Present Value and Cost of Upkeep
If PW exceeds zero the project should be built. If multiple projects are

being analyzed, the one with the greatest PW should be built first, the
one with the second highest PW second.
In the B/C method, the calculations are identical, but the present
worth of the benefits is divided by the present worth of the costs. This
can be expressed as:
B/C = Present Value of Benefits

Cost Construction + Present Value of Upkeep
If B/C exceeds 1 .O the project should be built; if less than 1 .O it should

not. The project with the highest B/C ratio should be built first. Al-
though both methods will give the same build-no build answer, when ran-
king projects they can, under certain circumstances, give different ran-
kings.
Discussion of Methods of Analysis. - There are a number of
problems, both theoretical and practical, with both of these methods. The
most devilish is uncertainty. Capital costs (construction costs) are the
easiest to estimate; but change orders and unforeseen circumstances
make even these problems for the analyst. Historically, the hardest prob-
lem has been estimating benefits. It has proven extremely nettlesome
to put a dollar value on protecting downstream land from flooding, or
on the future benefits of a water supply, or the most challenging of all

and, in Texas often of great importance, the benefits of recreation. What
interest rate to use is of high importance. A private organization has some
idea of what rate to use because it must borrow money in the market
place. A non-federal public agency has a more difficult time, and if the
project is federally financed the difficulty is that the decision is more
one of policy than technical.
The timing of projects impacts both methods of analysis, and fre-
quently the analysis is clouded when a number of projects are interrela-
ted and it is hard to establish which benefits should be attributed to which
project.
If projects have different life expectancies or different values re-
maining at the end of their lives, the analysis is complicated. If the “flow
of benefits” varies considerably, one having large early benefits and the
other large late benefits, there are problems. Finally, if the size of two
projects vary greatly the analysis is again affected. Of all of these ob-
stacles the most important one is the uncertainty associated with calcu-
lating the benefits and costs and too often there is too much importance
given to subjective benefits. Engineering still prevails. If reasonably cor-
rect estimates of costs and benefits are available, ranking, guided by
common sense, will get the job done. Being too sophisticated gives a false
impression of accuracy and people tend to get trapped into relying too
heavily on the results without considering the reliability of the sources
of the data.
DES!GNING DAMS
Dams are designed on two levels. Preliminary design validates the

engineering analysis and provides cost data. Final design produces plans
and specifications for construction. The engineering process is identical;
it is a matter of detail.
F IG . 3-3. - Typical Cross-Section of Earth Dam Embankment and Core Trench. Not
e
to Scale.
Almost all major dams in Texas have compacted earth em-

bankments with a protective blanket of gravel and an outer layer of stone
riprap on the upstream face. If rock is plentiful and cheap often the em-
bankment is composed mostly of rock and the inner zone is of select, im-
pervious material, placed to insure water tightness. A core trench is typi-
cally excavated to a safely impervious foundation and then backfilled
with selected, compacted material to prevent seepage. Figure 3-3 is a
typical cross-section.
AREA IN l,ooO ACRES
50 40 30 lo 10 0
0 zoo 400 600 so0 l.OCQ

CAPACITY IN l,OW ACRE-FEET
FIG . 3-4. - Typical Reservoir Area Capacity Curves.
Area-Capacity Curves. - To calculate how much water will be

stored and what the surface area of a reservoir will be, area-capacity
curves are devised. Through an analysis of the contour lines on topo-
graphic maps relationships between lake surface elevation, surface area,
and volume are developed. These are usually displayed graphically along
with the tabulated results. Most of the analysis is accomplished with
computers. A typical graph is shown as Figure 3-4.
This can be done for a number of sites, the results compared, and
the most efficient system determined. Other factors may influence the
decision about what to build; the most efficient engineering solution may
S U R F A C E W ATER S U P P L I E S 47
not be the best overall solution. A lake with a small surface area relative
to the volume of water stored reduces both land costs and evaporation
losses, but it may increase the cost of the dam.
Subsurface Conditions. - Perhaps the most important engineer-
ing aspect of dam construction is subsurface conditions. They affect the
structural integrity of the entire works. Subsurface conditions should al-
ways be investigated for the strength and permeability at the dam foun-
dation and locations and quantities of suitable materials of construction.
Core borings should be systematically taken of the foundation strata and
then subjected to laboratory analysis, Auger borings should be taken at
likely borrow areas and these samples also analyzed in the laboratory.
Permeability tests are frequently made along the dam centerline to see
if it can be made watertight and whether special grouting is needed.
All of these factors impact design and the costs of construction. Of-
ten these conditions make a site impractical or uneconomic; in all cases
it is essential that subsurface conditions be investigated thoroughly and
competently.
Spillways. - No matter how carefully or how conservatively an
impoundment is designed there is always the possibility that the runoff
will exceed its capacity and there must be provisions to pass excess waters
through a spillway built over the top of the dam. The spillway protects
the dam itself and is vital to its safety. Also it is expensive. Proper spill-
way design is demanding engineering.
Often there are two spillways, the service spillway and the emergen-
cy spillway. The service spillway is usually built of reinforced concrete
or some other resistant materials and is designed to pass small and medi-
um flows. The emergency spillway is built to handle the extreme high
flows which seldom occur but which nevertheless must be taken into ac-
count. The emergency structure is commonly less resistant to wear from
flowing water. It may be a simple channel cut through one of the abut-
ments, to discharge into the streambed below the dam. In these instances,
it is recognized that repair of the emergency channel will be required
after water flows through it, but this is accepted because it will rarely
happen.
The adequacy of the combined spillway system is evaluated in terms
of a so called “design flood” which represents the biggest theoretically
possible flood the watershed may experience. The design flood often will
be considerably larger than anything reflected in actual records of peak
flows on the stream or neighboring drainage, but storms have been re-
corded in Texas which come close to theoretical limiting rainfall rates.
It is only a matter of time until most watersheds experience these condi-
tions, and the only safe assumption is that this may happen during the
48 MANUAL OF WATER UTILIT’Y OPERATIONS
operating life of the dam.

Normal practice is to build the dam high enough to allow some free-
board above the maximum high water level which could occur during
the design flood. This is done to keep waves from breaking over the top
of the dam at the height of a storm. The amount of freeboard will vary,
depending on reservoir location, depth, size, and shape. Characteristical-
ly, it will range between three and six feet.
Service Outlet and the Diversion Structure. - For most reservoirs
it must be possible to release water and lower the lake level. This provi-
sion, known as the service outlet, consists of some form of conduit, con-
trolled by gates or valves, passing through an abutment or under the dam
at a level relatively near the bottom of the reservoir. If the outlet passes
under the dam, it is desirable to place the control mechanism at the up-
stream end, so that there is no water pressure in the conduit when it is
shut off. This typically consists of an intake tower, standing in the water
at the upstream toe of the dam, with several gated ports for the entry
of water from the lake. The service outlet conduit connects the intake
tower to an outlet channel on the downstream side of the dam. Whenever
water from a reservoir is to be diverted through a pipeline or a canal,
it is necessary to provide for the control, measurement, and often the
pumping of the diversions. These may be handled through a separate
diversion structure, or they may be combined with the service outlet fa-
cilities.
Conflicts and Relocations . - Building a reservoir covering an area
with water which may contain houses, utilities, and privately owned land,
creates conflicts which must be resolved. Often there are environmental
conflicts which must be considered. All of these can greatly delay a proj-
ect and impact its economics, but they must be satisfactorily resolved.
Sedimentation . - All streams carry sediment, the amount depen-
ding upon the basin’s soil conditions, how and to what extent the land
is protected by vegetation and man-made features, and the rate and ex-
tent of rainfall and runoff. In Texas there is a vast difference in the
amounts of sediment carried by different rivers. According to Soil Con-
servation Service records, the Guadalupe River above New Braunfels
carries 2200 cubic feet of silt per year per square mile while the Double
Mountain Fork of the Brazos carries 65,000 cubic feet per year per
square mile, 30 times as much as the Guadalupe.
The amount of sediment carried by a stream influences dam con-
struction because as water entering a reservoir slows the sediment settles
and takes up reservoir capacity which would otherwise be water, thereby
reducing useful capacity. Over time, this can become significant and
must be included in any calculations assessing a reservoir site.

Factors of Safety. - Two types of safety factors are important.
The hydrologic factor of safety is accounted for in the analyses of stream
flow. Still, there is the tendency to hedge against all remaining uncertain-
ty. This takes the form of estimating yields: droughts slightly drier and
floods slightly greater. Typically this is accomplished by providing stor-
age capacity which is to remain unused until a critical drought or to de-
crease the estimated yield by a percentage of that calculated. On the
flood side, the impacts of a slightly larger than expected storm and runoff
can be built into the calculations and structures. This “hedging” is in-
tended to give some further assurance to the users of the safety and surety
of the system. This additional safety must be built into the economic
analysis and not tacked on at the end, for it is quite possible that this
extra safety also will make the project a poor economic choice.
The other safety factors are structural. These factors must be built
into all designs and are to be expected. Structural failure of a dam of
any reasonable size, and especially of a large dam, is unacceptable. The
damage which can happen is both immediate and long-term and results
often in disaster with the awesome results of loss of life and property
damage in the millions of dollars. Design engineers are rightfully conser-
vative in the approach to adding structural factors of safety to all of their
projects.
OPERATING RESERVOIRS
Reservoirs can be operated (i.e. the amount of stored water varied)

on the basis of either generally understood rules which are vague but
flexible or on the basis of a set of rigid predetermined rules. The first
allows for some give and take but leads to resolving conflicts under the
stress of difficult conditions; the second does just the opposite and in this
case a computer program may operate the system. The computer pro-
gram takes into consideration many variable factors such as, rainfall,
runoff, evaporation, area versus capacity relationship, sedimentation,
minimum drawdown and limitations. These two methods may be used
to operate a single reservoir or a series of interrelated reservoirs not all
necessarily on the same stream.
Operating rules contain a preset list of functions which must be per-
formed when a reservoir’s water level is at a specific stage and the de-
mands for the various uses of the water are established. Setting operating
criteria for flood conditions is mainly an engineering decision and the
objective is to preserve the integrity of the system: to protect the land
surrounding the impoundment and the dam itself, and to minimize down-
stream flooding. This necessitates releasing water from storage ahead

of high inflow so that it can be held and not be added to the already high
flows expected downstream. Under extreme circumstances, a decision
must be made to suffer losses from flooded impoundments or from down-
stream flooding. Low flow operating criteria are more difficult to estab-
lish. Keeping water for drinking usually has the highest priority with
. the conservation measures imposed on all uses becoming stricter as the
danger becomes greater.
General operating criteria under typical conditions of neither flood
nor drought are more difficult to implement and must be rationally
drawn. Mathematical formulae are devised and followed. These rules
state, for example, that if a reservoir’s water is at some specific level and
is statistically expected to rise, then so much water should be released
to create power but not so much as to flood downstream and the remain-
der retained for other planned uses. All legal obligations must be built
into these formulae and the operator of a reservoir must consider the
economics before he enters into contracts which impact his operation.
Setting these criteria requires policy decisions of the most difficult
kind. For example, as water levels become low with no rain in the forecast
and two demands exist, say drinking water and power generation, but
power production creates more revenue, should the turbines continue to
run at the expense of a failing drinking water supply? If not, at what
point should the turbines be shut down so that citizens can drink? Or,
should the price of municipal water supplies be increased to give them
economic priority over power production? Building-in answers before
these situations arise places the operator on solid legal, economic, ethical,
and political grounds.
These decisions become more complex if a group of reservoirs are
operated as a system. One long summer the Dallas Water Utilities found
it less costly to draw and treat water from one reservoir rather than an-
other. This considerably lowered the level in one reservoir. Those operat-
ing marinas, boat docks, and other recreational facilities, as well as the
citizens using the impoundment being depleted, complained vociferously
at the decision and it was altered.
The state-of-the-art is such that few rigorously developed mathe-
matical operating conditions exist but the movement is in that direction
as the demands for Texas’ water becomes more acute.
WATER QUALITY
A proposed reservoir’s water quality is now usually predictable. This

is because there are enough existing impoundments, and direct compar-
SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES 51
isons can be made with good results. Water of poor quality can be made
to meet required quality standards with treatment if economically justifi-
able, and it is generally accepted that drinking water supplies be the most
pristine.
Reservoir water quality must be constantly monitored so that
changes can be dealt with before any deteriorating condition becomes
critical.
WATER REUSE
Recently a new source of surface water is being considered. It is

the effluent from waste water treatment plants. As reservoir sites become
more costly to develop and more distant from the user, the restrictions
being placed on waste water discharges are becoming ever more strin-
gent. The result is a source of water which, with slightly more treatment
than otherwise received, may be suitable for some municipal, agricul-
tural, and industrial uses. The extra cost of the additional treatment of
waste water and its distribution is often less than that of developing a
newer, farther, but purer source. The direct use of treated waste water
for domestic consumption, no matter how high the degree of treatment,
is not yet being advocated. Many industries, however, are using treated
waste water for both cooling and process water. In Odessa, for example,
El Paso Products uses the City’s treated effluent which is suited for many
municipal uses, such as watering golf courses, lawns, medians, and parks,
keeping small lakes replenished, and in smaller communities may even
be used as a grey water system, carrying away sewage. Aside from the
cost factor, treated effluent has three other positive attributes:
1. It is drought-proof. In the hottest, driest months, when water is

used the most and is often in short supply, it is always available.
2. If it is to be used to irrigate it contains many beneficial nutrients
which are not in drinking water.
3. Most important, by supplanting some drinking water uses it ex-
tends the life of those purer sources. Higher quality waters are preserved
for higher uses.
Until water reuse becomes common, each project must consider four
conditions:
l.If it might be ingested it must be shown to be safe, at least as safe
as existing sources. The health of our citizens is paramount.
2. A public education program must prepare the citizens. Those who
are to use the water must accept it.
3. The economics must be solid. The cost of purifying and distribut-

ing this water must be less than that of using another source.
4. All water rights questions must be resolved.
WATER RIGHTS
In Texas, surface waters are owned and subject to regulation by the

State. To use State waters a permit must be obtained from the Texas
Water Commission. The concept of water rights is to give preference
to the most important uses and to give priority to those rights of longest
standing. In practice, the system is complex.
An applicant must file detailed information stating what is to be
built, how much water is to be used, and for what purposes. Once this
information is properly submitted all who might be impacted by the pro-
posed use are notified and they may file a protest. A public hearing is
established. At the hearing all sides are heard. Emphasis is placed on
the need for the water, proof that unappropriated water is available, and
that the project protects public safety. If the Commission decides in favor
of the request a permit is issued. The user must then report annually
on the amount of water used and that he is complying with all other re-
quirements of the permit. Thus, not only are the waters of the State pro-
tected but they are allocated on the basis of what is best for the citizens
of the State.
In 1985, legislation consolidated many functions of previous agen-
cies into the Texas Water Commission and gave the new agency far-
reaching authority. Some of these new provisions are:
1. Water and utility service proceedings may be informal, thus

speeding up the process and reducing costs.
2. A system for releasing and diverting water to protect rights and
avoid the loss of released water.
3. If water has not been used beneficially under a permit for ten
years, proceedings will be initiated to cancel the permit.
4. The State will be divided into water divisions to administer adju-
dicated water rights.
The impacts of this new legislation are only beginning to be under-

stood and the rules and regulations which will be devised to carry out
its mandate will greatly change how water is controlled and administered
in Texas.
CHAPTER 6
PRETREATMENT OF SURFACE WATER SUP-

PLIES
WALTER J. O’BRIEN, PhD., P. E.
Black and Veatch, Dallas, Texas
AND
W. T. BALLARD, P. E.
Formerly Regional Engineer, Texas Department of Health, Tyler, Texas
Pretreatment of surface water supplies accomplishes the removal

of certain constituents and materials that would interfere with or place
an unnecessary burden on the conventional water treatment facilities.
This includes:
1. The removal of debris from water from rivers and reservoirs that
would damage or clog pumping equipment.
2 . Destratification of reservoirs to prevent anaerobic decomposition
which may result in the reduction of iron and manganese from
the soil to a state that would be soluble in water causing subse-
quent removal problems in the treatment plant. The production
of hydrogen sulfide and other taste and odor producing com-
pounds also results from stratification.
3. Chemical treatment of reservoirs to control the growth of algae
and other aquatic growths that could result in taste and odor
problems.
4. Presedimentation to remove excessively heavy silt loads prior to
the treatment processes.
5. Aeration to remove dissolved odor-causing gases such as hydro-
gen sulfide and other dissolved gases or volatile constituents and
to aid in the oxidation of iron and manganese although manga-
nese or high concentrations of iron are not removed in the deten-
tion provided in conventional aeration units.
6. Chemical oxidation of iron and manganese, sulfides, taste and
odor producing compounds and organic precursors that may pro-
126
PRETREATMENT OF S URFACE W ATER 127
duce trihalomethanes upon the addition of chlorine.

7. Adsorption for removal of tastes and odors.
SCREENING
Screening is included in the design of intake structures and is provid-

ed in the form of bars or screens over the intake opening to prevent debris
from entering the raw water line and possibly causing clogging or dam-
age to the pumps. If the debris load is extremely heavy, mechanically
cleaned screens are provided. The fixed bar rack or screen may have to
periodically be cleaned manually. When cleaning the screens, either
manually or mechanically, the removed debris should be disposed of so
that it is not returned to the screened opening.
DESTRATIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS
Thermal stratification of a reservoir occurs when a warm layer of

water overlays a colder zone. In temperate zones, stratification occurs
during the spring or summer when air temperature is higher than the
water temperature resulting in a lighter warmer water on the surface
of the reservoir. To aid in understanding how stratification occurs, the
specific gravities of water at various temperatures are listed below:
Temperature, deg. C Specific Gravity

0 0.99987
4 1 .ooooo
10 0.99973
20 0.99823
30 0.99567
Water has its greatest density at 4 deg. C (39.2 deg. F.).

When stratification occurs, there are three layers in the reservoir.
The upper warmer layer is the epilimnion; the lower colder layer is the
hypolimnion; and the layer in between is the thermocline (See Fig. 6-l).
In the thermocline, the temperature drops at least one degree centigrade
with each meter increase in depth. In the hypolimnion, the water is stag-
nant and frequently becomes completely void of oxygen. Anaerobic de-
composition of organic matter on the bottom of the reservoir results in
the production of hydrogen sulfide which can cause tastes and odors if
water is withdrawn from that layer. A reduction in pH occurs. Hydrogen
sulfide also is a reducing agent and reduces iron and manganese in the
FIG . 6- 1. - Distribution of Oxygen and Temperature in the Epilimnion, Thermocline,

and Hypolimnion in a North Temperate Lake. Courtesy, Union Carbide
Carp, and Public Works Magazine.
soil to a soluble form that will require treatment in a treatment plant.

Blue-green algae often flourish in the warm surface waters.
When stratification occurs, problems with the undesirable water in
the hypolimnion can be avoided by taking water from a higher level if
the intake structure is designed so that this is possible. Problems will still
occur when the natural destratification occurs as the upper layer be-
comes colder and the zones are mixed so that the quality of the water
is the same throughout the reservoir. Hydrogen sulfide, iron, manganese
and taste and odor producing compounds resulting from algae growth
must be removed in the treatment processes in the plant or by some form
of pretreatment prior to the conventional plant. Production of a totally
acceptable water becomes difficult to accomplish. Mixing of the layers
can occur without the temperature changes. An intense storm over a res-
ervoir can generate the required energy to cause a thorough mixing of
the reservoir creating an undesirable water at all levels.
Several methods have been used in an effort to overcome the unde-
sirable conditions created by stratification. Aeration of the lower layer
has been accomplished restoring the desirable characteristics to the wa-
ter. Destratification can be accomplished by pumping water’ from the
lower level and discharging it to the upper layer resulting in mixing of
the reservoir. The destratification method used by most water supplies
is the injection of compressed air to the bottom of the reservoir, see Chap-
ter 5. The air will eliminate the stratification resulting in a more uniform
quality of water throughout the reservoir. The greatest benefit from air
injection is the prevention of the stratification. If stratification does not
occur, the problems of hydrogen sulfide, iron, manganese and undesir-
PRETREATMENT OF SURFACE WATER 129
able algae growth will not develop.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF RESERVOIRS
Reservoirs may be chemically treated to control algae growth, thus

preventing taste and odors resulting from such growth. Traditionally,
copper sulfate has been used to treat reservoirs and it is generally effec-
tive in doses in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 mg/l. Usually, it is applied by
dragging a bag or container of copper sulfate behind a boat, by broad-
casting from the shore or by liquid spraying from a boat. The treatment
is concentrated in the shallow areas where light penetrates and algae
proliferates. Treating around the intake structure also is practiced and
apparently is effective.
Potassium permanganate and chlorine are effective as algicides but
treatment of reservoirs with these chemicals is not practical. Their use
at the raw water pump station or in the plant is common practice.
The control of algae growths is covered in greater detail in Chapter
5.
PRESEDIMENTATION
Presedimentation is not universally used. It has had its greatest ap-

plication on river waters with heavy silt loads. Reservoirs constructed
on rivers and streams provide for sedimentation of the heavy silt loads
and presedimentation is not generally needed. If the silt load is extremely
heavy, it will most likely be for a short period of time and would seldom
justify the additional capital expenditure required to install presedimen-
tation facilities. Plants are being constructed with what are called
“presedimentation units?’ but they might be more accurately described
as two-stage coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation plants. Such
plants are particularly effective if there is varying turbidity, color and
high levels of iron and manganese.
Some water supplies provide raw water storage in the event of a pow-
er or mechanical failure at the raw water source or in the transmission
line. Such reservoirs may hold a supply ranging from several hours to
several days. Raw water storage reservoirs will allow for turbidity reduc-
tion because of heavy silt loads and also will help to minimize fluctuations
in raw water quality. There also is some indication that raw water storage
reservoirs could have some effect on the reduction of organic precursors
that form trihalomethanes when reacted with chlorine. Trihalomethanes
are thoroughly discussed in the chapter on Disinfection.
130 M ANUAL OF WATER UTILITY OPERATIONS
AERATION
Aeration is a process wherebjr air and water are brought into inti-
mate contact with each other for the purpose of transferring volatile sub-
stances to or from the water. Oxygen is added to the water for the purpose
of oxidizing iron, manganese, sulfides and possibly some organic materi-
als. Volatile substances removed from the water include hydrogen sul-
fide, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen and, to a limited degree, volatile
organics that may be responsible for taste and odor. Some industrial pol-
lutants causing tastes and odors may be effectively removed by aeration.
Aeration has had its greatest application in the treatment of ground
waters in the removal of carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen sulfide
and in the oxidation of iron and manganese to allow for precipitation
and/or filtration.
The use of aeration for surface waters, except in the destratification
of reservoirs, is frequently of questionable value although it is used by
many water supply systems. Most surface supplies have relatively low
concentrations of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. The concentra-
tions of iron and manganese may be subject to wide variations. The con-
ventional treatment plant facilities, having coagulation, sedimentation,
filtration and disinfection, may effectively remove these constituents in
the normal process of treatment. Iron and manganese will both be precip-
itated in softening plants. Iron is readily removed in conventional coagu-
lation and sedimentation processes but manganese must be oxidized at
a high pH and may necessitate changes in the application points of some
of the chemicals. Previously mentioned is the fact that most of the taste
and odor producing materials are not volatile and will not be removed
by aeration. in some cases, however, improvement in taste and odor is
attained, particularly if the taste results from a volatile organic pollutant
discharged to the stream or reservoir. Aeration has, in some cases, been
discontinued, because of the corrosive characteristics of the oxygen-lad-
en water. Thus, aeration is not a standard pretreatment process applica-
ble to all surface waters. Studies should be made to determine what may
be accomplished by aeration of a particular water and the cost of aeration
also should be evaluated against other treatment methods that would
achieve the same results.
Four basic types of aerators are used in the treatment of water: 1.
spray aerators, 2. cascade, 3. multiple-tray, and 4. diffused air. The time
of contact between the water and the air and the ratio of the surface area
to the volume of water are important factors in aerator design. Spray
type, multiple-tray and cascade aerators require a significant loss of head
PR E T R E A T M E N T OF S U R F A C E W ATER 131
while the diffused air energy requirement is that required to compress

the air and force it through small orifices to some distance below the
surface of the water. There is little or no loss of head associated with
the diffused air units.
Spray Aerators. - These aerators utilize fixed nozzles installed
on a pipe distribution grid. The nozzles may discharge vertically or at
an angle. The vertical nozzle gives the longest time of exposure of the
particles to air for a given head. The design of the nozzle is significant
in achieving optimum dispersion of the water. Nozzles vary from those
having plain tips to those which impart a swirling motion to the water,
The size, number and spacing of the nozzles depend upon the head and
area available for the aeration unit. The nozzles are generally 1 .O to 1.5
inches in diameter to prevent problems with clogging. The discharge
through each nozzle is 75 to 150 gpm at 10 psi. Spacing of the nozzles
varies from 2 to 12 feet. The required area is 50 to 150 square feet per
million gallons per day of capacity. Spray aerators are efficient with re-
spect to gas transfer. A disadvantage to such units is the large area re-
quired and the impracticability of enclosing the units. The units cannot
be operated in freezing weather.
Cascade Aerators . - Cascade aerators are constructed in a variety
of configurations. The most common is a stair-step arrangement, gener-
ally constructed of concrete, which spreads the water in a thin layer and
allows it to fall from one level to another creating a turbulence. Other
designs involve shallow trays where the water is spread over the tray and
flows in thin sheets over a shallow weir to a lower tray. Head required
for the cascade aerator is 30 to 10 feet. Area required is 35 to 85 square
feet per million gallons per day capacity, with the normal area at approxi-
mately 50 square feet. Time of contact can be increased by increasing
the number of steps.
Multiple-tray aerators. - Multiple-tray aerators consist of a series
of trays equipped with slat, wire-mesh or perforated bottoms over which
the water is distributed and falls from one tray to another to a collection
basin. A coarse media, 6 inches in depth and 2 to 6 inches in diameter
is used. The media may be coke, limestone, or other stone or ceramic
balls. Three to nine trays are used with a spacing of 12 to 30 inches. Area
required is 25 to 75 square feet per million gallons per day capacity but
generally about 30 square feet. The trays are built with splash skirts.
A typical multiple-tray aerator will have four trays with 18 inch spacing
and an area of 30 square feet per million gallons per day. The coarse
media used in the trays is most important in the oxidizing of iron and
manganese. The media becomes coated with a film that acts as a catalyst
in oxidizing iron and manganese. Algae may become a problem that can
be controlled by shock chlorination or by treatment with copper sulfate.
The exposure to air may be by natural ventilation or by forced-draft us-
ing countercurrent flow. In countercurrent flow, air passes upward
through the trays with the water falling downward. Multiple-tray aera-
tors may be housed or enclosed but the ventilation must not be obstruc-
ted. Enclosure would allow for cold weather operation without the asso-
ciated freezing problems. Multiple-tray aerators are approximately two
times as efficient as cascade aerators. Contact may be increased by in-
creasing the number of trays.
Diffused Air Aerators. - Diffused air aerators provide longer aer-
ation time than the previously described types which involve falling from
one level to a lower one. Diffused air units are usually rectangular con-
crete tanks in which the air is injected near the bottom through perforat-
ed pipes or porous diffuser tubes or plates. The tanks are 9 to 15 feet
deep and 10 to 30 feet wide with the length governed by the detention
time which ranges from 10 to 30 minutes. The diffusers are placed along
one side of the tank to provide a spiral flow which will create turbulence
and also will minimize short-circuiting of flow through the tank. The
air requirement is 0.01 to 0.15 cubic feet of air per gallon of water treat-
ed. The blower discharge pressure will depend on the depth of the diffus-
ers.
Aeration units should be constructed of corrosion-resistant materi-
als.
Patented aerators are available using forced draft and diffused air.
CHEMICAL OXIDATION
Chemical oxidation of surface waters is directed toward a reduction

or elimination of tastes and odors resulting from organic and inorganic
compounds or a combination thereof in the water. The chemical oxidants
also are capable of oxidizing iron and manganese so that they may be
precipitated out. The chemicals used as oxidants are chlorine, potassium
permanganate, ozone and chlorine dioxide. The oxidants, with the excep-
tion of chlorine, also are expected to have some effect on the removal
of organic precursors that may be responsible for the formation of triha-
lomethanes when chlorine is added to the water (See Chapter 9 on Disin-
fection). Taste and odor control is covered in depth in Chapter 5 and
no effort is made in this discussion to be specific about taste and odor
applications.
Chlorine. - Chlorine has been the most widely used chemical oxi-
PRETREATMENT OF SURFACE WATER 133
dant until the promulgation of the regulations limiting trihalomethanes.

Chlorine is most effective in the oxidation of some taste and odor produc-
ing compounds but serves to intensify odors produced by others. Chlorine
has been applied at raw water pumping stations for the purpose of con-
trolling growth in the line in addition to oxidizing taste and odor produc-
ing compounds. Chlorine also has been applied in the rapid mix and, in
many plants, the total chlorination was accomplished at this point. Heavy
pre-chlorination has been discontinued in those plants that must meet
the trihalomethane regulations. Chlorine, however, continues to be used
for shock treatment of lines and ahead of sedimentation as shock treat-
ment for control of algae growth.
Potassium Permanganate. - Potassium permanganate is a very
versatile oxidant and is gaining in usage as an aid in solving taste and
odor problems, particularly since the use of chlorine has been restricted.
Potassium permanganate is known to be effective in improving tastes
and odors caused by algae or industrial waste. Since potassium perman-
ganate turns water purple and also leaves a residue of manganese dioxide
in the water, it must be applied as a pretreatment procedure. The gener-
ally accepted point of application is at the raw water pump station, which
allows time in the line for oxidation and for coagulation of the manganese
dioxide. Potassium permanganate also may be added in a rapid mix
ahead of conventional coagulation, sedimentation and filtration plants.
If the permanganate is used in conjunction with carbon, it should be ap-
plied far enough ahead of the carbon application to allow completion
of the reaction. Carbon will adsorb the potassium permanganate. Potas-
sium permanganate also will oxidize iron and manganese but it is not
effective in the removal of trihalomethane precursors at the dosages nor-
mally applied in water treatment practices, 1.5 mg/l or less.
Ozone . - Ozone has been used extensively in Europe and in Can-
ada and is gaining greater acceptance in the United States for its ability
to oxidize tastes and odors and also as a disinfectant. It is effective also
in color removal but not particularly effective in trihalomethane precur-
sor reduction. Ozone must be generated on-site and the cost, as related
to chlorine, has precluded extensive use. Again, the limitations on the
use of chlorine because of trihalomethane regulations has caused ozone
to be considered more favorably, both for taste and odor control and as
an alternate disinfectant.
Chlorine dioxide . - Chlorine dioxide is formed by reacting sodium
chlorite and chlorine gas. It, too, must be generated on-site and also is
rather costly when related to the cost of chlorine. However, as in the case
of ozone, it is being investigated more thoroughly as a result of the limita-
tions on chlorine usage. Chlorine dioxide is more chemically active than

chlorine and is a strong oxidizing agent. It is effective in taste and odor
control particularly in the destruction of chlorophenola. Chlorine dioxide
does alter the trihalomethane precursors but the conditions under which
it has been used do not reflect typical water plant practices. It is more
appropriately considered as an alternate disinfectant.
ADSORPTION
Powdered Activated Carbon. - Powdered activated carbon ad-

sorption of taste and odor producing substances is the most widely used
and is universally accepted as the most effective treatment procedure
for taste and odor control. It is a finely ground, insoluble black powder
that is easily fed through dry feed machines or as a slurry. Carbon may
be applied at any stage of treatment prior to filtration. Multiple points
of application provide for a greater removal of tastes and odors; however,
the usual point of application is in the rapid mix. Carbon may be applied
also at the raw water pump station and may be applied to the filters.
Five to fifteen mg/l is the normal range of dosage but extremely high
dosages are sometimes used for short periods of time for severe taste and
odor problems. Chlorine should not be applied with the activated carbon
since carbon will adsorb the chlorine reducing the effectiveness of both.
Activated carbon also will adsorb potassium permanganate. Previously
mentioned was the possible use of carbon in conjunction with potassium
permanganate. Potassium permanganate could be added at the raw wa-
ter pump station if there were sufficient reaction time in the transmission
line and carbon could be added to the rapid mix. Removal of trihalometh-
ane precursors with carbon could be accomplished but it appears that
dosages of 50 mg/l or higher would be required. Such dosages are not
economical and cannot be considered as a practicable means of precursor
removal.
Granular Activated Carbon. - Granular activated carbon is used
in the form of carbon beds that are normally placed after the convention-
al filtration system which would allow for applying the highest quality
water to the granular activated carbon system. However, when the water
is low in turbidity, the beds may be used prior to coagulation, sedimenta-
tion and filtration. Bottling plants and certain food processing plants use
granular carbon filters where a high quality water is necessary for quality
control. Regeneration or reactivation of the granular activated carbon
bed is necessary when the adsorption capacity of the bed is exhausted.
A small percentage of the carbon is lost during the reactivation and must
P RETREATMENT OF S URFACE W A T E R 135
be replaced. Granular activated carbon has been investigated in the re-

moval of trihalomethane precursors from the raw water. It is initially
quite effective for precursor removal but the rate of break-through is
fairly high. Complete exhaustion of the bed does not occur. A steady-
state develops where a constant percentage of precursors continues to
be removed, probably from biodegradation in the bed. Granular activat-
ed carbon is not yet generally accepted as a pretreatment procedure.
SUMMARY
Pretreatment of raw water prior to the conventional water treatment

plant is accomplished by screening, aeration for destratification, chemi-
cal treatment of reservoirs, presedimentation, aeration ahead of the
plant, and chemical oxidation and adsorption. Probably the most signifi-
cant procedure is the destratification or the prevention of stratification
of reservoirs by the application of diffused air to the bottom of the reser-
voir. If stratification does not occur, many of the undesirable characteris-
tics are eliminated thus eliminating the need for extensive use of some
of the other pretreatment procedures. However, provisions should be
made for the other pretreatment procedures so that a totally acceptable
water might be delivered from the plant at all times.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Wafer Treatment Plant Design, American Water Works Association, New York, 1969.
2. MEADOWS, MICHAEL D., P. E., “Reservoir Management,” Paper presented to joint
session of the Texas and Southwest Sections, AWWA, Oklahoma City, Okla-
homa, Oct. 1982.
3. American Water Works Association, Inc., Water Quality and Treatment, 3rd Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1971
4. TARAS, MICHAEL J., The Quest for Pure Water, Vol. 11, American Water Works
Association, 1981.
5. SYMONS, JAMES M., et al, Treatment Techniques for Controlling Trihalomethanes
in Drinking Water, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Sept.
1981.
6. James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers, Inc., Water Treatment Principles and
Design, John Wiley and Sons, 1985.
‘IManual of Water Utility Operations, Seventh Edition, Texas Water Utilities Associa-
tion, 1979.
CHAPTER 13
THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
JAMES P. REAMES
Manager, West Cedar Creek Municipal Utility District
Possibly the most neglected and certainly the least visible

component of a water utility is its distribution system. The dis-
tribution system may be defined to be the water mains, valves,
service lines and meter settings, booster stations, ground and ele-
vated storage tanks, pressure regulators and other equipment re-
quired to transport water from the well or purification plant to the
customer.
The purpose of the distribution system and, therefore, the re-
sponsibility of the distribution system operator is to deliver a suffi-
cient volume at the required pressure to satisfy all of the water
needs at any given time and place, while maintaining water quality.
In this chapter, the responsibilities of the water distribution
system operator is organized into four major areas: A. Design, B.
Construction, C. Operation, D. Maintenance.
A. Design includes planning to meet present and future de-
mands by studying and analyzing population projections, per
capita consumption, industrial expansion, area population densi-
ties and fire requirements. These factors must then be translated to
main sizes from various sources of supply to the most remote
points in the system. Proper selection of piping and other materials
must take into account the pressure requirements and the corro-
siveness of the soil and of the water. Other important considera-
tions are location and depth of mains, sizing of service lines, and
location and spacing of valves and fire hydrants. Provision of
booster pumps, storage tanks, control valves and preparation of
specifications complete the design discussions.
B. Construction includes selection of suppliers, quality testing
and inspection of material received and installed, method of instal-
334
lation, pressure testing, cleanup, disinfection and bacteriological
testing and start-up.
C. Operation includes water quality sampling, cross connec-
tion control, maintenance of maps and records, cleaning and flush-
ing of mains, determining unaccounted-for-water, leak detection,
system flow analysis, handling customer service line problems and
handling water quality problems.
D. Maintenance includes a consideration of the factors that
contribute to pipe deterioration, the repair and replacement of ser-
vice lines and the repair and preventive maintenance of valves, fire
hydrants and other appurtenances.
DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Planning.-The distribution system should always be planned to

meet all of the present needs and oversized to some extent to meet
future demands. The extent of over-design for the future will depend
upon 1) the rate of growth, 2) the rate of increase in per capita
consumption, 3) the availability of funds and the rate of interest, 4) the
relationship of the economics of needs in other parts of the water
system, and 5) the relative costs of alternates with reference to size
and time. An example of the above factors follows:
If the rate of population increase and per capita consumption

indicates the need for having a 16-in main in 20 years while a
12-in main would be adequate for the next five years, the
following facts must be available to make an intelligent deci-
sion: the difference in the cost of the 12-in and the 16in pipe;
whether that amount of additional funds is available; if avail-
able, the’cost of interest for the period of time when the 16in
would be excess capacity; the cost of laying the additional
pipe in 20 years (when the route may be more highly im-
proved.) Even though all of these factors, when considered
separately, might indicate a positive warrant for the 16in
main, similar warrants for other segments of the system such
as supply, treatment or storage must be considered.
Population Projection.-Total population projections for a com-

munity are generally based upon past growth. The population for
census years is plotted and the “trend” is extended into the future. It
should be noted that most cities grow more by proportion than by
330 MANUAL UC WA 1 L?K U 1 IL1 1Y Ul%KA 1 IUNS
number. As the size of a city increases, the number of additional

people increases each year. For example, the growth might be 20
percent each 10 years rather than 2,000 people every 10 years. Cities
grow for many reasons. A close scrutiny of the reasons should be
made as they apply to a particular city to detect changes in trends.
Per Capita Consumption.- Total water consumption, when
divided by the number of people served, gives consumption per
capita-usually expressed in gallons per capita per day (gpcd).
Obviously, this figure constitutes one of the most important factors
in distribution system design. The affluent 1950s and 1960s saw a
phenomenal increase in average gpcd but this criterion of water use
has risen less sharply in the slowed economy and energy crunch of
the 1970s. Per capita usage is still, however, increasing. Lawn
irrigation is one of the major factors along with increasing indus-
trial needs in many areas.
It is interesting to note that the range in annual average gpcd in
medium to large Texas cities is rather wide-120 to 215 gpcd in
recent studies. An equally important factor is gpcd on the
maximum day. This ranges from 1.3 times average in areas ivhere
rainfall is plentiful and/or temperatures are mild to 2.5 times aver-
age in the arid regions. Applying these factors to the averages
quoted above, you will note that a distribution system design might
be required to transport anywhere from 160 to 540 gpcd on the
hottest day of the year.
Industrial Expansion.-Providing for future industrial water in a
distribution system design necessitates the prediction of general loca-
tion and consumption. All other factors being equal, an industrial
customer will locate on fairly inexpensive land which is or can be near
railroad or major highway facilities, and properly zoned, away from
residential areas, near adequate power, gas, sewer and water
facilities. Most of these are found or should be found near existing
industries. When excess capacity for industry is built into a system
some priority should be given to locating it in the area of existing
industry. This will allow for expansion of established industry, loca-
tion of related industries, and an extra measure of fire protection and
insurance,benefits for what is often high-risk, high-value property.
Area Population Den&Y.-Most zoning plans provide for control
of open spaces, size of lots, number of stories above the ground, and
number of families permitted in a structure. These controls have a
direct relationship to the density of population and have some bearing
.I HE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 33.1
on the consumption of water in an area. If a master plan does not exist

with zoning placing some control on these factors, they are still
predictable to a reasonable extent and should be considered in design-
ing the system.
Fire Requirements.- In addition to the customer demands, a
distribution system must be capable of supplying sufficient water
for fire fighting needs.
Many changes in standards have been made at the national
level. In Texas, however, the State Board of Insurance is respon-
sible for establishing standards, grading water utilities and fire de-
partments and setting fire insurance rates. Their requirements* for
water mains and fire hydrants in a “standard city” are:
Water Mains
Not less than six inches in diameter, looped in residential
sections, and not less than eight inches in diameter in mercan-
tile districts. All mains to be of cast iron of the pit cast and/or
other approved type of machine cast pipe of bell and spigot
type and/or other approved type joint fitting, and/or other ap-
proved pipe materials or fittings. All material to be of standard
quality and weights, and mains to be provided with properly
serviced valves. Detailed scaled maps to be maintained of dis-
tribution systems showing all mains and fire hydrants together
with valve locations.
Fire Hydrants
Standard three-way hydrants to have six-inch or larger
connection to mains with a minimum of five inch valve open-
ing. Hydrants to be properly located so there will be a tire
hydrant every 300-feet in the mercantile and industrial areas,
and every 600-feet in residential areas, so that every building
in the city limits will be within 500-feet of a standard city fire
hydrant. Hydrants to be maintained in good operating condi-
tion and to be inspected, oiled, greased and flushed every
three months, and painted a distinctive color at least once a
year.
Many graphs, tables, formulas and other standards previously
published by the National Board of Fire Underwriters (NBFU) and
the American Insurance Association (AIA) are now obsolete. The
public protection functions formerly handled by these organiza-
tions have been transferred to the Insurance Services Office (ISO).
In 1974, IS0 adopted new standards with regard to fire flow and
hydrant spacing requirements.
* “Key Rate Schedule for Grading Towns and Cities of Texas with Reference to their
Fire Defenses and Physical Conditions,” available from State Board of Insurance,
1110 San Jacinto, Austin, Texas, 78786.
Required fire flow varies from 500 gpm to 20,000 gpm, based
on a very complicated procedure that takes into account the build-
ing area and height, the type of building construction, occupancy,
automatic sprinkler protection (if provided) and the exposures to
the building. Details for calculation of the fire flow requirements
may be found in the IS0 publication “Guide for Determination of
Required Fire Flow”. *
Fire hydrant spacing is no longer stated in maximum distance
between hydrants or maximum distance from a building to the
nearest hydrant. Instead you are furnished a table of “standard
hydrant distribition”. The table relates the average area per hy-
drant in square feet to the required fire flow in gpm. As an example:
If the required fire flow is 3ooO gpm, the average area per hydrant
should be 120,000 square feet. If 10,000 gpm is required then the
average area per hydrant is reduced to 50,000 square feet. The IS0
publication “Grading Schedule for Municipal Fire Protection”*
provides tables and instructions for calculating fire hydrant spac-
ing. The Fire Prevention and Engineering Bureau of Texas** is
responsible for applying the IS0 standards in Texas.
Main Sizes .-The mains in a distribution system must be care-
fully sized to carry an adequate quantity of water and maihtain a
minimum pressure to 30 to 40 psi for domestic use and 20 pdi during
maximum fire flow. When no water is flowing, the pressure in the
system is said to be “static”. Static pressure bears no relationship
to the size of the pipe. It is based only on elevation.
To understand the concept of static pressure; it is helRfu1 to
visualize a cubic foot of water. This cubic foot of water weighs
62.35 pounds. The 12” x 12” bottom of the cube contains 144
square inches. Thus, 62.35 pounds spread over 144 square inches is
0.43 pound on each square inch (pounds per square inch or psi).
The static pressure at the base of a 100 foot high elevated tank will
then be 100 x 0.43 or 43 psi. The pressure halfway up the tank will
be 50 x 0.43 or 21.5 psi. The static pressure downhill 100 feet lower
than the base of the tank will be an additional 43 psi or 86 psi - no
matter how far away from the tank and no matter what size the
main is.
* Available from ISO, 2 World Trade Center, New York, New York, 10048.
**Fire Prevention and Engineering Bureau of Texas, 1320 Mercantile Security Build-
ing, Dallas, Texas 75201 (214) 747-0681.
FLOW OF WATER IN CAST IRON PIPE
.7-I
.04 7
72-’
6 6 - .os - .8-
6 0 -
06-
H- .9-
8000 .08
48: I-
5000
4 2 - 0.1 .I -
‘! 4000 3 6 - .2 -
a
7 .2 .3 -
woo
38 - .4 -
6
2 6 - .3 - .5-
5 2 4 - . 4 - .6 -
2000 2 2 - .r -
4 2 0 -
u 1 8 - :8- tJ
16- 5 2- 2
E 3 % -2
8 .E
WI I4- ,g -2 - v)
ti 1000 = A - k
%i02 8900
00 k 12- -5
0 -% .6 - t;
I!!
y
700
600
2
0 IO- *E 3- 9 .8 - 2
(3 3 s- % 4- .E 3-- c
8 - .2 - ‘3,
500 2 .4 - -5
.E -5
0 7- E .6 - 2
P’1: 400 F .2! .8 - 3
0 ’ 8 2 6- CI) 4=
c
‘55: .7.6 300 -6x
S-
20=
4 -
S-
soi
4 0 -
507 6:
5-
2-
300 -
1
(Reprinted by permission of Clow Corporation)
FIG. 13-1. - Flow of Water in Cast Iron Pipe

In distribution systems served by something other than ele-
vated storage, the static water level at the pressure tank or the
pump is imaginary. Changes in elevation within the system cause
changes in static pressure exactly as described in the elevated tank
example.
When the system is in operation, the flow of water in the mains
is accompanied with loss of some of the static pressure (head) due
to friction. Figure 13-1 is a handy nomograph for determining the
relationship between flow and head loss in various sizes of pipes.
The nomograph contains four variables and will solve for any two if
a straight line is drawn connecting any other two.
For example:+Suppose you must select the pipe size

necessary to carry a maximum flow of 2,000 gallons per min-
ute a distance of one mile. Suppose further that the pipe origi-
nates at the base of your elevated tank where the head is 100
feet and terminates a mile away at an elevation 100 feet lower.
You want to supply at least 20 psi residual at max flow. (See
Figure 13.2)
The static pressure at the downstream end is 200 feet or 86
psi. The residual must be 20 psi, so there is an allowable loss
of 66 psi or 152 feet of head. The slope of the hydraulic gra-
dient is therefore 152 feet in 5280 feet or about 29 feet per
thousand.
On Figure 13-1, connect 2,000 gpm discharge and 29 feet
per 1,000 feet head loss and you come up with a 9” pipe
flowing over 9 feet per second. If you select a 10” pipe, you
find that it can supply the required discharge at a flow rate of
about 8 feet per second and with a head loss of about 20 feet
per thousand. A 10” will probably fill the bill if all customers
along the line are adequately served. Check the customer on
the hill very carefully to be sure that his residual pressure is
adequate.
Appendix B lists Texas Department of Health regulations con-

cerning main sizes.
The problem of sizing of mains increases in complexity as the
system develops: loops, multiple loops, multiple sources of supply
and overhead storage tanks. Analysis of the system as a whole should
be a constant and recurring process. This subject is discussed in detail
in “System Flow Analysis” discussion on operations. Fig. 13.3 is a
chart on equivalent pipe sizes and shows approximate relationship of
the carrying capacities of various sizes of pipe. For example, a
-I-?/L IVIANUAL UP WA LDK U’I‘ILITY UPERATIONS
12-in main is the equivalent of 2.8 eight-inch mains or it would take

three eight-inch mains to carry the equivalent flow of one 1Zinch
main.
Materials Selection.-Considerable care should be exerted in the
selection of materials for installation of water mains and service lines.
They should meet the minimum requirements of AWWA standards.
Besides the economics of the cost of replacement, other factors to be
considered are local conditions such as soil, high and low temperature
ranges, corrosive qualities of water, deterioration of future carrying
capacities, frequency of operation of valves and other appurtenances
and possible water hammer. Some cost analysis relative to installa-
tion of various types of materials should be made before a final
selection of material is made.
If a sufficient number of qualified bidders is not available for the
preferred type of material, consideration should be given to request-
ing bids on various types of material to get the best competitive
prices.
Each small system has a set ofconditions which must be met, and
larger systems may have a number of sets of conditions. The water-
works operator today has a great advantage over his predecessor
because of numerous materials from which to select. For mains there
is a choice between cast iron; ductile iron; reinforced concrete, steel
cylinder type, prestressed or pretensioned; reinforced concrete, non-
cylinder type, not prestressed; asbestos cement; and PVC. For serv-
ice lines, he has a choice between copper, PVC, PB, PE, galvanized
iron, black iron, steel, and brass. No one material is best for all
applications, and there is a set of conditions where almost any one of
the materials described above might be preferred. Cast iron is the
oldest and most common of the main materials. For purposes of
bookkeeping depreciation, a life expectancy of about one hundred
years is commonly used. This may be longer with reasonably good
soil and water conditions. Lining cast iron pipe with cement mortar
has increased its carrying capacity. Reinforced concrete, steel cylin-
der type, and asbestos cement pipe, are often estimated to have a use-
ful life of approximately 50 years, as does steel or ductile iron pipe
with proper protection and good environmental conditions. The usual
class of galvanized pipe without internal lining, in most waters and
without wrapping or protection beyond the usual galvanizing, will
have a useful life of 15 to 25 years under most conditions. Plastic is a
relatively recent development in pipe materials. The life expectancy
- - - - - -
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is not known, but without additional protection, plastic has definite
uses in highly corrosive soil and in areas where salt water encroach-
ment is a problem. With most water qualities, the carrying capacity of
plastic pipe remains constantly high through the life of the pipe.
The plastic pipe industry has made great strides in
standardization and quality control, two vital areas for any mate-
rial in a water distribution system.
In writing specifications for a plastic pipe, pay close attention
to each detail such as thickness, diameter, (Standard Dimension
Ratio, SDR, is the relationship of diameter to thickness), raw ma-
terials (including “fillers”), type of joint (can it be joined to pipe
you presently use?), joint material, special installation require-
ments and depth of installation (can it stand the required earth
load?). Plastic pipe for use in water distribution systems must bear
the seal of approval of the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF).
Rigid Pipe.-Rigid pipes such as cast iron and asbestos cement
are designed to resist the internal pressure and the external load
simultaneously since the stresses developed in the walls are additive.
For cast iron pipe and asbestos cement pipe design, consult AWWA
Standards Cl01 and C401, respectively.
Flexible and Semi-flexible Pipe.-The design of flexible pipe is
more complex since bending stresses are reduced by lateral soil
reaction developed as pipe deflects under earth load plus any
superimposed live loads and sides are pushed outward against side
fill. Flexible pipe, initially deflected by trench loads, is re-rounded by
internal pressure, which thereby reduces the stress of trench loads.
Therefore, the two stresses are not additive and the pipe is designed
to resist the internal pressure and then checked for deflection.
The sources of design procedures for various flexible and
semi-flexible pipe are to be found in Table 13- 1.
Embedment Design.-The design of any type pipe must be di-
rectly related to embedment or laying condition specified, especially
so with flexible pipe design. Presently each reference above cited for
the design of rigid, semi-flexible and flexible pipes uses variations of a
general standard type of embedment. A suggested standardization is
attached as Fig. 13.4. Variations can be utilized in areas where
crushed stone is not available. For example, crushed shell mixed with
sand and bentonite, if required, could be substituted in the coastal
areas. Fig. 13.4 is particularly suitable for the Dallas area since most
T ABLE 13-I. - Sources of Design Information of Various Pipe Materials*
Steel AWWA Manual M 11

Ductile Iron AWWA Standard, Cl50
Reinforced Concrete, Steel Cylinder, Not Prestressed AWWA Standard, C300
Reinforced Concrete, Steel Cylinder, Prestressed AWWA Standard, C301
Reinforced Concrete, Non-cylinder, Not Prestressed AWWA Standard, C302
Reinforced Concrete, Steel Cylinder, Pretensioned AWWA Standard, C303
Polyethylene Service AWWA Standard, C901
Polyvinylchloride AWWA Standard, 000
Cast Iron AWWA Standard, Cl01
Cement Asbestos AWWA Standard, C401
* Obtainable from the American Water Works Association, Denver, Colorado.
installation is in a black clay or limestone formation. In areas where

good sound earth or sandy loam is present, Embedment “D+” could
be modified to use a flat trench bottom with bell holes excavated to
allow the pipe to be evenly supported on the flat trench.
c .M.,
&ASS 6
FIG. 13-4. - Embedment for Water Conduits

Corrosion Protection.-In many areas of Texas the top soil con-
sists of residual clays that contain dissolved metallic salts. These soils
in the presence of water, are corrosive to buried metal pipe due to
galvanic action. The design and selection of material should take this
factor into consideration. Galvanic corrosion is an electrochemical
reaction, similar to the action of adry cell battery. Basically the cell is
an anode (-), a cathode (+), and an electrolyte (water with some
dissolved metallic salts). A current flows in the electrolyte from the
anode to the cathode carrying metallic ions from the anode into
solution. An anode can be formed in many ways: dissimilar metals,
single metal with dissimilarities in composition or a single metal
exposed to non-uniform environments, such as two different soils
(clay and sand) in the backfill. The absence, or near absence, of
oxygen in a tight, heavy soil in the presence of soluble salts, results in
the growth of anaerobic bacteria, causing the development of gal-
vanic cells also.
It is necessary to break up the continuity of flow in the gal-
vanic cell to prevent corrosion. This can be done by 1) insulation or
isolation of the structure from the electrolyte; 2) insulation of the
anode from the cathode; or 3) conversion of the metal surface
cathodic to an external anode (cathodic protection).
A coating of coal-tar enamel and asbestos-felt or fibrous-
glass-mat wrap as used on steel pipe partially insulates the struc-
ture from the electrolyte. Cathodic protection is usually added.
A loose sheath of polyethylene film of 8 mil thickness is effective to
protect cast or ductile iron, by isolating the pipe from direct con-
tact with the soil.
Insulating gaskets, bolt sleeves and plastic washers will pre-
vent the flow of galvanic or stray current at flanged connections of
bimetal components such as steel flanged outlets for a flanged
valve as used on steel cylinder type, reinforced concrete pressure
pipe.
In a battery, the anode is corroded where the current leaves and
enters the electrolyte; the&fore, if the entire structure can be made
cathodic, there will be no corrosion. This can be done by bonding the
joints and by providing sacrificial anodes at intervals to act elec-
trochemically, or a long life anode of a more noble metal can be
energized by an impressed current.
Main Location.-Standardization in locating mains with refer-
ence to property lines is an absolute must. If the gas, electric,
telephone and water utilities each have their own “zone” in a
street, conflicts are minimized and unnecessary excavations
searching for the main are practically eliminated.
Some factors to consider in establishing a standard are:
1. Standard locations of other underground utilities

2. Type of street paving and highway restrictions
3. Practice concerning laying mains and services ahead of pav-
ing
4. Location and depth of borrow ditches and rainfall
5. Topography and geometrical pattern of street layout
6 . Likelihood of necessity for adjustment of grade or alignment
because of construction or reconstruction of storm drainage
structures, streets and highways and the policy of reim-
bursement of cost of adjustment
7. Soil conditions
8 . Prediction of frequency and difficulty of repair of leaks due to
location.
There must, of course, be exceptions to every standard location
rule. If a standard is followed about 75 percent of the time, the
problems of recording and constantly referring to the records is
greatly reduced by crews in the field when making taps, repairs and
locating valves. An often debated question is location of mains in
residential alleys. Local preference and soil conditions play the
greatest roles in alley usage. If alleys are kept open and have con-
stant vehicular traffic, they can make good water main locations. If
the trend in a community is toward closing alleys or abandoning
them “except as utility easements,” problems of access to repair
leaks and read metem will very likely develop. Mains should be
deep enough to avoid freezing and damage from operations of road
maintenance machinery. They should be below the flow line or
above the high-water line at crossings of drainage courses. Loca-
tions paralleling and in the bed of drainage courses or in roadway
borrow ditches are not recommended since washouts and pipe fail-
ures can occur if extensive counter measures are not taken. Where
possible, large volume mains should be kept at a safe distance from
large buildings. As vehicular traffic increases and streets become
wider, more attention should be given to the relative cost and
benefit of running separate service mains on each side of the
thoroughfare.
Sizing of Service Lines.-Pressure in the range of 35 to 60 psi
provides a generally accepted level of service to the customer. The
service line should be sized so that the pressure at the meter during
periods of heavy usage is in this range if at all possible. Very low
pressure at the customer’s tap will surely result in complaints and
ill will. Many appliances such as dishwashers and automatic wash-
ing machines have their filling cycles controlled by time clocks and
will not perform properly unless the pressure is adequate. Some
appliances will not operate at all if the pressure falls below the
minimum established by the manufacturer.
The ever increasing popularity of lawn irrigation and water
using home appliances dictate that a minimum standard for service
line sizing be established for residential properties.
For example, in a single family resideptial area with homes
having one bath and lawn irrigation using one hose and sprin-
kler, a 3/4-in service line will usually suffice if pressure is above
30 psi on peak consumption days. If pressure gets between 20
and 30 occasionally, a one-inch service should be installed.
House lines should be one size larger than the service line
when the main pressure is less than 60 psi.
Such standards serve to protect future residents of the premises
served. Most homes in areas with pressures of less than 60 psi will, at
times, suffer low volume with a 3/4-in service if the following factors
are present to any extent: 1) lot wider than 50 ft and needs irrigation,
2) two or more baths, 3) two or more water using appliances, 4) two or
more outside faucets, and 5) evaporative type air conditioning or
water-cooled condenser. All of these factors represent an instant
demand for water and are becoming more common every day.
Each service should be designed specifically to meet the needs
for industrial, commercial, residential lawn sprinkler systems, com-
mercial fire sprinkler systems, and apartment house customers. The
customer generally expects assistance from the utility operator in all
but tie sprinkler and large lawn sprinkler systems above 2-in service
line size.
1 Hh lJIS I KlkiU l.lWN 3YSl-EM J4Y
To design the service properly, the following information will be

needed:
1. Pressure at the main (normal and minimum)
2. Length of service from main to the meter
3. Quantity of water required through the meter
4. The residual pressure needed when furnishing the required
quantity of water.
The design of the plumbing and yard piping would of necessity
precede or be coordinated with the service design. Computed friction
losses for various components of a 3/4-in through l-in service lines
and 5/8-in through 2-in meters are given in Table 13-3.
Most 3/4-in through 2-in service line conditions can be estimated
from this table developed from actual tests conducted by D. R.
Taylor in the Baton Rouge, La. water system. Following is an exam-
ple of the application of Table 13-2:
Assume a customer desires to install a sprinkler system with a
demand for 40 gpm at a residual pressure of 35 psi, the service
line is 40 feet long, and the static main pressure is 55 psi. The
allowable friction loss through the service line and meter is
computed by subtracting 35 psi from 55 psi. Allowing 6 to 8
gpm for household consumption while the sprinkler system is
in operation, the total demand is found to be 46 to 48 gpm. In
the table for two parallel lengths of one-inch copper and a
one-inch meter if the 20-psi pressure loss column is traced to a
point opposite 40 ft of length, indication is that the customer
could expect to obtain about 49 gpm. From footnote 1, the
customer could expect about the same amount of water if a 1
l/4-in copper or 1 l/4-in galvanized pipe were substituted for
the two parallel lengths of l-in copper. This would be the
preferable arrangement from a maintenance standpoint. Also
in many rate schedules, it would be more economical to the
customer.
These values change slightly with the use of various fittings and
components. See also Water Meters-Selection, Installation, Test-
ing and Maintenance, AWWA Manual M6, Chapter 3, obtainable
from the American Water Works Association, 6666 Quincy Ave.,
Denver, Colo. 80235.
Line Valves.-Line valves should be located so that a break in the
main would not necessitate shutting off more than about 500 ft of the
main in the high value district and about 800 ft in other areas. Some
attention to the relationship of valves and fire hydrant locations is
MANUAL UP- W ATEK UTILITY UPEKATIONS
.. .. .. .. .. .9909c?9
. . . . . :szzza
T ABLE 13-2. - (Continued)
Table for Single Length Table for Two Parallel Table for 2 Parallel Lengths
of l-in. Copper Service Lengths of l-in. Copper l-in. Copper Service.
I-in. Meter Service. I-in. Meler’ IM-in. Meter’
Length.
Pressure Loss, psi.
t
Length.
T Pressure Loss. psi.
Length,
T Pressure Loss. psi.
ft. IO I5 20 25 ft. IO I5 20 25 ft. IO I5 20 25
5 31.0 38.5 45.0 49.5 5 42 ... ... ... 5 60 74 87 98

10 29.5 37.0 43.5 48.0 10 41 ... ... ... 10 57 71 83 94
20 28.5 35.5 42.0 46.5 20 39 48 ... ... 20 51 64 75 85
30 26.0 32.5 39.0 42.9 30 36 44 ... ... 30 47 59 69 78
40 23.8 29.7 35.7 39.1 40 34 42 49 ... 40 43 54 63 72
50 22.0 27.5 33.0 36.2 50 32 39 46 ... 50 40 50 59 67
60 20.5 25.7 30.7 33.8 60 31 38 45 50 60 38 47 55 63
70 19.1 24.0 28.8 32.0 70 30 37 43 48 70 36 45 53 60
80 18.0 22.7 27.2 30.0 80 29 36 42 47 80 34 43 50 57
90 17.1 21.6 26.0 28.6 90 28 34 40 45 90 33 41 48 55
100 16.3 20.6 24.7 27.3 100 27 33 39 44 loo 31 39 46 52
k
TABLE 13-2. - (Continued)
F
Table for 3 Parallel Lcnahs
of l-in. Copper Service,
T
Table for Two, Three and Four Parallel Lengths of I-in. Copper Service. 2-k Mete?
IH-in. Meter
2 Lengths I-in. Coppr 3 Lengths I-in. Copper 4 Lengths l-in. Coppr
Length,
T Pressulr Loss. psi.
- - - Length. - -
Pressure Loss. psi. Pressure Loss, psi. Pressure Loss, psi.
ft. IO I5 a3 25 n. IO IS M 25 IO 15 15 20 25
- - - - -
,,/,.
5 70 87 ... . . . 5 78 97 113 128 110 136 156 ... 115 152 . . . . . .
10 68 84 98 . . . 10 73 91 106 120 98 122 143 160 106 144 . . . . . .
20 63 78 91 . . . 20 63 78 91 103 86 108 126 142 103 128 150 ...
30 59 73 86 97 30 56 70 81 92 78 97 113 128 95 118 138 156

40 56 70 81 92 40 50 62 73 82 71 88 103 116 89 111 129 146
50 53 66 77 87 50 46 58 67 76 66 82 % 108 83 103 120 136
60 51 63 73 83 60 43 53 62 70 62 77 89 101 77 96 112 127
70 49 60 71 80 70 40 50 58 66 58 72 84 95 74 92 107 121
80 47 58 68 77 80 38 47 55 62 55 68 80 90 70 87 102 115
90 45 56 65 74 90 36 45 52 59 52 65 76 86 67 83 97 110
100 44 54 64 72 100 35 43 50 57 50 62 73 82 65 80 94 106
- - - - -
desirable to assure a wet hydrant in another section in the event of a
shut-out. The difference of a few feet in locating a line valve on one
side or the other of a fire hydrant lead may seriously affect the fire
protection potential of a large area.
A uniform pattern for location of valves with reference to prop-
erty lines makes them easier to find. An example is:
On an extension of the property line with preference to the
north and west legs of the intersection.
Valves in larger mains will bear wider spacing, especially if fire

hydrants are on smaller lateral mains which are looped. Gate valves
16-in and larger usually have bypasses to aid in closing against a
differential in head. The bypass valve should be opened before a
shut-down in the larger valves to prevent surge or shock loads. If both
the main line and bypass valves are not located in a manhole or vault,
a pattern for setting and clear marking of valve boxes is desirable; for
example, main line valve on north and west with bypass on the south
and east and with red spray paint on the inside of the main valve box.
All fire hydrants regardless of location should be valved on the
fire hydrant lead.
When future side lateral lines can be located and sized accu-
rately, it is good economy to set a connecting fitting and valve. The
connection can then be made simply and without an interruption of
service.
Double disc, non-rising stem, gate valves have in the past been
standard for water distribution system line valves. Butterfly valves
with rubber seats have increased in usage in recent years, especially
in larger sizes.
Fire Hydrants.-Spacing of fire hydrants was discussed earlier.
Hydrants are normally set in street intersections, but this should not
be the controlling factor. They should be well back of the curb,
especially in the radius, to avoid being hit by the overhang of vehicles.
A hydrant located across the street is often of more practical value for
a particular risk such as a high building, a lumber yard, etc. A hydrant
“in the front door” may not be usable because of falling debris or
intense heat. The American Water Works Association Specification
C502* is the standard for Fire Hydrants for Ordinary Water Works
* These may be obtained from the American Water Works Association, Denver.
Colorado.
354 MANUAL OF WATER UTILITY UPERATIONS
Sen~ice and covers size, materials, design, painting and workman-

ship. Appendix B of that specification is for a standard color coding
for fire hydrants based on flow. As automobile traffic increases, more
systems are using the “traffic-model” or “break-away” hydrant. The
stem and barrel break off near the ground line under impact.
Special Valves.-Air relief valves are used at high points in the
system to release entrapped air. They are generally very small, rela-
tive to the size of main, since most of the air, after a break, is released
through manipulation of fire hydrants. Larger mains, depending on
the terrain and size, are often constructed with air-vacuum relief
valves on high spots. These valves allow air to enter the main after a
break, as the main drains, and release the entrapped air as the main
is refilled. Air-vacuum relief valves also release entrapped air that
accumulates in normal service. This can cause loss in carrying
capacity.
Pressure regulating valves are used to reduce excess pressure to
a normal range. In hilly areas if a large area has excess pressure,
usually above 100 psi, the system may be isolated by installing such
valves in the main or mains. If the area is small and sparsely popu-
lated, better service may result from the installation of small pressure
regulators on each house service. Altitude valves are similar in con-
struction to pressure regulators and are used to shut off the flow of
water into an overhead storage tank at a preset level to avoid
overflow.
Check valves are used to allow flow of water in one direction
only. There are both horizontal and vertical check valves. A hori-
zontal check will not operate properly on a vertical run of pipe, and
vice versa. They are most commonly used on the discharge side of
pumps, and also on service lines to multistory buildings and on
buildings with more than one service. They are sometimes used to
allow flow into but not out of a booster area.
Booster Stations and Tanks.-Booster stations are most often
used to increase water pressure in areas with high elevations. They
are, however, used less frequently to increase pressure or volume at
remote points on a system where friction loss has reduced the pres-
sure and volume below the required minimum. In these instances,
they are substitutes for laying larger mains or elevated storage.
A booster station taking suction directly from the feeder main is
not acceptable waterworks practice. A pressure equalizing reservoir
should be constructed at a ground elevation that would prevent
wasted head loss. A pump station should also be constructed to take
suction from the reservoir.
Specifications.- It is essential that standards for materials and
installation be available for use with all force account and contractual
work. These standards, or specifications, are the written instructions
to supplement the drawings in order to set forth the complete techni-
cal requirements of the work. They define the quality of the material
and workmanship desired by the owner and serve as a standard and
guide for the contractor or builder. In general, the drawings show the
design of what is to be done; whereas the specifications state how it is
to be accomplished and results to be obtained. Normally the
specifications are given greater legal strength than the drawings and
most contracts so state. Due to new ideas and concepts in materials,
soil technology and the resulting improvements in the techniques of
installation of water distribution mains, it is necessary that periodic,
in depth reviews be made of the specifications that are in use for
construction.
CONSTRUCTION
Preconstruction Planning.-Prior to the start of construction, the

job should be planned properly for the specific location. Such plan-
ning should include: location of other utility lines; staking of line and
grade; determination of material quantities; the acquisition of all
necessary material; planning and arranging for the necessary tools,
equipment, and personnel to effect the installation; obtaining neces-
sary barricades, signs and safety equipment for safety on and around
job; obtaining proper easements and permits from property owners
and governmental agencies; gaining clearance with budget authority;
making preliminary contact with adjoining property owners; and
arranging to provide temporary service if it becomes necessary to
interrupt utility services.
Material Testing and Inspection.-The extent to which material
inspection and testing should be pursued depends upon previous
experience with the materials being used, past experience with the
manufacturer’s or supplier’s materials, and the quantity of materials
received on a given order. In the case of extremely large quantities of
materials delivered over a long period of time, testing at the
manufacturer’s establishment by an employee of the buyer may be
desirable and most economical. In instances of serious doubt or past
failures of materials, grab samples may be taken and sent to private
testing laboratories for tests of strength, chemical and metallurgical
quality.
Installation of Mains.-Excavation of the pipe trench should be
made efficiently, but particular attention should be paid to many
factors. The bottom should be smooth and free of rocks or other hard
objects which would cause a bridge in the pipe support with bearing
on sharp, hard points. This may result in a future failure when settle-
ment occurs in the pipe trench. The trench should not normally be
opened very far ahead of the pipe laying crew and particular care
should be exerted in,closing as much of the ditch as possible before
leaving the job for the night. The barrel of the pipe should lie directly
on the bottom of the trench and the trench excavated a few additional
inches in depth at the joints of the pipe if a flat bottom trench is
permissible. When the trench is very deep or wide, greater attention
should be paid to the material and method of backfill. Granular
material carefully worked under the pipe, such as Class B or C
Embedment, Fig. 13-4, will give better support to the pipe when
backfill material is loaded on top and begins to consolidate around the
pipe. “Walking in” with the feet in stages, tamping with mechanical
devices, and water saturation help in the proper consolidation of
material around the pipe. This helps avoid later settlement of the
surface of the ground or pavement.
The transportation of the pipe and fittings to the job begins with
proper storage of materials. They should be stored in a place where
damage to the materials would be minimal, and reloading could be
done with the greatest ease and safety. When material is delivered to
the job site, it should be unloaded as near to the point of use as
possible. Pushing or rolling material from the truck onto a hard
surface often damages the material by impact on sharp objects or hard
pavement. The installation of water mains is largely a job of material
handling. If the job is approached on this basis, with sufficient plan-
ning for equipment and personnel, the cost might be kept to a
minimum. The dirt is transported from the ditch to the spoil bank; the
pipe is transported to the job and transported again into the ditch; and
the spoil bank is returned to backfill. The equipment and personnel
for each of these four phases of the basic operation must be a
matched set so that each one continues in operation without waiting
for the other to catch up. The watertight integrity of the water line de-
pends upon the properjoining of the pipe in strict compliance with the
applicable specifications. A thorough and complete installation
specification for the type of pipe to be installed is essential and should
be provided as part of the design.
All bends, terminal points, and extended appendages not an-
chored positively to the pipe line should be adequately blocked since
pressures tend to “blow off’ non-anchored ending points. Blow-off
1 HE UISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 357
valves in low areas and on the ends of pipes should be provided for
cleaning of a pipe by flushing. Blow-off valves should be sized such
that a minimum of one foot per second velocity can be obtained in
the main.
In connecting the new pipe to existing pipe, careful consideration
should be given to a tapping sleeve and valve connection as opposed
to a “wet connection.” A wet connection often involves more than
just the cost of fittings and their installation. The “shut-out” must
normally be done during night hours to avoid customer inconveni-
ence, thereby necessitating overtime. A certain amount of risk is
always involved in damage to equipment during emptying and refilling
the system. Customer inconvenience is caused by interruption of
service, muddy water and air in the system immediately after refilling.
Another factor to contend with is the creation of a wet and often
dangerous condition at the connection due to the concentration of
water at that point in making the cut for the wet connection.
Care should be taken throughout construction to minimize con-
tamination from introduction of foreign material into the pipe. Each
joint of pipe should be visually inspected and a “swab” pulled
through it just before lowering it into the ditch. The end should be
capped off in some manner before leaving the job to prevent dirt and
animals entering the pipe while unattended.
Installation of Services.-The service line installation should

originate with a properly executed order, defining in particular the
geographic location and size. Field errors in sizing of the service line
or location on the wrong lot, or wrong place on the lot, results in
unnecessary expense or bad public relations for the city. It may cause
unnecessary expense for the customer by his laying a longer or
badly-located service line.
Every utility should have a well-defined set of regulations con-
cerning service lines, including: general location; who is permitted to
make the connection at the main; how far the utility’s portion of the
service line extends (to the curb line, 10 ft beyond the curb line, back
of the sidewalk, to the property line, etc.); metering of services;
multiple meters on a service; method of payment for service line;
variations in cost for variable sizes and locations; components to be
used in the usual service; and the selection of materials for each
component part of the service. The usual persons permitted to make
service connections to the main are utility personnel. The method
consists of tapping the main with a tapping machine designed for
drilling, tapping, and inserting a corporation cock under pressure.
The usual location on the main is just above the center (looking at the
end of the pipe, the tap would be made at about 2 o’clock or 10
o’clock). On small-pipe main lines with inflexible service line mater-
ial, the service might be installed in the same plane, horizontally with
the main. If flexible material is used, it is desirable that it not be
stretched tightly, but at least some weave or loop effect is left in the
pipe to allow for ditch settlement and temperature expansion and
contraction.
The service line should be laid deep enough to avoid mainte-
nance machinery, effects of cold weather, and excessive vibration
from roadway traffic. In most areas of Texas, a depth of 2% to 41% ft is
sufficient and desirable. The ditch should be excavated as narrowly as
possible and backfill material should be well consolidated.
The clean-up should be carefully done since a portion of the work
is usually in the street and on or near someone’s lawn or business.
Sidewalk and street paving cuts should be replaced or repaired as
soon as practical.
Finally, a portion of the job in the field should be the creation of a
proper record of the location and material going into the service and
marking it on the curb.
Disinfection and Bacteriological Testing.-All water delivered to
customers must be free of contamination. Even though installation
has been done carefully, it is necessary to flush and disinfect all new
mains and services. A thorough-fhtshing should be done prior to
disinfection and testing. It is done through fire hydrants, blow-off
valves and blow offs at the end of mains. It has the effect of removing
particles of dirt and debris left in the main during construction and
gives some disinfection by slightly chlorinated water coming into the
main from the system.
Disinfection according to AWWA Standard C-601* and State
Department of Health standards requires the use of chlorine and
permits the use of calcium hypochlorite, chlorinated lime, chlorine
gas, or liquid chlorine. The main is loaded with water containing
approximately 40 to 50 mg/l of chlorine and allowed to stand over a
period of about 24 hours..After 24 hours, there should be a well-
defined residual remaining in the pipe. (See Chapter 12.) A sub-
sequent test of a bacteriological sample taken after the pipe is
refilled with system water must show no coliforrn organisms pre-
sent before the utility customers are permitted to use the water.
A number of methods for introducing the chlorine solution into
the pipe for the 24-hour retention are available. The most common
system used for short extensions of pipe is to place a small quantity of
sodium hypochlorite in each joint. A more common and effective
system, however, is to pump a solution of chlorine and water into the
main through a corporation cock on the upstream end near the valve
where water is introduced into the system. The valve is opened and
water introduced slowly as a quantity of the chlorine solution is
pumped into the main at the proper rate to achieve a fairly equal
distribution of the heavily chlorinated water throughout the newly
constructed main.
Pressure Testing-In all installations of mains of major length, a
thorough hydrostatic and’leakage test should be made under pres-
sure. The main is filled and air eliminated. Water is pumped into the
section to be tested under pressure at least 50 percent greater than the
normal operating pressure. The pressure is maintained at least one
hour and the line checked for leakage. A method for leak testing on
cast iron or ductile iron pipe is described in AWWA Specification
C600* which states that -during a period of at least two hours no
installation will be accepted until the leakage is less than the number
of gallons per hour as determined by the formula for mechanical joints
and push-on joints:
L =NDfi
3700
in which L equals the allowable leakage in gallons per hour; N is the
number of joints in the length of pipe line tested; B is the’nominal
diameter of the pipe in inches; and P is the average test pressure
during the leakage test in psi gauge. Other standards are available for
different types of pipe; for example, AWWA C603* stipulates the
leakage allowable for asbestos-cement pipe. On large diameter steel
pipe with double lap welded joints, a hydrostatic test is not necessary
if each joint is air-tested as described in AWWA Manual M ll.*
Clean-Up and Start-Up.-Construction is not completed until all
clean-up has been effected and the new facility placed in service.
Clean-up should include the physical removal of all papers, excess
and broken material, excess spoil bank, felled trees, trash, etc. Sod
and shrubs that have been destroyed in the process need replacement.
Sidewalks, streets, curb and gutter, steps, walls, other utility serv-
ices, driveways and borrow ditches should be restored to their
original condition.
In wetting a new main it is important to fill the main slowly and
bleed off all air at high places. Unusual differentials in pressure are
exerted on the pipeline in the filling process, especially if air is present
to be compressed causing bouncing of pressures in the main. Checks
36U M ANUAL OF W ATER UTILITY OPERATIONS
should be made of the ends of mains, fie hydrants, bends and other
fittings where blocking has been necessary to see that minor leaks
have not started by the imbalance of pressure. If air relief valves are
not located on the main, it may be desirable to return in a day or two
and check hydrants in high places to bleed offthe last remnants of air.
OPERATION
Bacteriological Sampling in Operations.-The first consideration

of the waterworks operator must always be the safety of the water
which he provides his customers. The most important place for
testing is in the distribution system at the point of use. Since water-
borne diseases transmitted by bacteria are the greatest safety
hazards, bacteriological tests must be run at regular and frequent
intervals.
The Safe Drinking Water Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in
1974, has placed new requirements on the number of samples of
water analyzed for bacteriological quality each month as well as
the maximum contaminant levels allowable and the consequences
of exceeding these levels. New Texas Department of Health regu-
lations (see Appendix A) are similar to Federal regulations except
that the minimum number of samples per month for any utility is
two.
Cross Connection Control.-The utility operator, in cooperation
with the health department, plumbing inspector, and local plumbers,
must constantly be on guard to correct cross connections and
backflow connections. They are defined as follows:
A cross connection is any physical connection or arrangement of
pipes between two otherwise separate water supply systems, one of
which contains potable water and the other water of unknown or
questionable safety, whereby water may flow from one system to the
other, the direction of flow depending upon the pressure differential
between the two systems.
An example of a cross connection is a customer’s pri-
vate well interconnected with the utility system’s water
when both are connected to the house plumbing system with
the intention of using them alternately for lawn irrigation or house-
hold use. To the utility operator the water well would produce water
of an unknown or questionable safety; thus we have a cross connec-
tion between the two systems, separated only by a valve. The Texas
State Department of Health regulations require an air gap between
the two systems, which would prohibit, in effect, alternate usage.
Backflow connection is any arrangement whereby the flow of
water or other liquid into the distribution system of a potable water
supply can occur from any source other than the intended one. A
backflow connection, on the other hand, might be illustrated by a
barrel containing insecticide in the back yard of a residence being
filled by a garden hose immersed in the insecticide barrel. Since the
garden hose is connected to the city system from the house plumbing,
a failure in the utility system causing a reduction or complete loss of
pressure, could result in the insecticides being siphoned back into the
system.
Constant surveillance and inspection (particularly of business
facilities such as hospitals, mortuaries, boilers, respirators, auto-
matic car wash installations, etc.) are necessary to prevent cross con-
nections and backflow connections. American Water Works Asso-
ciation Manual M-14* entitled Backflow Prevenrion And Cross-
Connection Control describes in detail many situations and types of
equipment to look for in backflow prevention.
True cross connection control is achieved onfy through the use
of an air gap separation and this is the only device that is recog-
nized by the Texas Department of Health. Other devices in wide
use are: vacuum breakers, both atmospheric and pressure types;
double check valve assemblies; and reduced pressure principle de-
vices. These devices have an important application for protecting
the people in a building from drinking contaminated water from a
cross connection in the same building.
The public distribution system should, however, never be di-
rectly connected to a contaminated source. Total isolation via the
air gap is the only sure preventive measure.
Maps and Records.-The minimum record of a distribution sys-
tem contains maps showing the location of all mains, main size, and
the location in detail of every line valve. Other parts of a good map
and record system include distribution system maps of various scales
in detail, street intersection drawings showing water utilities and
other utility locations, valve location tie-in records, operation and
maintenance records of valves, hydrant maintenance and operation
records, service records, an evaluation record of all capital invest-
ment in the system, reports of leak surveys, leak repair records, and
customer complaints and investigation reports. A good system of
standard maps and records is given in detail in AWWA Manual M-8,
Water Distribution Training Course.* Once a system is devised, an

362 MANUAL OF WATER UTlLl’IY UPCKAI IUNb
accompanying system of reporting changes must be worked out to

implement the system and keep it up-to-date. The system of report-
ing and recording of changes must be constantly followed if an
accurate system of records is to be maintained.
Cleaning and Flushing of Mains.-Various kinds of water and
types of pipe cause different conditions in the distribution system
which might be improved by cleaning and flushing the pipe. The
results of flow tests and visual inspections may indicate a buildup
of tuberculation or deposits in the pipe. These are most often found
in unlined cast iron or steel pipe. Their removal requires mechani-
cal cleaning and may be prevented only by lining of the pipe or
further chemical treating of the water. Another type of deposit is a
slime growth in the pipe. Iron and manganese deposits are most
frequent. They are more predominant in cement-lined cast iron,
concrete pipelines and asbestos-cement pipelines. High-velocity
flushing can help this condition but will not cure it for a long period
of time. The only long-range remedy is further treatment of the
water prior to introduction to the distribution system. Heavy dos-
age of chlorine ahead of sedimentation at the plant will tend to
precipitate and settle out the iron which might be deposited in the
mains, but potassium permanganate or some other chemical will be
necessary to effect the same treatment for manganese.
Some companies have successfully lined in place cast iron pipe
with cement. This process, though expensive, may be more economi-
cal than abandonment, particularly in downtown business areas with
concrete pavement from building to building.
The most common and almost universal reason for flushing is the
reduction of sediment in the pipeline. In most distribution systems, it
is necessary to flush out turbidity deposits which have settled out in
the pipe when the velocity of the water is not sufficient to keep them in
suspension. For example, dead-end lines with insufficient usage re-
quire periodic flushing until the dead end can be circulated. It is
generally desirable to do such flushing at high velocities and on a
schedule which will meet the needs of the particular areas where the
problems occur. It is desirable to flush the whole system once or twice
a year. Full-scale flushing should be carefully planned and carried
out, beginning at the upstream end of the system and going to the
outer edges. Because of the unusual turbidity created by flushing and
the wetting of many streets, it is generally desirable that this type of
operation be done in the evening after the heavy water consumption
period is over.
Accounting for Water.- Accounting for water consists of care-
fully comparing water pumpage into the system with the metered
sales and other water uses out of the system. The difference between
the flow-in and flow-out is unaccounted for water. These losses are
usually caused by under-registration of meters or dead meters, hidden
leakage, and unauthorized or unreported uses. Attention must be
given to the.differences in period of time for which records are kept.
Customer readings for a whole system may be two weeks to six weeks
delayed from the master-meter readings at the source of supply into
the system. As a rule, one month’s delay with a whole year’s record
will give an accurate indication of the accounted for water. The
unaccounted for water should not exceed 20 to 25 percent and will, in
a well-managed system, be about 5 to 10 percent.
Leak Detection.-There are three basic methods of leak detec-
tion surveying: (1) visual inspection of drainage ways during dry
seasons to detect unusual flows of water in creeks, storm sewers, and
sanitary sewers; (2) measurement method of closing off a portion of
the system, with a single source of supply and measuring all water into
‘the area for a short period of time and reading of all meters of
customers in the area for the same period; (3) use of sound detection
devices, which may range from a simple rod, driven into the ground or
placed against a pipe or appurtenance, to modern electronic devices
which pick up minute sounds and vibrations from the soil at a consid-
erable distance from the leak or use.
An aggressive program of testing meters and immediate re-
placement of obviously slow or non-registering meters (especially on
large meters for customers with very high consumption) will result in
increased revenue and a marked reduction of unaccounted for water
in most instances.
System Flow Analysis.-A constant analysis of the capabilities of
a system to carry water is necessary to proper operation. The sim-
plest system is the observation of pressure and measured flow at a
given point under a given set of conditions and recording these
findings for future comparison under approximately the same condi-
tions. A hydrant-flow test is another method of testing a small portion
of a system. This involves the measurement of residual pressures in
the system with fire hydrants flowing and measuring the quantity of
flow. This method is used by the Insurance Services Office
and the Texas Board of Insurance. It is used frequently by fire
insurance companies in the vicinity of a high-risk client. Attention to
and recording of results made by others can give some indication of
the continuation of the system’s ability to carry water.
Flow analysis of the whole system in determining pipe sizes for
JO4 M A N U A L UF W AI‘EK U.llLll Y UPEKAI IUNS
new extensions and feeder mains is highly desirable. Any accurate

system-wide flow analysis must begin with detailed tests for
coefficients of friction in various types of pipe of various ages in order
that accurate estimates might be applied in this important factor of
system analysis. A careful check ofall valves must be made to be sure
that none have been inadvertently left closed. In a small .system
without many complications of branch lines and loops, the analysis
can be made by manual calculations or graphical solution. In wider
systems, however, the electrical network analyzer as developed by
McElroy, or the Hardy Cross system of network analysis is used.
The recent advent of computers in distribution system analysis, par-
ticularly as used with the Hardy Cross system, has made system
analysis by this method more practical. This method involves
mathematical trial and error calculations and the accuracy depends
upon the number of trials for a given loop.
As the cost of construction of pipelines increases, the proper
sizing and location becomes more important and system network
analysis to make these determinations becomes an economic neces-
sity. Many engineering tirms offer system tlow analysis service.
Communities undergoing rapid expansion have a particular need of a
system flow analysis, periodically updated to include new portions of
the system.
Customer Service Line Problems.-Areas with wide variations in
temperature, humidity, and rainfall have more problems with cus-
tomer relations because of service lines than other areas. The most
common complaint is a steady reduction in water pressure; another is
the difficulty of getting water at one tap when the lawn sprinkler or
other high volume use-tap is on. The utility operator knows that this
latter complaint is a volume problem. The customer, however, relates
them to water pressure and will seldom understand the hydraulics
involved. In most instances, a systematic, on-premise investigation
(if possible in the presence of the customer) is the desired procedure,
with detailed record made of the results of the pressure and volume
tests.
The investigation should commence with a thorough inspec-
tion of the meter setting and the valves in the customer’s yard to
determine whether any of the valves, stops or cut-offs are partially
closed. The serviceman should then ask the customer to show him
exactly where and how the poor pressure is exhibited. These two
simple steps can save many hours hunting for a problem that does
not exist.
Next, the serviceman should install a test stand at the meter
1 Ht: IJIS I KlBU.1 IUN 3YS’I’EM 363
location. The apparatus will enable him to measure pressure on

both sides of the meter and will allow him to discharge water to
atmosphere while observing flow and pressure. The usual proce-
dure would involve flowing various fixtures and hydrants on the
customer’s premises while observing flow rate and pressures at the
meter. Using a stop watch or sweep second hand on his wrist
watch and observing the water meter, the number of gallons per
minute can be determined.
The service line should then be allowed to flow to atmosphere,
and the flow and pressures are again observed. The results of this
test can be compared with Table 15-2 to determine if problems
exist on the service line. Manufacturers’ head loss tables should be
consulted to see if the head loss through the meter is excessive.
Any deficiencies in the service line and/or meter should be
promptly corrected.
Problems of corrosion, line stoppage, or other inadequate
plumbing facilities on the customer’s premises are fairly easily
demonstrated by this procedure. If the customer observes the test
and the problem is on his plumbing, it is generally not too difficult
to convince him.
Thorough records must be kept on all of the various pressure
and flow readings taken.
Some of the common problems on the utility side of the meter
are: sand or trash stopping up the strainer of the meter, a kink in the
copper or lead service line, corrosion in a galvanized service line, a
partially closed corporation cock (though this is rare), corrosion in a
fitting used in the meter setting, or combinations of these. Some ofthe
more common problems on the customer’s premises are: a heavily
corroded galvanized service line going to the house, a partially closed
private cut-off, water pipes too small in the house for appliances on
the line, stopped up strainers on appliances or aerating and mixing
faucets, corrosion or chemical deposits in automatic small check
valves at the base of swing faucets (in kitchen sinks having a dish-
spray hose at the side) or combinations of these.
Red Water, Black Water, and Sandy Water.-The most common
cause of water discoloration is increased velocity and agitation of
sediment in the bottom of mains. This commonly occurs after breaks,
fires, fire hydrant tests, minor flushing of mains, and during the first
few heavy consumption days in the summer (in areas where irrigation
is common). Anything short of full-scale flushing of the system may
result only in transferring the problem from one area to another. The
only common cures are periodic, regular flushing and allowance of
time to let the foreign material resettle in the bottom of the pipe. A
sudden outbreak of complaints of this nature may be the first warning
to the operator of an unreported break in a major pipeline.
Black water which has a rotten egg smell is often encountered by
the operator in flushing hydrants or dead ends of mains. This black
color and obnoxious odor is often the result of septic organic material
in the main. It seldom gets to the customer, but may (especially on
dead-end mains) affect the customer’s service by the creation of gas
which is dissolved in the water and comes to the customer as taste and
odor with no discoloration. If the customer complains of black water,
it may be sediment, but if the system has been observed to have black
discoloration on concrete or concrete lined pipe, the black water is
probably caused by manganese deposits inside the pipe.
Red water is often caused by iron bacteria or iron from unlined
steel or cast iron pipe. Red spots on clothes are caused by the above
described red water as well as quantities of dissolved iron in excess of
0.3 mg/l. Occasionally, a red water or iron-specked complaint (espe-
cially if isolated) may be the result of an unlined hot water heater or
iron pipe on the customer’s premises which has not been flushed out
recently. Do not use chlorine bleach to remove red spots or it will set
the stain.
Sandy water is most often caused by changes in velocity and
direction of flow in the system. It occurs very often when large, new
mains are placed in operation, causing wide shifts in the flow pattern
in the system. In most instances, the foreign matter is not silica sand
but is calcium carbonate scale removed from the pipe walls by a
reversed flow. Repeated large-scale flushing is often necessary over
a period of months to eliminate this problem, since sand or calcium
carbonate scale seems to be carried from the whole system into a few
isolated areas where it causes stopped up meters, “sand in the bath-
tub” and many industrial water problems.
Customer On-Premises Problems.-There have recently been
changes in attitudes and expectation of services by both customers
and operators of water utilities. There has been slowly emerging a
concept of complete water service. Most operators no longer stop at
the property line but make extensive investigations on the customers’
premises. Such inve,stigations as a search for a known leak, water
quality deterioration source, closed valve or “pressure loss” are
common, even though utility participation in the on-premises correc-
tive measures is almost non-existent. The on-premises investigation
is justified by the attitude that the utility must show the customer his
problem in order to prove that the responsibility for the condition
complained of is not in the facilities of the utility. This attitude
contributes greatly to good public relations.
MAINTENANCE
Pipe Deterioration.-Constant attention should be paid to the

condition of system piping and even material in storage because of
deterioration by the elements, chemical reaction, and electrolysis.
Exterior surfaces of metal pipe (especially iron and steel) are subject
to oxidation or rusting by ground water, particularly in tidal areas.
Some water supplies are similarly detrimental to pipe interiors if
the pipe is not protected. Acid soil and “hot soil”, stray electrical
currents and galvanic action are other metal pipe hazards. Con-
crete and cement asbestos pipe are subject to deterioration by acid
conditions in the soil or the water. Some plastics are subject to
deterioration or noticeable changes in physical characteristics by
temperature in both extremes, and from prolonged exposure to
the ultraviolet rays of the sun.
Fortunately, protection procedures or methods of installation
are available to offset most of the problems related above, but the
operator must be aware of the potential problems and needed
protective measures.
Corrosive Water.-The greatest cause of corrosion inside pipe
is probably low pH. All corrosion occurs at the surface of the pipe.
Corrosion inside water pipe is almost always chemical or elec-
trochemical in nature. Materials in the pipe must be relatively inert
to the chemicals in the water supply in order to avoid corrosion or
the pipe must be lined with inert material. Non-metallic materials
such as cement, asbestos and coal-tar products are most common
pipe protection materials.
Corrosive Soil.-Corrosive soil, corrosive ground water and
stray currents all have similar effects on pipe exteriors. Galvanic
action as well as chemical reactions may result from various types
of soil and ground water when they are brought into contact or in
near proximity with the pipe. Stray electrical currents passing back
and forth between the pipe and the surrounding soil have similar
detrimental effects. Corrective measures are to 1) replace the pipe
with one of inert material, 2) coat or wrap the pipe with chemically
inert materials, 3) coat or wrap the pipe with material which will
insulate electrically, 4) make joints of materials which will provide
electrical insulation, and 5) use cathodic protection and sacrificial
anodes. In some cases of corrosive soil, the use of selected,
hauled-in mateial for bedding and backfill is economical. In some
areas it may be possible for improper grounding of appliances on
water pipe to cause pipe deterioration at places where the current
leaves the pipe.
Dissimilar Metals .-Galvanic action set up by the use of dif-
ferent metals attached to each other, such as a valve bolted to a
steel flanged outlet and copper’ pipe directly threaded to a steel
pipe, are built-in weak spots in a system. In many instances a
useful life of 20 years for two separate metals is shortened to three
or four years by direct connection of the two metals. An insulating
gasket and insulation bolts or a short fitting or section of a dielec-
tric material will destroy the galvanic cell.
Repairing Main Breaks.- Every water main break is an
emergency. The degree of the emergency is more directly related to
the size of the pipe rather than the quantity ofthe leak. A small leak on
a large pipeline in soft soil may become a major emergency before the
valves can be closed and the repair effected. A responsible person
familiar with the system should be called to make the decision about
waiting until morning to repair a small leak discovered at night. When
questions arise about the source ofunexplained running water, simple
chemical tests such as pH or residual chlorine may settle the question
in many areas. As a general rule, the first step in repairing a main
break is finding all the valves necessary to stop the flow of water at the
break and closing all of them but one (unless excessive property
damage is occurring from the tlow of water at the break). By permit-
ting a limited flow of water, the exact location of the break can be
determined as the pipe is being exposed by the digging equipment. It
is usually desirable to excavate the area just below the pipe on both
sides of the pipe with a sump-hole of some depth below the pipe on
one side. After the flow of water is stopped, a ditch pump can be used
to lower the water level in the excavated area below the bottom of the
pipe, thereby keeping ditch water from entering the pipe. Under no
circumstances should the flow of water be stopped and a fire hydrant
opened at a lower elevation in order to drain the water from the ditch
through the water pipeline. This practice, though convenient for the
utility operator, could result in serious contamination of the system.
Once the pipe is exposed, the operator can easily determine the
method of repair and the supplies needed to effect the repair. The
equipment for making emergency repairs should always be ready,
including excavating equipment, ditch pumps, pipe cutters, air com-
pressors and pavement breakers, emergency lighting equipment, as
well as a complete stock of repair materials such as repair clamps,
sleeves, extra pipe and fittings of all sizes in the system, all types of
hand tools and barricades with warning lights. All precautions taken
during construction such as disinfection, testing, backfilling, and
clean-up should be taken in making a major repair. A sufficient
number of trained personnel should be available at all times to handle
the more commonly recurring emergency repairs.
If three or more breaks occur in 1000 feet of main, it may be
more economical to replace the main with a less corrosive material
(if the breaks are caused by corrosion) or a material protected from
corrosion.
An article by J. H. Stacha in the May, 1978, issue of Journal
AWWA entitled “Criteria for Pipeline Replacement”* outlines a
comprehensive method for comparing replacement cost to pro-
jected cost of maintenance. The author concludes that replacement
is justified if the projected cost of maintenance over the next 20
years exceeds the cost of debt service on the capital required to
replace the main.
Joint Leak.-The most common type ofjoint leak found in many
systems is on caulked joints, using sulfur compound caulking mater-
ial. This material has often caused deterioration of the adjoining cast
iron pipe sufficiently to allow water to bypass the caulking material.
This is usually repaired by installing a bell-joint clamp. Where this
type of joint material was used, and the pipe is covered by a paved
street, it may be most economical to repair a large number of joints
simultaneously in anticipation of future leaks on every joint. Minor
leaks on many types of joints might be effectively repaired by caulk-
ing leadwool into the void. Many joint leaks can be repaired without
killing the main. If leaks develop in a mechanical bolted joint, usually
due to corrosion, the bolts should be replaced with low-alloy steel
bolts or bolts that are properly protected from corrosion.
Broken Service Lines.-When a copper or lead service is broken
between the curb stop and main, the flow of water is often stopped by
pinching or flattening the pipe on the main side of the break. If the
main line is not under pavement and the corporation is easily accessi-
ble, this procedure would not, of course, be followed. Special tools
for pinching and re-opening copper pipe are used by many operators.
If such a tool is not available and the operator wishes not to dig out the
corporation, a special flaring tool with a hole through it must be used
in flaring the copper for installing the necessary coupling to make the
*Reprint #0003-150X/78/0500-256 available from AWWA - Denver, Colorado.

repair under pressure. When a corporation cock is pulled out of the
pipe, or the pipeline has broken vertically where the corporation
screws into the main, a repair sleeve or clamp with a tapped hole for
replacement of the corporation cock in its original position may save
the operator time and expense. This method saves the operator from
excavating a new area to the side of the break, making a new tap and
splicing the service line pipe for the additional length to reach the new
tap location.
Replacing Service Lines.-In some instances where a service line
is leaking under pavement with the main located on one side of the
street and the meter on the other, replacement of the service line is
more economical than repair by a pavement cut. If the length of the
line is relatively short, the diameter of the replacement pipe is the
same or less than the original, and the soil conditions are not tight, the
new pipe may be connected to the old pipe on one side of the street
and the old pipe pulled out of its location from the other side of the
street. Simultaneously, the new pipe is pulled into the same location.
The same general system may be used in replacing badly corroded
service line if the tensile strength of the pipe is sufficient. It may be
possible to renovate deteriorated service lines by the insertion of a
plastic tube.
Maintenance of Valves.-All valves in a system should be in-
spected regularly. Most direct-drive buried gate valves should be
inspected about once a year. Very large valves and valves with
enclosed gear boxes should be inspected more often. Each inspection
should include operation of the valve to a completely closed position,
re-opening to about one-quarter and re-closing until the valve seats
properly and easily in the closed position. This insures the removal of
rust from the moving and seated parts and keeps the valve in condi-
tion to perform its function of stopping the flow of water in an
emergency. The valve box should be cleaned out sufficiently to
permit the ready placement of the valve key on the operating nut.
On valves with conventional packing, kerosene poured down the
valve stem prior to operation will lubricate the stem against the
packing gland and soften the packing, thereby reducing leakage
through the packing gland. It is desirable to maintain a record of
valve operation and maintenance.
If a valve stem turns freely and is obviously not causing move-
ment of the gate, immediate steps should be taken to determine
whether the valve is broken in an open or closed position. A large
valve broken in the closed position should be repaired on an
emergency basis.
Maintenance of Fire Hydrants.-Fire hydrants should be in-
spected once or twice a year. Constant surveillance of their condi-
tion, operation and use should be maintained. Each hydrant should be
opened fully upon formal inspection. The operation should always be
with the proper hydrant wrench. After each operation of a fire hy-
drant, the caps should not be replaced until a thorough check is made
of the water’level in the barrel to insure that the valve is completely
closed and the water is draining from the barrel through the drain hole
in the bottom. Moving parts of thethydrants should be lubricated
according to the manufacturer’s specifications. Weeds and grass
should be kept cleared for better visibility of the hydrant. It should be
kept attractively painted with the proper color for the color code.
Caps should be tighter than hand tight and promptly replaced when
removed by vandals. Fire hydrants should be high enough above the
ground so that a fireman can, in an emergency, open the steamer
connection with a valve wrench without the necessity of digging into
the ground or removing the wrench.
Each hydrant should be flow-tested periodically and the re-
sults of the test along with the necessary maintenance recorded in
the hydrant maintenance record.
A complete stock of repair parts for each type of hydrant in the
system should be maintained and one or more complete replacement
hydrants kept on a standby basis.
Maintenance of Appurtenances.-In large water systems where
the responsibility is departmentalized, the operator ofthe distribution
system should carefully consider the areas of his responsibility, in
order to plan the stocking of repair parts, proper inspection and
surveillance offacilities. The responsibility of maintenance should be
considered on such appurtenances as booster stations, plant yard
piping, system check valves, elevated storage altitude valves,
cathodic protection systems, and remote pressure recording devices.
Rules and Regulations.-The reader is urged to read carefully
all of the stipulations regarding water distribution (Section .OOS) of
the “Rules and Regulations for Public Water Supply Systems”,
published by the Texas Department of Health. This can be found in
Appendix B of this Manual.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledges the work of R. E. Morris, Jr.
and Robert H. Hayes, the previous authors of this chapter, and D. R.
Taylor, who developed Table 13-2.
CHAPTER 14
PUMPS AND MEASUREMENT OF PUMPS
ASA E. HUNT, P.E. & CLEMENT M. MILLER
Manyfacturers’ Agents, Dallas, Texas
Pumps are the usual source of energy necessary for the trans-
portation of water from one location to another through various sizes
and types of pipe. The only exception may be where the source of
energy is supplied entirely by gravity. Modern water works operators
must therefore be familiar with pumps, pump characteristics, pump
operation and maintenance. There are three general requirements of
pump and motor combinations. These requirements are (1) reliability
(2) adequacy and (3) economy. Reliability is generally obtained by in-
stalling in duplicate the very best equipment available and by the use
of an auxiliary power source. Adequacy is obtained by securing
liberal sizes of pumping equipment. Economy can be achieved by
taking into account the life and depreciation, first cost, standby
charges, interest and operating cost.
A careful analysis should always be made before selecting the
size (capacity) and type of pump for a given purpose. A pump may
operate although it is not the proper size or type for the specific re-
quirements, but under such conditions its efficiency will be low and
operating cost will be high. Frequently an investigation will indicate
that many existing pumps are costly because of inefficiency or
obsolescence; economy would dictate their immediate replacement.
Certain factors should be considered in the selection of pumps
and the construction of pumping plants. Certain criteria of the
Texas State Fire Insurance Commission and National Board of
Fire Underwriters should be investigated and their requirements
should be met in the pump station. Some of their requirerlents
may be: dual power supply for reliability; pumps housed in fire-
proof structures; effective operation and maintenance. Secondary
power sources to supplement electric motor drives are usually
natural gas, diesel or gasoline fueled engines.
The minimum pumping capacity recommended is to be sufficient
312
P UMPS AND P UMP M E A S U R E M E N T 313
to meet maximum domestic demand combined with fire flow at the

required pressure. The exact requirements of the State Fire In-
surance Commission should be investigated and its recommenda-
tions followed.
Factors Affecting Pump Selection.-Prior to specifying a pump
the following must be determined: (1) maximum capacity that may
be demanded of the installation, (2) the nature of the water, its tem-
perature, pH, dissolved chemicals, gases and suspended matter, and
if such suspended matter is abrasive, (3) the average, maximum and
minimum discharge head conditions, including the size of the pipe
and whether the pipe system is closed or open and with llxed eleva-
tion (system curves should be developed), (4) the average pressure
or suction lift, the diameter and length of suction lines, (5) the
service, whether constant or intermittent, (6) type of power available
for pump drive, (7) space available for the pumps, (8) the weight of
pumps and power units. Pumps and their drivers should be the
products of a reputable manufacturer. Their performance under
varying conditions should be known and guaranteed by the suppliers.
The availability of parts and service should always be a factor in one’s
specifications.
PUMP NOMENCLATURE
The Hydraulic Institute uses comparable interchangeable terms.

Proper Name Also Called-Remarks
Impeller Propeller, runner, wheel. (Propeller is still proper for the
specific group called axial flow pumps.)
Casing Case, housing shell, volute. (When horizontal split, the two
pieces are called upper half and lower half casing with the
suction and discharge nozzles in the lower half. When
vertically split, the portion having the discharge nozzle
and impeller chamber is called the casing.)
Impeller ring* Impeller wearing ring. (Ring is mounted on impeller and
rotates with it.)
Casing ring* Casing wearing ring, seal ring. (Ring is mounted in casing.
With end suction pumps, one of these is usually called
either a suction cover ring or stufhng box cover ring and
is mounted in position for which it is named.)
* The clearance between these two pieces is quite close. Both are replaceable
in order to renew this clearance when the rings wear. Some smaller pumps have only
casing rings.
374 M ANUAL OF W A T E R U TILITY O P E R A T I O N S
shaft Drive shaft, impeller shaft.

Shaft skcve Shaft protecting sleeve, stuffing box sleeve. (Protects shaft
through packing area and may help position impeller.)
snIfEng box (Necessary evil in any pump since the impeller must be
driven by the shaft which must enter through casing
sidewall.)
Wffing box details: These parts service the stutling box:
(1) Packing Soft packing, metallic packing, stuffing. (Packing is to throttle
leakage through the stuffing box, not eliminate it.)
(2) Seal cage Water-seal ring, lantern ring, seal ring, packing spacer. (This
ring establishes a liquid seal around the shaft and provides
packing lubrication. When the product pumped has lubricat-
ing properties some of it is bypassed to the seal cage and
then the pump is said to have “internal seal.” If the product
handled will not serve as a packing seal and lubricant, the seal
is fed from an outside source and pump is designated as
having “external seal.” Latter is also used when there is
high suction lift or vacuum in suction supply tank so as to
prevent air kaking into pump through packing.)
(3) Gland Packing follower, packing gland, stufiing box gland. (A follower
to position the packing and maintanin proper compression on
it.)
Btprings Ball, Idler, skew hear&s.
For Pump Type
Double Suction SingIe Suet. Other
Proper Name AISO Calkd-Remarks
Inboard Nearest coupling. Farthest from coupling
Outboard Opposite end from coupling. Nearest coupling Vertical
Axial&
1 Mixed
Thrust Opposite end from coupling. Nearest coupling
Radial Nearest coupling. Farthest from coupling rFlow pumps have
I
thrust bearing in
driving motor.
Deflector Thrower, slinger. (A means of preventing pumped fluid from
escaping along shaft and entering bearing housing. Also to
prevent oil escaping tiom housing.)
Diffuser Bowl, diffuser casing, discharge bowl.
Suction bell Suction bowl
Discharge elbow Discharge head
Side plate Wear plate, front side plate, rear side plate, casing wear plate.
(A replaceable plate used with open impellers.)
Base plate Bed plate. (Base under pump and usually also extended to
support driver.)
Frame Bearing pedestal, bearing bracket. (Support member on which
an end suction pump casing is mounted and in which
rotating element is installed.)
PUMPS AND P UMP M E A S U R E M E N T 315
Pump Construction
TCCmiNJlogy
Standard Usually cast iron casing, bronze fitted which includes impeller,
rings, sleeves, bushings, seal cages and glands. Shafts carbon
steel although sometimes stainless if pump is built without
sleeves.
Fitted Fitted pumps will have all parts except the shaft and the casing
of the required special material. If you don’t want special
material used for the balance of the pump parts be specific
for each individual item. Do not use the term “trim” as this
is not specifically delined and you will get a fitted pump
regardless.
All A pump specified as being all stainless steel or all anything
should have every part of the fittings plus the shaft and the
casing of the specified special material. This means that all
parts in contact with the liquid (called “wetted parts”) will
be of the special material.
JWNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Head.-The pressure at any point in a liquid can be thought of as

being caused by a vertical column of the liquid which, due to its
weight, exerts a pressure equal to the pressure at the point in ques-
tion. The height of this column is called the “static head” and is ex-
pressed in terms of feet of liquid.
The static head corresponding to any specific pressure is de-
pendent upon the weight of the liquid according to the following
formula:
Pressure in psi x 2.31
Head in Feet =
Specific Gravity
A centrifugal pump imparts velocity to a liquid. This velocity
energy is then transformed largely into pressure energy as the liquid
leaves the pump. Therefore, the head developed is approximately
equal to the velocity energy at the periphery of the impeller. This rela-
tionship is expressed by the following:
Where H = Total head developed in feet.

v = Velocity at periphery of impeller in feet per sec.
g = 32.2 ft/sec.2
We can predict the approximate head of any centrifugal pump by
calculating the peripheral velocity of the impeller and substituting

into the above formula. A handy formula for peripheral velocity is:
rpmxD
v=
229
Where D = Impeller diameter in inches.
The above demonstrates why we must always think in terms of
feet of liquid rather than pressure when working with centrifugal
pumps. A given pump with a given impeller diameter and speed will
raise a liquid to a certain height regardless of the weight of the
liquid, as shown in Fig. 14-3.
All of the forms of energy involved in a liquid flow system can be
expressed in terms of feet of liquid. The total of these various heads
determines the total system head or the work which a pump must
perform in the system. The various forms of head are defined as
follows.
Suction L$ft exists when the source of supply is below the
center line of the pump. Thus the static suction lift is the vertical
distance in feet from the center line of the pump to the free level of
the liquid to be pumped.
Suction Head exists when the source of supply is above the
centerline of the pump. Thus the static suction head is the vertical
distance in feet from the centerline of the pump to the free level
of the liquid to be pumped.
Static Discharge Head is the vertical distance in feet between
the pump centerline and the point of free discharge or the surface
of the liquid in the discharge tank.
Total Static Head is the vertical distance in feet between the
free level of the source of supply and the point of free discharge or the
free surface of the discharge liquid. Static head is illustrated in
Figs. 14-2a and ‘14-2b.
Friction Head (ht) is the head required to overcome the re-
sistance to flow in the pipe and fittings. It is dependent upon the size
and type of the pipe, flow rate, and nature of the liquid.
Velocity Head (h,) is the energy of a liquid as a result of its
motion at some velocity V. It is the equivalent head in feet through
which the water would have to fall to acquire the same velocity, or in
other words, the head necessary to accelerate the water. Velocity
head can be calculated from the following:
]
100 Ft. 100 Ft.
I
2.5 psi 3 psi 2 psi
Gasoline, Sp. Or. = 0.75 Water, Sp. Or. = 1.0 Brine, Sp. Gr. - 1.2
Discharge = 100’ = 4 3 p.Q Dircherge 100’ x 1.2

;rsu’:l’ = ‘w = Q2.5 PSI
Pressure 2.31 Pressure
= 2.31 = 5 2 P S I
FIG 14-I. - Identical Pumps Handling Liquids of Different Specific Gravities. Courtesy
Goulds Pumps
h, = !!!
3s
Where g = 32.2 ft/secg
V = liquid velocity in feet per second.
The velocity head is usually insignificant and can be ignored in most
high head systems. However, it can be a large factor and must be con-
sidered in low head systems.
Pressure Head must be considered when a pumping system
either begins or terminates in a tank which is under some pressure
other than atmospheric. The pressure in such a tank must first be
converted to feet of liquid. A vacuum in the suction tank or a positive
pressure in the discharge tank must be added to the system head,
whereas a positive pressure in the suction tank or vacuum in the dis-
charge tank would be subtracted. The following is a handy formula
for converting inches of mercury (Hg) vacuum into feet of liquid.
’ ISTATIC
DISCHG.
HEAD
FIG. 14-2a. - Suction Lift Showing Static Heads in a Pumping System with the Pump
Located Above the Suction Tank (Static Suction Head)
PUMPS AND PUMP MEASUREMENT
DISCHARGE
FIG. 14-2b. - Suction Head Showing Static Heads in a Pumping System with the Pump
Located Below the Suction Tank (Static Suction Head)
Vacuum, in of Hg x 1.13
Vacuum, ft of liquid =
Sp. Gr.
The above forms of head, namely static, friction, velocity, and
pressure, are combined to make up the total system head at any
particular flow rate. Following are definitions of these combined or
“dynamic” head terms as they apply to the pump.
Total Dynamic Suction Lift (hJ is the static suction lift plus
the velocity head at the pump suction flange plus the total friction
head in the suction line. The total dynamic suction lift, as determined
on pump test, is the reading of a gauge on the suction flange,
converted to feet of liquid and corrected to the pump centerline*,
minus the velocity head at the point of gauge attachment.
Total Dynamic Suction Head (hJ is the static suction head
* On vertical centrifugal pumps the correction should be made to the eye of
the suction or lowest impeller.
minus the velocity head at the pump suction flange minus the total
friction head in the suction line. The total dynamic suction head, as
determined on pump test, is the reading of a gauge on the suction
flange, converted to feet of liquid and corrected to the pump
centerline*, plus the velocity head at the point of gauge attanchment.
Total Dynamic Discharge Head (hd) is the static discharge head
plus the velocity head at the pump discharge flange plus the total
friction head in the discharge line. The total dynamic discharge
head, as determined on pump test, is the reading of a gauge at the
discharge flange, converted to feet of liquid and corrected to the
pump centerline*, plus the velocity head at the point of gauge
attachment.
Total Head (H) or Total Dynamic Head (TDH) is the total
dynamic discharge head minus the total dynamic suction head or
plus the total dynamic suction lift.
TDH = h,, + h, (with a suction lift)
TDH = hd - h, (with a suction head)
Capacity.-Capacity (Q) is normally expressed in gallons per
minute (gpm). Since liquids are essentially incompressible, there is a
direct relationship between the capacity in a pipe and the velocity of
flow. This relationship is as follows:
Q=AxVorV=z
Where A = Area of pipe or conduit in square feet.

V =-Velocity of flow in feet per second.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The centrifugal pump consists of an impeller or impellers

rotating in a casing. Water is drawn through the suction pipe into the
center or eye of the impeller and the curved vanes of the rapidly
moving impeller throw it outward through the action of centrifugal
force.
In a double suction pump, the impeller is made so that there are
two water entrances and only one discharge. Impeller vanes are
“bent” backward so as to prevent shock and to give an even flow
to the water passing from the pump.
* On vertical centrifugal pumps the correction should be made to the eye of
the suction or lowest impeller.
In centrifugal pumps the water is given a high velocity and a cor-

respondingly high velocity head. A large part of the velocity head is
converted into pressure head in the casing and the water will leave
under this pressure to enter the discharge pipe. The velocity of the
water will depend upon the impeller velocity. Hence, since the
amount of water pumped depends upon the velocity through the
pump, the amount of water pumped will increase in the same ratio as
impeller speed. The head generated by the pump depends upon the
velocity head of the water and this depends upon the square of the
velocity. Hence the head varies as the square of the velocity. By a
theoretical analysis, it is possible to show that the power required
varies as the cube of the impeller velocity, provided that the
impeller diameter remains the same. This is shown in the use of
“amnity laws,” discussed later in this chapter.
Centrifugal Pump Types.-Although there are a number of dif-
ferent types of pumps, the modem water system today uses only the
centrifugal type pump.
Centrifugal pumps are categorized into several different types,
based on type of impeller used and number of impellers.
There are three basic types of impellers:
1. Radial flow. In this type of impeller water discharges at a 90”
angle from the flow into the impeller suction eye. Radial flow im-
pellers can be enclosed, open, or semi-open. It may have a single or
double suction entrance.
2. Axial flow. In this type of impeller water discharges in the
same direction as the flow into the impeller suction eye.
3. Francis (combination of radial and axial flow). Water dis-
charges at a 45” angle from the flow into the suction eye, usually with
an enclosed impeller.
Further classification can involve the number and type of im-
pellers and mechanical construction.
1. Turbine pumps. A multiple staged pump uses enclosed or
semi-open impellers of radial flow type. These can be installed in a
vertical or horizontal position. A submersible pump is a turbine
pump with special motors capable of operating under water.
2. Propeller or mixed flow pumps are usually one or two-stage
pumps installed vertically and employing axial or modified axial-flow
impellers. These are considered high-capacity, low-head pumps.
3. Axially split case pumps. These are commonly referred to as
horizontal split case. They can be single or multi-staged. They use a

radial flow impeller of the single or double suction design.
4. Close coupled. These pumps always use end suction im-
pellers, and are usually single stage. The impeller is always attached
directly to the motor shaft.
Centrifugal pumps are often classified as to the type of work they
perform: booster, high service, raw water, back wash and sludge.
They may employ any impeller type or mechanical construction best
suited for the intended use.
Advantages of Centrifugal Pumps.--(l) They are simple, re-
quiring no valves within the pump, (2) no internal lubrication, (3)
no vacuum or air chambers on either suction or discharge, (4) are
low in first cost, requii ; very little room for their capacity and they
are practically noiseless. The disadvantages are: (1) the effect of head
upon efficiency and output, and (2) the necessity for careful priming
before the pump can be started.
If a valve on the discharge side of a centrifugal pump is closed
while the pump is operating, the impeller will rotate without pumping
any water; however, it will build up a head, usually greater than any
head if pumping water. This is known as the “shut-off head.” Under
all conditions of pumping, no matter under what head, some water
is circulating’in the pump with the impellers, and this is known as
“slip.” The less slip in a pump, the greater its efficiency, although
there are a number of other factors which determine the pump
efficiency.
It is quite possible to check an old pump for wear by closing
the discharge valve, reading the pressure at the discharge, deducting
the suction pressure and comparing it with the original characteris-
tics of the pump. If the shut-off head is still about the same as it was
when purchased, there has been little pump wear.
Specific Speed and Pump Type.--Specilic speed (N,) is a non-
dimensional design index used to classify pump impellers as to their
type and proportions. It is defmed as the speed in revolutions per
minute at which a geometrically similar impeller would operate if it
were of such a size as to deliver one gallon per minute against one
foot head. The understanding of this definition is of design engineer-
ing significance only, however, and specific speed should be thought
of only as an index used to predict certain pump characteristics. The
following formula is used to determine specific speed:
PUMPS AND PUMP MEASUREMENT 383
Ns= -
N*
HS”
Where N = Pump speed in rpm

Q = Capacity in gpm at the best efficiency point
H = Total head per stage at the best efficiency point
For double suction impellers, the total flow should
be divided by two in calculating the specific speed
The specific speed determines the general shape or class of the
impeller as depicted in Fig. 14-3. As the specific speed increases,
the ratio of the impeller outlet diameter, D2, to the inlet or eye
diameter, Dx, decreases. This ratio becomes 1.0 for a true axial
flow impeller.
Radial flow impellers develop head principally through centri-
fugal force. Pumps of higher specific speeds develop head partly
by centrifugal force and partly by axial force. A higher specific
speed indicates a pump design with head generation more by axial
forces and less by centrifugal forces. An axial flow or propeller
pump with a specific speed of 10,000 or greater generates its head
exclusively through axial forces.
Radial impellers are generally low-flow, high-head designs
whereas axial flow impellers are high-flow, low-head designs.
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSI-I).-This is a term associated
with more complicated pumping problems such as handling liquids
and fluids at or near their boiling points. It should not be confused
with “suction head”, because suction head refers to pressure above
atmospheric while NPSH is concerned with vapor pressure on the
absolute scale.
In an existing system, the NPSH available can be determined
by a gauge reading on the pump suction. The following formula
applies:
NPSHA= Pg- V,a Gr + hv
Where Gr = Gauge reading at the pump suction expressed in feet
(plus if above atmospheric, minus if below atmos-
pheric) corrected to the pump centerline.
h, = Velocity head in the suction pipe at the gauge connec-
tion, expressed in feet.
Pa = Barometric pressure
VP = Vapor pressure
FIG. 14-3. - Profile of Pump Impeller Designs Ranging Left to Right from Low-Specific-
Speed Radial Flow to High-Specific-Speed Axial Flow Placed so that Each
Design Fits the Specific-Speed Scale. (Courtesy Hydraulic Institute)
Cavitation is a term used to describe the phenomenon which

occurs in a pump when there is insufficient NPSH available.
The pressure of the liquid is reduced to a value equal to or below
its vapor pressure and smaIl vapor bubbles or pockets begin to
form. As these vapor bubbles move along the impeller vanes to a
higher pressure area, they rapidly collapse.
The only way to prevent the undesirable effects of cavitation is
to insure that the NPSH available in the system is greater than
the NPSH required (NPSH,) by the pump.
Complete information on NPSH and its application in pump
problems can be obtained from the Standards of the Hydraulic
Institute, 2130 Keith Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio 44115.
Power and EBBciency.- Power is the time-rate of doing work.
The work performed by a pump is a function of the total head and
the weight of the liquid pumped in a given time period. The pump
capacity in gpm and the liquid specific gravity are normally used
in the formulas rather than the actual weight of the liquid pumped.
Pump input or brake horsepower (bhp) is the actual horsepower
delivered to the pump shaft. Pump output or hydraulic horsepower
(whp) is the liquid horsepower delivered by the pump. These two
terms are defined by the following formulas.
whp = Q x TDH x Sp. Gr.
(1)
3960
bhp = Q x TDH x Sp. Gr.

(2)
3960 x PumpEMiciency
The constant 3%0 is obtained by dividing the number or foot pounds

for one horsepower (33,000) by the weight of one gallon of water
(8.33 pounds). When we are pumping water,\ the specific gravity
(Sp. Gr.) is 1.0.
The brake horsepower or input to a pump is greater than the
hydraulic horsepower or output due to the mechanical and hydraulic
losses incurred in the pump. Therefore the pump efficiency is the
ratio of these two values.
whp Q x TDH x Sp. Gr.

PumpEff,P,= - = (3)
bb 3%0 x bhp
Having figured the bhp, it becomes necessary to consider the power
input to the motor:
bb
Motor power input, mpi =
Motor Eff. (M,)
The usual power input to a motor is measured in watts or kilowatts,
and since one hp is equal to 0.746 kw (which can be converted to hp by
multiplying by 1.34), the power input to the motor is:
0.746 x mpi = the unit in kilowatts. (5)
Cost of Pumping.-A frequently used formula for determining
cost of pumping is:
kw Input to Motor x 1,000
kwh per 1,000 gallons = (6)
gpm. x 60
If formulas (l), (2), (4) and (5) are substituted in the above, we have:
gpm x TDH (ft) x 0.746 X 1,000
kwh/l,OOO gals = (7)
3,960 x P, x M,x gpm x 60
Simplification of the above gives:
TDH (ft) x 0.00314
kwh/l,OOO gals =
P, x Me
The kwh multiplied by the electric power rate in cents will give
the cost in cents per 1,000 gallons of water pumped under the condi-
tions used in obtaining the bph.
386 M ANUAL OF W ATER U T I L I T Y O PERATIONS
Wire to water efficiency is equal to the product of the motor

efficiency (M,) and the pump efficiency (P,).
Determining Power Input to a Motor.-Ordinarily the hands of an
electric watt-hour meter rotate so slowly that a reading cannot be
obtained for a short interval of time, so that if a motor is being
checked for a 15 or 20 minute period, some other way of measuring
the power input must be used. On every watt-hour meter there is
a revolving aluminum disc, (sometimes two or more) which rotates
at a speed proportional to the current passing through the meter.
There is a number painted in black on this disc which is called the
disc constant. One rotation equals the number of watts marked on the
disc. By timing the revolutions with a stop watch the amount of
power can be computed. For example, suppose the disc constant
is 9,. and the disc made 10 revolutions in 15 seconds. Then the
number of watts used can be calculated from the following:
3,600 x Number of Disc Revolutions x Disc Constant
Number of Seconds
Power = 3,600 x 10 x 9/15 = 21,600 watt hours or 21.6
kilowatt hours.
If there is some doubt as to the disc constant, the local electric
company should be consulted. All other sources of power consump-
tion should be cut off, and the watt meter should record only the
power being used by the motor being tested.
The power input to a motor can also be determined by the
following formula:
Watt hours = V x A x PF x PM x 3,600

where V = Voltage
A = Amperage
PF = Power Factor
PM = Phase Multiplier = s
3,600 = seconds in 1 hour
If single phase current is used, the multiplier is 1, if two phase
the multiplier is fior 1.41, and if the usual three phase current, the
multiplier is iTor 1.73.
Testing Pumps.-Periodically the pump operator should check
his pumping unit efficiency and keep a record of it.
By means of gauges on the suction and discharge piping the total
dynamic head can be measured. The water pumped can be measured
either by a meter or by displacement in a tank. From these figures

the water horsepower can be computed.
The electric power input to motor can be measured and con-
verted to horsepower. From the horsepower input and the water
horsepower, the “wire to water efficiency” can be calculated as
follows:
Water Horsepower
x 100 = Percent efficiency
Horsepower Input
This method can be applied in two ways: (1) the time method, where
the total gallons of water pumped in a certain interval of time is
compared to the kilowatts or horsepower used during that time, and
(2) the instantaneous method, where the rate ofpumping is compared
to the rate of power input.
In the instantaneous method the electric power input is read
from the demand meter. The calculations by this method follow:
gpm x TDH x 0.746
E =
3,960 x kw
where
E = Overall efficiency of pump and motor
gpm = Rate of flow in gallons per minute
TDH = Total dynamic head
kw = Kilowatt demand or input to motor.
Pump Characteristic Curves.-The performance of a cen-

trifugal pump can be shown graphically on a characteristic curve.
A typical characteristic curve shows the total dynamic head,
brake horsepower, efficiency, and net positive suction head all
plotted over the capacity range of the pump.
Figures 14-4, 5 and 6 are non-dimensional curves which in-
dicate the general shape of the characteristic curves for the
various types of pumps. They show the head, brake horsepower,
and efficiency plotted as a per cent of their values at the
design or best efficiency point of the pump.
Figure 14-4 shows that the head curve for a radial flow pump
is relatively flat and that the head decreases gradually as the
flow increases. Note that the brake horsepower increases
gradually over the flow range with the maximum normally at the
point of maximum flow.
g OA 80 80 100 120
.o f
140
0 20 40
PER CENT OF DESIGN FLOW
FIG. 14-4. - Radial Flow Pump. (Courtesy Goulds Pumps,I
Mixed flow centrifugal pumps and axial flow or propeller

pumps have considerably different characteristics as shown in
Figs. 14-5 and 6. The head curve for a mixed flow pump is
steeper than for a radial flow pump. The shut-off head is usually
150 to 200 per cent of the design head. The brake horsepower
remains fairly constant over the flow range. For a typical axial
flow pump, the head and brake horsepower both increase
drastically near shut-off as shown in Fig. 14-6.
The distinction between the above three classes is not
absolute, and there are many pumps with characteristics falling
somewhere between the three. For instance, the Francis vane
impeller would have a characteristic between the radial and mixed
flow classes. Most turbine pumps are also in this same range
depending upon their specific speeds.
160
140
120
1w
80
60
40
20
0
0 40 so So 100 120 140
FIG. 14-5. - Mixed Flow Pump. (Courtesy Goulds Pumps)

PU M P S AND P UMP M EASUREMENT 389
40 so so 100
FIG . 14-6. - Axial Flow Pump. (Courtesy Goulds Pumps)
Figure 14-7 shows a typical pump curve as furnished by a

manufacturer. It is a composite curve which tells at a glance
what the pump will do at a given speed with various impeller
diameters from maximum to minimum. Constant horsepower,
efficiency, and NPSHR lines are superimposed over the various
head curves. It is made up from individual test curves at various
diameters.
A&&y Laws.-The affinity laws express the mathematical
relationship between the several variables involved in pump
performance. They apply to all types of centrifugal and axial
flow pumps. They are as follows:
1. With impeller diameter, D, held constant:
A. Ql
e-c? Where Q = Capacity, gpm
Qz Nz H = Total Head, Feet
bhp = BrakeHorsepower
s N = Pump Speed, rpm
QALLONS ?tR MlNUTt
F IG. 14-7. - Composite Performance Curves. (Courtesy Goulds Pumps)
C.
2. With speed, N, held constant:
A. Ql
-A?!.
Q2 D2
HI
B. -=
H2
C.
When the performance (QI, HI, bhpl) is known at some particular

speed (NI) or diameter (DI), the formulas can be used to estimate
the performance (QP, He, bhpz) at some other speed (N2) or
diameter (Dz). The efficiency remains nearly constant for speed
changes and for small changes in impeller diameter.
Example. To illustrate the use of these laws, refer to Fig.

14-7. It shows the performance of a’ particular pump at 1750 rpm
with various impeller diameters. These performance data have been
determined by actual tests by the manufacturer. Now assume that
you have a 13” maximum diameter impeller, but you want to belt
drive the pump at 2000 rpm.
The affinity laws listed under 1 above will be used to deter-
mine the new performance, with Nr = 1750 rpm and Ne = 2000
rpm. The first step is to read the capacity, head, and horsepower
at several points on the 13” dia. curve in Fig. 14-7. For ex-
ample, one point may be near the best efficiency point where
the capacity is 300 gpm, the head is 160 ft, and the bhp is
approximately 20 hp.
300 1750
-=- Q2 = 343 gpm
Q2 2 0 0 0
160
-= HP = 209ft
H2
20
-= bhpz = 30hp
bhpz
This will then be the best efficiency point on the new 2000
t-pm curve. By performing the same calculations for several other
points on the 1750 t-pm curve, a new curve can be drawn which
will approximate the pump’s performance at 2000 rpm, Fig. 14-8.
Trial and error would be required to solve this problem in
reverse. In other words, assume you want to determine the speed
required to make a rating of 343 gpm at a head of 209 ft. You
would begin by selecting a trial speed and applying the affinity
laws to convert the desired rating to the corresponding rating
at 1750 rpm. When you arrive at the correct speed, 2000 rpm in
this case, the corresponding 1750-t-pm rating will fall on the 13”
diameter curve.
System Curves.-For a specified impeller diameter and speed,
a centrifugal pump has a fixed and predictable performance curve.
The point where the pump operates on its curve is dependent
upon the characteristics of the system in which the pump is
operating, commonly called the “System Head Curve”. By
FIF. 14-8. - Centrifugal Pumps. (Courtesy Goulds Pumps)
plotting the system head curve and pump curve together, we can
tell:
1. Where the pump will operate on its curve.
2. What changes will occur if the system head curve or the
pump performance curve changes.
Static System Head. Consider the system shown in Fig. 14-9.
Since the lines are oversized and relatively short, the friction
head is small compared to the static head. For this example,
the system head will be considered as entirely static, with the
friction neglected.
Assume the fluid being handled has 1.0 Sp. Gr. NPSHA is
13’. The flow requirement is 100 gpm. Since the system head is
made up entirely of elevation and pressure differences, it does
not vary with flow.
The normal system head is 250’ TDH (19’ elevation dif-
ference plus 231’ pressure difference). Since the discharge vessel
pressure may vary +3 psi, the system head will vary between
243’ and 257’.
Consider the application of a pump sized for 100 gpm at
250’ TDH, with a relatively tIat performance curve as shown in
Fig. 14- 10. Note that the pump will shut off at 254’ TDH. At
the maximum discharge tank pressure, the pump will stop deliver-
ing fluid, as the system head is greater than the pump TDH.
NORMAL SYSTEM HEAD = 231 + 19 zz 250
FIG. 14-9. - Static System Head (Courtesy Goulds Pumps)
A second consideration associated with static system head is

motor overload on pump runout. Again, consider Fig. 14-10 at
the minimum system head of 243’. The pump under discussion
will deliver 130 gpm against 243’ head. Horsepower requirements
will increase from 8.9 bhp at 100 gpm to 12.0 bhp at 130 gpm.
A lO-hp motor could be overloaded on this service.
NPSH problems may also arise when large increases in flow
occur. At the rating of 100 gpm at 250’ TDH the NPSHR of the
pump is only 10’ while the system NPSHA is 13’. At the lower
F I G. 14-10. - Capacity - GPM. (Courtesy Goulds Pumps)
system head of 243’ the pump requires 13.5’ NPSH and cavitation
will probably occur.
A better selection would be a pump with a characteristic as
shown in Fig. 14-l 1 _ The steeper characteristic will limit the flow
to between 90 gpm at 257’ TDH and 110 gpm at 243’ TDH. The
small increase in capacity at low head condition will mean no
motor overload. Since the maximum flow is 110 gpm, the maxi-
mum NPSHa will be 12’ and the pump will not cavitate.
Dynamic System He&.-In frictional systems where re-
sistance to flow increases with flow, the system head char-
aracteristic becomes curved. The magnitude of the system head
at each flow is the summation of the system static head plus the
total friction losses at that particular flow rate. A typical ex-
ample of this type of system is shown in Fig. 14- 12.
Unlike the static system, the friction system is always self-
correcting to some degree. Consider the above system with a
flow requirement of 6000 gpm at 150’ TDH. Also assume that the
discharge tank level may drop 10’. The new system head curve
will be parallel to the original one, but 10’ lower as shown in
Fig. 14-13. Flow under this reduced head will be 6600 gpm at 144’
rather than the normal 6000 gpm at 150’. This increased flow
rate will tend to raise the discharge tank level back to normal.
P UMPS AND P UMP M E A S U R E M E N T
FI G . 14-11. - Capacity - GPM. (Courtesy Goulds Pumps)
The frictional resistance of pipes and fittings will increase as

they wear, resulting in greater curvature of the system head
curve. A slight drop in the pump head curve may also result from
increasing pump wear and recirculation. These changes will
have less effect on the flow in a dynamic system (steep curve)
than in a static system (flat curve).
Parallel Operation.- It is sometimes desirable to use two or
more pumps in parallel rather than a single larger pump. This
is particularly advantageous when the system flow requirements
vary greatly. One pump can be shut down when the flow re-
quirement drops, allowing the remaining pump or pumps to
operate closer to their peak efficiency. It also provides an op-
portunity for repairs or maintenance work on one unit without
shutting down the entire system.
Special care must be taken in selecting pumps for parallel
operation. Consideration must be given to single pump operation
in the system as well as parallel operation. Consider the system
shown in Fig. 14-14. The NPSH available is plotted along with
the system head. Since entrance and line losses increase with
increases in flow, the NPSHA decreases with flow increases.
ta 160
7FRicilowL RESISTANCE
I 140
d . .
9 12Q
0
f
0 loo
<
t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
CAPACITY GPM x 1606
FIG. 14-12. - Capacity - GPM x 1000 (Courtesy Goulds Pumps)
The flow required is 16,000 gpm. We want to use two pumps

in parallel, but each must be capable of single operation.
The total system head at 16,000 gpm is 140’. Each pump must
be sized for 8000 gpm at 140’ TDH. NPSHR for each pump must
be less than 28’ for parallel operation. Consider applying two pumps
each with characteristics as shown in Fig. 14-15. In order to study
both parallel and single pump operation, the head-capacity curves for
both single and parallel operation must be plotted with the system
head curve.
The head-capacity pump curve for parallel operation is plotted
by adding the capacities of each pump for several different heads and
plotting the new capacity at each head. The shutoff head for the two
0 2 3 4 5 5 7 s
cAPAclTv QPY x lom
pumps in parallel is the same as for single operation. The NPSH

curve is plotted in the same manner as shown in Fig. 14- 15. For
example, the NPSHR for one pump at 8000 gpm is 14’. Therefore, in
parallel operation 16,000 gpm can be pumped with 14’ NPSHR by
each pump.
The curves show that each pump will deliver 8000 gpm at 140’
TDH when operating in parallel. Brake horsepower for each unit will
be 340-hp. NPSHR is 14’. NPSHA is 28’.
With only one pump operating, the flow will be 11,000 gpm at
108’ TDH. Bhp will be 355-hp. NPSHR is 26’ and NPSHA is 30’.
A 400-hp motor would be required.
This example shows that if a 3%hp motor had been selected
based on parallel operation only, the motor would have been over-
loaded in single pump operation. The single pump operation is also
c:ritical in terms of NPSH. For example, if the system NPSHA had
b :en in the neighborhood of 20’, parallel pump operation would have
b :en fine, but single pump operation would result in cavitation.
The Suction Piping.-The allowable suction lift between the
pump and the source of supply depends upon several factors. The
barometric pressure varies somewhat from time to time but it is most
dependent upon altitude. The higher the elevation above sea level,
the lower the barometric pressure and the shorter distance water
I- I II
1000’~29” Wrought Pipe
140
I I I I - EVE-I-C.. I I
I I I I I I I I 120
I I I I I I I I
0 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 18
CAPACITY GPM x loo0
will rise when a pump creates a vacuum. The water temperature also
affects the rise since the pressure of water vapor in the suction pipe
operates against the suction lift. The greater the temperature the
greater the vapor pressure and the lower the allowable lift. Also the
efficiency of the pump affects lift. A combination of these factors
show the maximum permissible suction lifts for different elevations
and water temperatures. There must be further reduction for friction
losses caused by suction pipe and fittings. At high water temperatures
vapor pressures become so high that the pump must be placed below
PUMPSANDPUMPMEASUREMENT
a I d 6 * to II 1. I‘ 1‘ 2n P 24
O)*LO)*m-xtm
FI G . 14-15. - Capacity - G P M x 1000 (Courtesy Goulds Pumps)
the water level to cause flow in the suction pipe. Where suction lift
prevails, arrangements to prime the pump are necessary. Centrifugal
pumps are usually provided with an air or water-operated ejector con-
nected to the top of the pump case, to assure priming.
The suction piping should be as short and direct as possible and
of such a diameter that the velocity in it will not exceed 4 feet per
second. Where the suction pipe is not of excessive length, Table 14- 1
is a good “rule of thumb” to determine pipe size. The suction pipe
preferably should be larger than the discharge pipe. Concentric
TABLE 14-1. - “Rule of Thumb” for Determining Size of Pipe
(Permissible Gdbnr of Water)

Si+c of Pipe Suction Discharge
3” not over. ..... 90 not over . . . . . . 150

4” not over . . . . . . 160 not over . . . . . . 275
5” not over . . . . . . 185 not over . . . . . . 425
6” not over . . . . . . 350 not over . . . . . . 650
8” not over . . . . . . 625 not over . . . . . .l,lOO
lo” not over ...... 1,000 not over ..... .1,750
400 M ANUAL OF W A T E R U TILIT Y OPERATIONS
reducers are undesirable when reducing suction pipe diameter to

pump suction diameter. An eccentric reducer should be used when
connecting directly from the pump suction piping, or if to a pipe
fitting, the fitting opening should be of the same diameter as the
suction pipe. The short “throw” of the eccentric reducer fitting
should be on the top.
If it is necessary to use an elbow or bend horizontally in the
suction piping, it should be located at a distance from the pump
suction connection, so the flow of water will tend to be equal and
not along one side of the suction connection to the pump.
A suction pipe should never be level. In order to avoid air
pockets it should slope upwards toward the pump from the source
of supply. Good practice requires that it be tested under pressure
regularly for leaks.
Noise in a centrifugal pump is an indication of impact. Air, or
other gases present in the water, or derived from air leaks in the
suction piping or in the pump packing, may cause the noise. If not
so caused, it is an indication of poor pump application, which causes
separation of air and gases from the water and causes wear or pitting
of the impeller and pump casing. This separation within the pump
casing is known as cavitation.
Rotation.-Indicating the direction of rotation of a pump is
confusing unless it is noted which end is being observed. Different
manufacturers use different ends as the place to observe rotation;
therefore., always indicate which end is being observed when
designating rotation. No matter what the observation point, if the
observer will state whether he is looking at the outboard end or the
driving end, and from that point the suction is on the right or left
of him, he will give the rotation of the pump. A plan drawing of
the pump layout is always of assistance to the manufacturer.
Selecting Pumps.-Prior to the purchase of any centrifugal
pump, study the pump curves or obtain the services of someone
who is competent to study and advise the best pump for the job. It
is unwise to select a pump on price alone or on efficiency (operating
costs) alone. The pump must not only meet the head and capacity
called for, but should fit into the system and be able to operate
with it.
Whether a pump is the right one to purchase can always be
determined by answering this question: “How will this pump meet
the system requirements and conditions, not only for today but a
few years from now?” It is impossible to figure all conditions that

will govern pump operation many years hence; but will the pump
lose its usefulness with any increase of water requirements? If it
will, it is not the pump at any price. It is good practice to purchase
a pump with an impeller less in diameter than the maximum impeller
size for that pump. If a pump is purchased with the maximum size
impeller to start with, its volume and head cannot be increased.
It is good practice to have plenty of extra motor power to increase
volume or head or both if it becomes necessary at a later date. The
pump will not use any more power than required by the conditions
under which it operates, regardless of the motor size. It is not
economical, however, to use a motor considerably in excess of re-
quirements. Motor efficiencies vary little between three-quarters and
full load. At one-half load and when overloaded, efficiency drops.
Pumps are usually designed to operate at speeds equivalent to
full load motor speeds. For 60 cycle operation, these are. approxi-
mately 3,500 t-pm, 1,750 x-pm, 1,160 rpm, 870 t-pm and 695 rpm.
These will vary some depending on the manufacturer and on the
size of the motor. The efficiency of the squirrel cage type motors
is from i/i to 1% percent greater at 1,750 rpm and 1,160 rpm speeds
than at higher or lower speeds. This is a general rule and is not
exact for all classes of motors.
It has already been noted that in order to obtain high heads, the
peripheral speed of the impeller must be high. There are three ways
of obtaining this result: (1) by using a larger diameter impeller,
(2) by increasing the impeller speed, and (3) by adding stages. Of
the three ways, the second is usually the least expensive, although
there are cases where the second and third methods must be com-
bined to obtain extra high heads. Slower speeds are more desirable,
but if high heads are necessary and the volume to be pumped is
relatively low, high speed pumps or multi-stage pumps must be used.
Generally, if pumps are aligned properly, the high speed ones
will require just as little maintenance as the slow speed pumps and
the replacement parts are cheaper. In the majority of cases, the
high speed pump will prove more-efficient than the low speed pump
for the same job.
The double-suction axially-split pump is recognized as being the
best suited for water plants. These pumps were developed to take
care of certain conditions encountered in municipal service. The
upper half of the pump case and the entire rotating element can be
removed without disturbing the piping. Prior to this development,

end-suction pumps with single-suction impellers were used, with
the motor and pump mounted on a base plate and with flexible
coupling being used between the pump and motor. This was the
forerunner of the present day close coupled pump, with its impeller
mounted on an extended motor shaft, with little or no base and
with no coupling, and the pump housing and motor housing com-
bined into an integral unit.
For small installations and for auxiliary units the close coupled
pumps are quite desirable. They are easily installed, take little space
and, as there is no coupling, alignment is unnecessary. Although
they are less expensive in the smaller sixes than double-suction
pumps, caution should be used in their selection. Some of this type
pump have been put on the market as a competitive product, with
no quality built into them. The better constructed close-coupled
type pumps compare favorably with the double-suction type.
There are some features about these pumps which make them
less desirable for full municipal service. Inspection of the impeller
or any of the internal parts requires that suction and discharge piping
be disturbed. The packing gland is usually in a location which is
difficult to reach, and therefore packing is more difficult. The piping
enters and leaves the pump at right angles and in different planes,
instead of a straight line. Standard stock motors cannot be used
as the shaft on this type pump is extended to hold the impeller shaft.
INSTALLATION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Where two or more pumps are to be operated, discharging them

into the same header or distribution mains, special care should be
taken that the pumps are designed for the same maximum head
conditions. A pump, especially of the centrifugal type, if designed for
lower head conditions, will “cut-back” or decrease the quantity dis-
charged per minute, and will “cut-out” or cease to discharge if
the shut-off head of the other pump or pumps is sufficiently higher.
Proper location,of a pump will facilitate good operation. A light,
dry, clean room, where the temperature can be regulated, with
sufficient head room and ample space between pumps and nearby
walls should be of prime consideration.
Foundations should be rigid, about 1 inch lower than pump base
elevation, with foundation bolts of proper size with threads of suf-
ficient length above the foundation. A template should be used to

insure proper spacing when foundations are constructed. The pump
should be placed upon the foundation to proper elevation and align-
ment, with bolts in place. The nuts are then run down on bolts
until the threads just project above their tops. Then iron or steel
wedges are placed between the foundation and the pump base plate,
so the pump can be prop’erly leveled without distorting the plate.
Grout should be placed on top of the pump foundation and under
the pump base plate to fill the space completely, leaving the wedges
in place. When the grout has thoroughly set, the nuts of the founda-
tion’s bolts can be tightened carefully, after which the pump is again
checked for proper elevation and alignment.
The installation of smaller pumps that are furnished with a
common base plate for the pump and the driving mechanism is com-
paratively simple. In the larger sizes, installation should be su-
pervised by a factory representative.
The pump should always be located as close to the source of
water supply as conditions will permit. The ideal pump elevation
would be at a point below the level of the surface of the water so
the pump would be primed at all times. In such cases a gate valve
should be installed on the suction near the pump.
When starting a centrifugal pump, see that it is tilled with water,
the suction valve is open, and the discharge valve closed. When
up to speed open the discharge valve slowly. See that the stuffing
box glands are not drawn too tight, and remember that a drip or
slight flow of water from the water seal and through the packing
in a stuffing box keeps the packing in good condition and indicates
that the shaft is not subjected to unnecessary packing friction. When
pumping gritty water, a separate source of clear water for the lubrica-
tion of the pump packing will prevent damage to the pump shaft
and sleeves. Before stopping the pump, close the discharge valve
slowly; then stop the pump. This will prevent water hammer.
The first and most important thing to remember about a pumping
plant is keep if clean. If a plant is dirty, operation cannot be
satisfactory. Keep all oil and dirt away from moving parts. See that
all oil and grease cans are covered and kept clean and free from
dirt. If dirt is allowed to settle on the grease and in the oil, it
will find its way to beatings and shorten their life. An occasional
coat of paint will assist in keeping the station clean.
Do not over-grease or over-oil bearings. This is especially true
of grease lubricated bearings. Due to the internal friction caused
404 M ANUAL OF W ATER U TILITY O PERATIONS
by the churning of grease, a bearing will run hotter if the grease

pocket is packed tight. It is good practice to remove the oil or grease
completely from the reservoir every 6 to 12 months, depending on
constancy of operation, flush with solvent and refill. There is usually
an indicating mark on oil lubricated bearings to show the proper
oil level. If the grease lubricated bearing retainer is one-half full of
grease, it has enough. Do not let employees give these bearings a
“shot” of grease every day or so. It will cause trouble. One such
application will last several months.
If there is a noise or vibration, check the difficulty. Determine
the trouble and stop it. If allowed to continue, it may develop into
a major repair bill. A centrifugal pump should not vibrate. In fact,
any vibration probably means misalignment. Misalignment will cause
wear and expense.
If the pump and motor continue to get out of alignment, dis-
connect the pump from its suction and discharge piping. There should
be no strain from either the suction or the discharge. The pipe flanges
and pump flanges should match completely and fit jam up face-to-
face. A centrifugal pump is made of cast iron and will not stand
a strain. Any distortion, even if it does not break the pump, will
not only cause internal wear, but external wear and lost efficiency.
If the suction line is a long one, be sure that there is some sort
of flexible coupling in it to prevent its having any effect on the pump.
This is true of the discharge line whether it is a short or long line.
Be sure that the packing glands are loose. A tight packing gland will
score the shaft sleeve. When once scored, the glands cannot be
properly adjusted unless they are renewed.
When packing a pump, Crst obtain packing recommended or
furnished by the manufacturer for that pump. If it is not already cut,
cut it to exact size, straight across, never on the bias. Be sure the
lantern gland is in its proper place with rings of packing on each side
of it. Stagger the joints of the packing when placing in the gland
opening. Tamp each ring of the packing in place gently but tirmly.
Pull the packing into place with the glands when all rings are in-
stalled. Pull it up rather tight, then back it off until it is loose. Start
the pump and after running a few minutes or until there is con-
siderable leakage of water about the gland, pull up the glands “thumb-
tight.” Always allow a small amount of water to leak through the
packing gland. This acts as a lubricant and protects the shaft sleeve.
Any pump requiring under 75 hp motor should turn freely with
hand operation. Larger pumps and motors will require more power
to turn. If the pump will not turn freely, look for a tight gland or
bad bearing. Be sure there is no air in the pump when starting. Air
will at times leak into a pump through the glands when the pump
is not running if the suction lift is high. Such a condition would occur
if the foot valve leaked. If surges are caused at starting or stopping
the pump, close the discharge valve before starting or stopping. On
starting, open the valve slowly when pump comes up to speed. On
stopping, close valve completely before stopping the motor.
Valves are made which will accomplish this operation auto-
matically, and will eliminate line surges caused by starting and
stopping.
Be sure suction valves are wide open. Have discharge valves
wide open unless it is necessary to build up an artificial head. A
throttled discharge valve may act as an ejector and will draw air
into the line through the valve packing.
Parallel Operation.-Frequently the question is asked, “What
will this pump do when operating in parallel?” There are many
variables which will determine the answer, but the most important
are the pump characteristics and the line characteristics. Without
these two, no proper answer can be given. If the pump characteristic
curves are not available, they can be obtained from the manufacturer
on request. Send in the figure number, shop number or serial number
of the pump or pumps and the manufacturer will gladly send the
curves to you. The line characteristics are not so easily obtained,
especially for a distribution system. Where there is a long supply
line, this can be determined from friction tables and plotted.
Every parallel operation is a problem in itself, and no rules can
be followed to state how much additional water can be pumped with
parallel operation. Even pumps of similar characteristics sometimes
cannot be used to obtain additional water in parallel operation.
When pumps are operated in parallel, the volumes are added.
When pumps are operated in series the heads are added.
Pump characteristics and line characteristics combine to deter-
mine the possibility of operating pumps in parallel. It is easier to
parallel pumps when the friction loss is comparatively low. An
additional pump with proper characteristics for the desired in-
creased volume may be more economical than attempting to parallel
existing pumps. Series operation on small lines will increase the
amount of water that can be obtained.
POWER SOURCES
(1) Steam.-Not used extensively any more.

(2) Oil Engines.-These include the diesels and semi-diesels.
They are of constant and comparatively low speed. They are high
in first cost but are reliable and economical. They are frequently used
in small installations where electricity is not available, expensive or
unreliable. They require considerable operating skill.
(3) GasoIiw Engines.-These are generally used as standby or
emergency units. They are low in first cost, but very high in operating
cost. They generally operate at 600 to 1,800 revolutions per minute
with speed control at the carburetor. They can be direct-connected
to centrifugal pumps. A common installation is to have an electric
motor on one end of the shaft and the gasoline engine at the other
end where it can easily be coupled on should the current or motor
fail.
(4) Motors.-Electric motors can be secured in a wide range of
speeds, and are well adapted for direct connection to centrifugal
pumps. Capacity of a motor depends upon how much heat it can
stand. There are two types of motors, the direct current and the
alternating current motor.
Direct current motors are seldom used at the present time due
to the fact that direct current is generally unavailable unless it is
generated at the pump station, and practically all motors manu-
factured now are of the alternating current type.
Alternating current motors of three types can be secured, each
offering distinct types of service. They are: a, the squirrel-cage
induction motor; b, the wound-rotor (slip-ring) induction motor;
and c, the synchronous motor.
a. The squirrel-cage induction motor is the simplest of all
motors. It gets its name from the winding on the rotor which con-
sists of heavy copper bars welded to the end rings, forming a device
similar to the exercise wheel in pet squirrel cages. The squirrel-
cage motors do not have moving rings, brushes, or wire connections
to the rotating part; the speed is constant, as fixed by the frequency
and number of poles. They are without adjustment, and are easily
controlled manually or by remote control equipment. The starting
torque is low, and when demanded, the current draft on the line is
heavy. Their efficiency is high but the power factor is low. They
are not well adapted to starting heavy loads, requiring larger trans-
formers and power lines, and higher cost for power used.
PUMPSANDPUMPMEASUREMENT 407
6. The wound-rotor or “slip-ring” motor has similar windings

on the rotating and stationary parts, with the ends of the windings con-
nected to the “slip-rings” on the shafts. The starting torque can be
varied from 30 to 375 percent of full-load torque. These motors are
of variable speed, and cost from one and one-half to two times the
cost of squirrel-cage motors, but the savings in power when the
head varies will more than pay the interest and depreciation on the
additional investment. The power factor is less than unity, requiring
larger transformers and power lines, and generally higher cost for
power used.
c. The synchronous motor gets its name from the fact that it
runs in synchronism (i.e., at the same frequency) as the generator
supplying the power. It is a constant speed motor, the speed de-
pending on the number of poles in the motor Geld. Its advantages
are that it operates at the same speed at all loads, its efficiency is
usually higher than an induction motor and if used in combination
with inductive loads, it will improve the electrical efficiency of the
system. It has the disadvantages of requiring an exciting generator
to energize the field; its speed cannot be changed; and it requires
more skilled and intelligent operation.
VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
In the past several years a variety of drivers which can vary the
speed of the centrifugal pump have been used. The two most com-
mon, which are described here, are the magnetic air cooled type and
the fluid drive type.
The affinity laws state that the volume of a centrifugal pump
will vary in direct proportion to the speed and the head pump will
vary in proportion to the square of the speed. Therefore, the drive
which will automatically and continuously vary the speed of a
centrifugal pump will offer the operator of a water system many
advantages. There are many manufacturers of variable speed drives.
They can be purchased in every conceivable engineering principle.
These principles could be mechanical variable speed devices,
variable foot pitch pulleys, and planetary gears. These mechanical
power transmissions have an efficiency of about 90 percent and are
generally driven by a conventional squirrel cage motor. Electric
motors are also widely used as variable speed machines. Direct
current motors are excellent drivers, while many makes of altemat-
ing current motors use various methods of variable speed control.

In general, alternating current variable speed control follows two or
three broad categories. These are wound rotor, reactor type and
variable frequency. One of the more popular forms of electrical
variable speed drive is the magnetic or eddy-current coupling.
The magnetic coupling is an electrical variable speed device
that works on the eddy current principle. A standard electric motor
is connected to an outer, rotating, sliploss dissipating ring usually
driven at a constant speed. An inner rotating direct current excited
magnetic member is directly connected to the load to be driven. The
only mechanical connection between the inner and outer member
consists of anti-friction bearings which for all practical purposes
transmit no torque. Direct current is applied to the inner magnetic
member through slip rings. Direct current saturation is used to vary
the output speed. The more direct current excitation applied to the
magnetic member the higher the output rpm, because more magnetic
lines of flux grab at the constant speed outer member, thereby reduc-
ing slip between the two units.
The magnetic variable speed drives are available in almost any
desired horsepower, speed range and duty cycle. They are available
in various types of enclosures making them suitable for both indoor
and outdoor applications. They are available in both horizontal and
vertical types of construction.
The second type of variable speed drive is the fluid coupling.
The fluid coupling has been used quite extensively in variable speed
pump service. The first fluid drives were made as early as 1905 in
Germany. Horsepowers are such as to produce speeds ranging from
3,500 to 14,000 rpm.
Basically a fluid coupling as used today consists of two rotating
elements with opposing segmented hemispheric shells contained in a
casing. The casing is called a torus. The driving member is called
an impeller, and the driven member called the runner. The speed of
the runner is a function of the quantity of oil rotating in the torus.
By varying the quantity of oil in the torus, the slip of the runner
can be controlled and thus vary the output speed. When the rotating
torus is full of oil, then the maximum speed is obtained in the
runner, which is approximately 97 percent of the full load speed of
the motor.
The level of the oil in the torus is varied by means of a scoop
tube which removes excess oil from the coupling. The raising and
lowering of the scoop tube will vary the speed of the runner in
direct proportion.
The output speed of variable speed drives can be controlled
through several different types of actuating devices. One of the
common types is a liquid level control which through the purging
of air wilI maintain a constant liquid level in a tank. This constant
monitoring of the liquid level within a tank will vary the speed of
the pump and thereby increase and decrease the pump capacity in
direct proportion to the change of speed. A second common actuating
device is the pressure control. Through a system of diaphragms, the
control will monitor the pressure within a system, and vary the speed
automatically of the drive and pump and thereby maintain a constant
pressure within the system.
MOTOR STARTERS
The following types of starters are most generally used with

pumping equipment:
1. Magnetic, Full Voltage (across the line).
(a) Push Button Operated. (b) Selector Switch Operated.
2. Magnetic, Reduced Voltage.
(a) Push Button Operated. (b) Selector Switch Operated.
3. Combination, Magnetic Full Voltage with
(a) Fused Switch. (b) Non-Fused Switch. (c) Circuit
Breaker Switch.
4. Increment Start.
The full voltage magnetic type of starter is most generally used.
It has both overload and under-voltage protection. There is less
maintenance required and fewer moving parts in these starters than in
any other type giving comparable results. Keep the contacts of these
starters clean. Never use anything to block these starters in the
closed position. If a starter continues to kick out, determine the
cause and correct it. Be absolutely certain that the switch is supplied
with the proper heater strips for the motor being used. This type
starter can be operated by a push button with momentary contacts,
which may be mounted in the starter cover or in a separate receptacle,
or it may be .operated through a hand-off automatic selector switch
when used with a float or pressure control or some other pilot device.
Where power feeders are long or where the power company
will not allow full voltage magnetic starters (usually with large
motors), the reduced voltage starter is used. The manual type is

used when it is not necessary to operate the pumps from pilot devices
and when the initial cost is given consideration.
The combination starters combine all of the features of the
magnetic full voltage starters with a means of disconnecting the
particular circuit from the feeder panel. The Underwriters Code re-
quires that a disconnect switch be placed within sight of every motor.
In order to simplify the wiring and house in one cabinet, the dis-
connect device and the starter, the combination starter was de-
veloped. This eliminated the necessity of wiring between the dis-
connect and the starter in the field, and assured the proper size
switch and starter combination being used for the motor size.
Generally speaking, four types of enclosures are used: (1) The
most commonly used is Type 1, or general purpose metal enclosures;
(2) Type 4, watertight metal enclosure; (3) Type 5, dust tight en-
closure; and (4) Type 7, known as Class 1, Group D, is Under-
writers approved for hazardous locations where gas or other ex-
plosive fumes might be encountered.
V&age.-Voltage is usually established by the engineer or by
the availability of current. The 440-volt current is most economical
if available. A 220-volt circuit requires heavier insulation. On larger
installations it is both feasible and economical to use 2,300-volt
circuits as this will save, in some cases, the cost of transformers
and transformer losses.
DEEP WELL TURBINE PUMPS
Deep well turbine pumps are not true turbine pumps, but are
actually smaIl series centrifugal pumps and have the characteristics
of centrifugal pumps, particularly the relations between speed,
output, head and power. Due to the requirement that they be of
limited size to fit’inside the well casing, the amount of head which
each stage can develop is limited and it is necessary to combine
several stages in order to develop the higher heads required for most
well pumping jobs.
For example, if one stage will deliver 300 gpm at 25foot head,
to deliver 300 gpm at 200 foot head would require 200 + 25, or 8
stages.
Since these pumps are actually series centrifugal pumps, the
question of selection of a proper pump follows very closely the dis-
cussion under centrifugal pumps. The head capacity curves,

efficiency curves and horsepower curves resemble those of cen-
trifugal pumps and need no separate discussion.
The efficiency, as usually stated, is of the pump bowls or stages
themselves and some additional horsepower is required because of
shaft losses and pipe friction through the discharge column which
may be an appreciable amount in deep settings. In obtaining effi-
ciency curves, it is well to be certain whether the shaft losses and
column friction losses are included.
The essential parts of a deep well turbine pump are an engine
or motor driver, a well head supporting the driver and containing
the discharge connection, and also transmitting the load of the pump
to the foundation, the column pipe, the shaft and bearings and the
stages.
This type is particularly suited for electric motor operation by
use of a vertical motor, either hollow shaft or solid shaft. These
pumps are also adapted to engine operation through a quarter-turn
flat belt or through a right-angle gear drive. If standby power is
required, a combination drive can be obtained whereby an electric
motor and an engine both can be installed on the same shaft.
Since all of the load of the pump, column and shaft is carried
to the foundation through the pump head, it is necessary to provide
some sort of thrust beating to carry the load. In the solid-shaft
motor, a thrust bearing is built in the pump head. In the hollow-
shaft motor the pump shaft extends through the hollow motor shaft
and the thrust bearing is built in the top of the motor. In the right-
angle gear drive the thrust is usually carried in the geared drive.
An adjusting nut is provided at the top of the pump shaft to insure
the positioning of the impellers in their place in the pump casing.
Underground discharges, formerly used, are no longer approved
for municipal water supply due to the impossibility of properly sealing
the space between the well casing and the pump column.
The pump column is usually made of threaded and coupled pipe
or llanged couplings. The column is usually in lO-foot lengths,
carefully cut to exact length and the ends machined square. The
couplings for the coiumn are of special design, each having a spider
inside which forms a support for the shaft bearing retainer. The
shaft is thus supported at lo-ft intervals.
There are two types of bearings used, the oil lubricated and the
water lubricated. The oil lubricated type requires an outer oil pipe
around the shaft, and oil is fed into this oil pipe at the top of the
well. In the water lubricated type the shaft is open to the water,
and the bearings are usually of rubber inserted in the bearing retainers
and the water serves as a lubricant.
In the water lubricated type, water should be admitted back
down the shaft from the top before starting the pump to prevent
damage to the bearings above the normal water level.
There is still difference of opinion concerning the best type of
lubrication and most manufacturers make both oil and water-
lubricated pumps. The water-lubricated pump is simpler, has no oil
column, weighs less, is easier to install and remove, and will not
contaminate water in the well with oil. The oil-lubricated pump has
more positive lubrication and does not require pre-lubrication. It
is somewhat easier to adapt to automatic operation as a solenoid
valve can be used on the oiler to start feeding oil when the pump
starts. In the water-lubricated pump a more complicated automatic
control is necessary to assure that proper pre-lubrication is carried
out. Sometimes a small hole is drilled through the check valve or a
small line is allowed to run constantly to assure proper pre-lubrica-
tion. A great deal of damage to the shaft bearings may result from
failure to pre-lubricate the pump.
Since the pump itself is actually a series centrifugal pump,
there are several types of impellers used with claims of better effi-
ciency and less trouble from sand for each one.
In selecting a pump, it should be remembered that the head
conditions may vary considerably for any one pump, both when
starting and stopping, and seasonally due to variations of water levels
in the wells. An impeller of the non-overloading type should be
selected if much variation is expected and motor sizes should be
selected to avoid overload of the motor at any point in the range
of pump capacity.
In areas where water levels are receding or can be expected to
recede, it is usually economical to select a shaft size and motor size
to permit future lowering of the pump in the well without over-
loading either the shaft or ‘the motor. It is desirable to install an air
line in the well to test water levels and drawdowns when operating.
It is no longer customary to bolt deep-well turbine pumps down
to the foundation as the weight of the pump will hold it in place.
No well pump should be installed in a well which is not straight
and vertical. No effort should ever be made to force a pump in a
crooked well as it will not operate satisfactorily. The pump should
hang free in the well before grouting. A Dresser or other flexible
coupling should be used to connect the pump discharge pipe to

avoid transmitting any pipe stresses to the pump.
The foundation for a deep well pump should be high enough
above ground to be above any possible surface water level. The pump
base should be grouted to seal the base watertight and all openings
through the pump base should be plugged except for a breather pipe.
This pipe should have a return ell with the opening looking down
and screened to exclude insects. Any gland leakage water should be
piped away from the pump base.
A type of deep-well turbine is now available in which the motor
is submerged in the water in the well. The motor is Hled with oil
of high electric insulation properties and a relay is provided to cut
off the pump if the water level reaches too close to the motor,
thus preventing its operation until the oil level has been restored to
its proper level through the oil f3ler line.
A cable is carried from the surface to the motor. Since this
cable is outside the pump column, it may be subject to damage by
abrasion if the well casing is only a little larger than the overall
diameter of the pump and cable, and care must be exercised to
minimize the rubbing of the cable against the.well casing.
Since this type of pump does not have a long shaft, it eliminates
bearing troubles and power losses from the shafting. It is especially
adapted to wells which are crooked since the whole motor pump is
one unit of comparatively short length and is not affected by most
well irregularities.
If this type of pump is used in an area of receding water levels,
it is wise to purchase the original cable long enough to permit lower-
ing the pump without splicing the cable.
The well head is merely a !‘lat plate with a pipe elbow attached
and the electrical cable is brought into a simple control box. This
type of pump can be made very inconspicuous on the surface. The
tendency is to place the well head too low which sometimes allows
surface water to rise up to or over the outlet when only the well
seal will prevent contamination. The seal where the cable passes
through the welI casing or the top plate is a possible source of leakage
unless care is taken to make a watertight seal at this point.
Deep-well turbine pumps are not used exclusively as well
pumps, as they have been adapted for use as booster pumps on pipe
lines, low lift pumps pumping from rivers or lakes and high lift
PUMPS pumping from reservoirs into the distributing system.
Keeping Records.-Keeping proper records at a pumping station
cannot be too strongly stressed. The total amount of water pumped

daily, the amount pumped by each pump if possible, the suction and
discharge pressures, the number of hours by each pump, and the
daily power consumption are the very minimum. In addition, other
records such as rainfall, temperature, voltage, amperage, power
factor, fuel consumption in the case of gas, gasoline or diesel engines,
repair records, cost, and the like should be mentioned.
In case of a well supply, a log of the well should be obtained
when the well is constructed. A record of static levels, drawdown
and quantity pumped from each well should be kept. Other records
may be desired as indicated by local conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Much of the material contained in this chapter was condensed

with permission from thestandards of the Hydraulic Institute, 2130
Keith Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio and from a brochure prepared by
Goulds Pumps Inc., Seneca Falls, New York, particularly the
sections on “Fundamental .Terms” and “Centrifugal Pumps;” sub-
sections “Pump Characteristic Curves”, “Affinity Laws”, and
“System Curves”. The figures were reproduced from these sources
with credits indicated.
CHAPTER 15
MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROLS
CHARLES R. McCREARY, P.E.
Charles R. McCreary and Associates
The purpose of this chapter on electric motors and controls is to pres-

ent a general discussion of the principal types of motors and motor con-
trols used in the water utility field. Attention will be focused on general
purpose induction motors and conventional controls. \
ELECTRICAL
Basic Characteristics. - Electric motors are selected to fit the

drive requirements, system voltage characteristics, and to operate satis-
factorily in the ambient environment. Starting and running torques must
match load requirements. Voltage, phase, and frequency must match the
power supply. Winding insulation type can be selected to endure mois-
ture, chemical attack, frequent starting, and high ambient temperature,
depending upon the application.
Standard line current frequency for the United States is 60 hertz.
This characteristic used to be referred to as 60 cycles. The hertz designa-
tion more accurately states cycles per second; the required time for one
electrical wave to repeat itself is one cycle. For 60 hertz power it is about
16 milliseconds. A three-phase motor responds to the line current with
a rotating magnetic field that is in synchronism with the applied frequen-
cy. A single-phase motor responds with a pulsating magnetic field and
its rotor will not rotate unless some auxiliary means are provided to shift
the flux in the iron circuit to provide a starting torque.
An electric motor, whether three-phase or single-phase has a rotor
speed that is a function of the number of poles with which the stator is
wound. The rotor speed never catches up with the rotating magnetic field
in an induction motor field but it always rotates at a speed slightly less
than the synchronous speed. This difference in speed is called the “slip”.
Most motors run with a 2% to 3% slip. For example, an induction motor
that would run at 1800 rpm if there were no slip, would run at 1760 rpm
with 2% slip.
Induction motor slip characteristics are designed into the motor by
415
the manufacturer through a speed-torque performance. These speed-

torque types are designated by a design letter. The principal types are
Designs A, B, C. and D. Most general purpose induction motors are built
to Design B characteristic. It has normal starting torque with full-load
slip less than 5%. Design D is a high-slip (5% to 8%), high starting torque
motor. About the only application for Design D motors in water utility
plants is on the old style variable speed pump drive that used variable
voltage to control the speed. Design A motors are low slip, moderate
starting torque design and are sometimes found on centrifugal pumps.
Design C motors have about the same slip as the Design B type except
the starting torque is higher. A set of speed-torque curves in Figure 15
1 shows the relative characteristics of these types of motors.
28 60 I&
FIG . 15 1. - Percent of Synchronous Speed

The humps shown in Figure 15-l are referred to as the pullout
torque. Once the load is accelerated past the hump, the motor operates
at the very steep end of the speed-torque curve. This is why the full load
speed of Design A, B., & C motors changes but slightly for large load
changes. Once the load gets up to about 300% of the full-load torque,
the motor will stall. However, note the gently sloping speed-torque char-
acteristics of the Design D motor, it can run any load that it can start.
Also, it has comparatively large speed changes for changes in load.
MOTORSANDMOTOR CONTROLS 417
Voltage ratings of motors are found on the motor’s nameplate. It

will be noted that the voltage is less than the applied line voltage. For
example, a motor with 460 volts on the nameplate is designed to operate
on a 480V nominal system voltage. This appears to be a discrepancy but
it is actually a considered design development. The motor is nameplated
at the lower voltage because there is a line voltage drop from the supply
source to the motor. The supply source, which is usually a utility trans-
former is nameplated at a higher voltage. These nominal voltages follow
standards. Table 15-1 lists common source and load voltages.
There has been a general increase in nominal voltages in the last
thirty years. In the 1950’s, a typical three-phase motor nameplate would
read 208-220/44OV. This means that the motor had a dual winding for
operation at 220V or 440V; also, it would operate with a little higher
temperature rise at 208 V. In the 1960’s the motor manufacturers, acting
through National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA),
changed the voltages to adjust them to the higher system voltages. The
208V dual rating was dropped and a separate 200V rated motor design
was manufactured. Now, we have 230V instead of 22OV, 460V instead
of 440v.
Motors are wound to accommodate small increase and decreases
in the supply line voltage. The standard range is plus-or-minus 10% from
the motor’s nameplate voltage. This range allows in-plant voltage varia-
tions. When the voltage increases above the motor’s nameplate voltage,
the current goes down, conversely, when the supply voltage decreases,
the current goes up. This inverse relationship exists for small changes
because the motor attempts to deliver the same shaft horsepower output
and since the horsepower is proportional to the product of VxI when V
goes up, I goes down and vice-versa. Beyond the upper and lower limits
of the 10% range, the currents rise dramatically. These phenomena are
shown in Figures 2a and 2b.
The above voltage curve is approximately for older “U” frame mo-
tors and the new energy-efficient motors. For the modern “T” frame line
of motors, the curve has a narrower trough and rises more rapidly at the
extremes of the 10% tolerance range.
A motor’s tolerance to voltage variations is affected mainly by the
amount and quality of the magnet steel and magnetic air gap construc-
tion, when operating under nameplate conditions. The more magnet steel
used and the higher its quality (high grade silicon steel instead of plain
carbon steel) the more tolerant the motor becomes to voltage changes
and suffers less degradation of its life.
A motor nameplate will have the service factor stamped upon it for
~~FECT&,,V’~~~~&T~d~
FIG . 15-2a. - Effect of Voltage Variations on “U” Frame Motors

motors that comply with NEMA standards. International standards do
not recognize service factors. The NEMA standard defines service factor
of an ac motor as a multiplier, and where applied to the motor’s rated
horsepower, indicates a permissible horsepower loading which may be
carried under the conditions specified for the service factor. This service
factor is usually 1.15 (or 15%) for open motors and was originally devel-
oped to coincide with temperature limits of motor insulation. Motors rat-
ed from 1 l/2 hp through 200 hp have a 15% service factor and motors
above 200 hp are not rated in accordance with NEMA standards. l/2
hp through 1 have a 1.25 service factor. Totally enclosed motors normally
have a 1.0 service factor; however, they can be purchased with a 15%
service factor.
M OTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL 419
FIG . 152b. - Effect of Voltage Variations on “T” Frame Motors

The service factor provides a cushion against motor overload, ambi-
ent temperature increase, and voltage variations. Remember, the service
factor can be used up when only one operating condition is exceeded;
do not depend upon service factor to keep the motor from overheating
when more than one condition is exceeded. The service factor is really
a temporary standby rating and should not be relied upon for continuous
operation at the service factor point.
Another characteristic stamped on a motor’s nameplate is the code
letter. Most general purpose induction motors are designed with code
letter G. This code letter defines the amount of inrush KVA under locked
rotor conditions. It is the locked KVA per horsepower ratio under full
nameplate voltage when the rotor is blocked. NEMA standards permits
420 M ANUAL OF W ATER UTIL,ITY OPERATIONS
an allowable range of values for a particular code letter. For example,

code letter G range is 5.60 to 6.29 locked KVA per hp. Code letter F
is 5.59 to 6.29. Most plant motors will be found to be code letter F, G,
or H.
The code letter relates to the inrush current when a motor starts
under across-the-line, full-voltage conditions. Although the rotor is not
blocked, the rotor is at a standstill when started and its inertia causes
it to approach the factor blocked rotor test. Since KVA is a product of
current and voltage, the code letter average value reflects the ratio of
inrush current over rear current. For a code letter G motor, inrush cur-
rent is about 6 times the full load current.
Sometimes, the power company will require that a large motor be
started at reduced voltage so as to reduce the current impact on their
distribution system. If their requirement is not too stringent, a code letter
F motor in place of code letter G, for example, might be able to satisfy
the utility’s requirements. This is an economical alternative since the ad-
ditional price for code letter F is only about 10% of the motor’s price.
On a code letter F motor with across-the-line starter, the cost is one-half
the cost of a standard motor with reduced voltage starter for a 100 hp
size.
Motor nameplates do not usually give the motor efficiency. The new
lines of energy efficient motors will have the NEMA nominal efficiency
stamped thereon. Motor efficiency has become more important to plant
operators as the cost of electrical energy has risen. Motors consume about
64% of all power produced in the United States. Specifically, motors rat-
ed 1 to 125 hp consume 20% of all electric power generated; therefore,
an increase in efficiency of ,l% would be significant, even for one plant
system.
For standard “T” frame general purpose motors, efficiencies range
from about 75% on the small integral horsepower sizes to about 90% on
the 200 hp size. For the new “energy efficient” motors, efficiencies are
several points higher in each rating. Refer to Figure 15-3 for a compari-
son.
Manufacturers increase the motor efficiency by reducing the power
losses in two main ways: 1) Improve the magnetic circuit and 2) Lower
the resistance of the windings. To improve the magnetic circuit, more
iron can be added to the rotor and stator stack, thinner laminations of
core steel can be made, and a better grade of core steel can be used such
as silicon steel in place of carbon steel. Also, the magnetic circuit can
be improved by reducing the air gap so as to reduce stray losses. In so
far as the windings are concerned, losses can be reduced by reducing their
M OTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL 421
IaJ --
WFlClEtJT
45--
II I I
I I
I I I
I I I I
4 55 IO
IO w
w 330
0 Q 15 ICLG %=2
oUrPuT liM!VW
15-3.--Emergency
FIGIG , , 15-3. Emergency Efficiency
Efficiency
resistance: copper instead of aluminum and larger wire sizes. About 65%
of the motor’s total losses occur in the iron and in the stator windings.
One last nameplate topic, a basic motor characteristic is the insula-
tion class. This topic is explored under “Temperature and Insulation
Considerations”.
Types of Motors. - When direct current (dc) motors were devel-
oped commercially, one would have thought that they had gone about
as far as they could go with the development of series, shunt, and com-
pound wound dc motors, however they are not used in water and waste
water plants to any extent. Sometimes they are found on flocculators
and mixers and the shunt wound dc motor is applied for speed control.
When George Westinghouse with his alternating current system won out
over Edison’s dc system, a floodgate of alternating current motor design
was opened.
Alternating current (ac) motors can be divided into two main types:
synchronous and induction motors.
Synchronous motors have two variations, excited and unexcited, and
are not ordinarily found in the small and medium motor sizes (below
500 hp). It is typically a 1000 hp or greater size motor and it is usually
designed to run at very low speeds (less than 600 rpm). The rotor of a
synchronous motor turns in synchronism with the revolving magnetic
field induced in the air gap by the stator windings. An excited synchro-
nous motor has a direct current field on the rotor and the north and south
poles of the rotor are usually exposed or salient pole type. The excitation
for an excited synchronous motor can come from a rectified revolving
field on the rotor, called self-excited, or it can come through slip ring
connections from an external dc source, called separately excited.
The synchronous motor has rotor bars embedded in its pole faces
to cause it to act like an induction motor during start so that the rotor
can develop enough torque to accelerate its load. These short-circuited
bars have the appearance of a large induction motor rotor with brazed
bar construction. They are called Amortisseur windings.
Excited synchronous motors are found on large, low-speed pumps,
fans, blowers, and compressors in the water utility plant. They are usual-
ly directly shaft-connected to their load. Controls are much more compli-
cated for a synchronous motor than for an induction motor.
Unexcited synchronous motors do not use rotor windings but have
modified rotors to cause the flux to form about poles or magnets are em-
bedded in the rotors to form the poles. A recent offering by one national
motor manufacturer’s catalog lists the magnet type unexcited synchro-
nous motor in small (l-5 hp) sizes. These are used with centrifugal pumps
and fans either to run at synchronous speeds or to be used with a variable
frequency controller for precise speed control.
The excited synchronous motor can, in addition to providing shaft
power, provide power factor correction to plant electrical distribution
systems. It can do this by the amount of dc field current applied to the
rotor. If the field current applied is set above a certain minimum value,
the power factor of the machine becomes leading. This field current set-
ting is usually fixed by the manufacturer so that the motor runs under
load at 0.8 power factor, leading and is so stamped on the motor’s name-
plate. Plant induction motors typically operate with 0.8 power factor lag-
ging and if enough KVAR at 0.8 leading can be supplied by the synchro-
nous motor, the plant power Bystem will operate at unity power factor,
to the delight of the power company.
The induction motor has many variations, both in single phase types
and in three phase types. These include wound rotor, single speed and
squirrel cage multiple speed. They are the mainstay of a water or waste
water plant power system. The emphasis will be on the general purpose
induction motor, especially the three-phase, 60 hertz induction motor.
For generality some of the many different types of induction motors will
MOTORSANDMOTOR CONTROL 423
be explored.
First the Wound-rotor motor is made for both single-phase and
three-phase motor but the single-phase types such as the repulsion-in-
duction type and the repulsion type have all but disappeared from the
marketplace, and the remaining wound-rotor single-phase motor is the
series type that is used mainly on hand tools. The three-phase wound-
rotor motor is rarely found in water utility plant work except for some
old variable-speed pump drives and sometimes in a modern solid-state
speed control application. The three-phase wound-rotor motor uses slip
rings on the rotor to bring out the rotor windings. These are wired to
a starter with a complement of starting resistance, or, the heavy-duty
run type resistors that are used for speed control. Usually, the wound-
rotor motor was used for providing smooth starts with low inrush current
for large fans, pumps, and compressors. In the typical start-only resistor
type wound-rotor motor control, the motor’s slip rings are short-circui-
ting at rated speed. Thereupon, the motor continues to operate like a
squirrel cage induction motor. Wound-rotor motors can be wound for
multispeed operation but these are rare. Speed control through the use
of solid-state inverters in the secondary slip-ring circuit can provide
smooth variable speed along with power feedback into the primary sup-
ply lines for energy conservation.
Wound rotor motors are expensive and there is a maintenance prob-
lem in the care of the slip rings and associated brushes. Such motors are
not usually made in totally enclosed construction nor are they usually
made except in horizontal, foot-mounted models.
The squirrel-cage induction motor is the principal motor found in
all types of drives in a water utilities plant. It is used in small fans and
pumps as well as large blowers, pumps, and compressors. Three-phase
types are used primarily and single-phase types are used in fractional
horsepower on small pumps and fans.
Single-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are mostly the capaci-
tor type or split-phase design. A single-phase motor must have an auxilia-
ry starting device. This device shifts the stator flux so that there is a
torque developed. Otherwise, the rotor would stand still and hum as no
torque would be developed. There are three principal types of single-
phase, squirrel-cage motors; these are shaded-pole, split-phase, and the
capacitor motor. The capacitor motor is usually found as a capacitor-
start type but there are variations such as the capacitor-start, capacitor-
run and the permanent split-capacitor (PSC) motor. Each of the three
types has a place according to the starting torques required. The capaci-
tor-start has the highest starting torque compared to the shaded-pole and
the split-phase types.

The three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor is a marvel of con-
struction simplicity. It converts electrical energy to mechanical energy
with a high degree of efficiency and with only one moving part. For some-
thing built so simply, it is amazing that it can have complicated theories
to explain its operation and can have volumes written about its.design,
performance, and application.
The stator windings of the three-phase squirrel cage motor can be
arranged to provide the number of poles and phases needed, and to pro-
vide multi-speed operation, both in dual winding or in consequent-pole,
single winding. The windings can be arranged for constant horsepower,
constant torque, or variable torque to suit the type of load. Stator win-
dings involve distribution and pitch factors to establish the desired rotat-
ing magnetic field in the air gap.
Magnet wire for stator windings comes in two types: round and rec-
tangular in cross-section. The round wire is used in the smaller sizes of
motors, usually found in 150 hp and smaller for 600V class motors. Such
windings are referred to as “mush-wound” or “random-wound” type.
Above that horsepower, the “form-wound” windings with rectangular
cross-section wire are used, and are laid as a set into an open slot in the
stator. The mush-wound type is randomly laid into the stator slots, usual-
ly by machine.
Squirrel-cage induction motors run at one speed when line frequen-
cy is kept constant. Variable speed was once obtained at some sacrifice
in performance with variable voltage control mentioned earlier. With
the advent of efficient solid-state power switching devices, a standard
TABLE 15-l.- Source and Load Voltages

Standard Standard
VoltaP;e
SupDlv Motor Voltages
120 115
208 200
240 230
480 460
squirrel-cage induction motor can be driven over a wide range of speeds

and with a variable frequency drive control. More accurately, it is a vari-
able frequency/variable voltage controller. For an induction motor to
operate at a different frequency the voltage must be changed in such
MOTORSANDMOTORCONTROL 425
manner to keep the volts per cycle constant.

Temperature and Insulation Considerations. - There are two
stampings on the motor nameplate that were not discussed under Basic
Characteristics. These are the ambient temperature and the insulation
class. So much development has occurred in the insulation products that
a separate article is devoted to this topic.
The ambient temperature, NEMA Standard, is 40 degrees C (105
degrees F) and this is the reference temperature for standard general
purpose motors. A motor is usually labeled to operate continuously at
rated load under correct voltage and frequency conditions, in an ambient
temperature of 40 degrees C. There are many days in Texas when the
ambient temperature exceeds 105 degrees F and the motors do not fail.
Remember the service factor? Also, a motor can and does fail a little
at a time. The winding insulation ages more rapidly under higher temper-
ature and the life of the motor is shortened.
Motor life is dependent on the integrity and durability of its insula-
tion. Heat degrades insulation. Tests have shown that motor life is cut
in half for each 10 degrees C above the insulation temperature capability
and is doubled for each 10 degrees C below that capability.
The progress made in insulation is astounding. Formvar, a patented
insulation formulation became available in the fifties and allowed higher
temperature rise than permitted under the old Class A windings. The
motor manufacturers were quick to take advantage of the improvements
in insulation. A five horsepower motor is put in a frame size today that
was used for a one horsepower motor built in the forties.
Table 15-2 lists the temperature rise for the several insulation
systems, according to NEMA standards for enclosed motors with no ser-
vice factor and operated at rated load.
TABLE 15-2. - Insulation Classes and Temperature
Class A----------------------60degrees C
Class B----------------------80
degrees C
Class F---------------------l05 degrees C
Class H---------------------126 degrees C

The corresponding temperatures for 1.15 service factor rated mo-

tors are ten degrees higher in each category.
The Class F insulation system is generally used today in most motor
windings for the general purpose induction motor. It is a durable, nonhy-
groscopic winding that allows the motor to operate in a 40 degree C ambi-
ent plus another 10 degrees C allowance for hot-spot inside the motor.
To take advantage of the Class F insulation system temperature rise
and gain either a larger service factor or longer life for a particular motor,
some operators and engineers specify that the motor be wound with Class
F wire but that the temperature rise be limited to that of a Class B or
Class A insulation system. This puts the motor in a special category and
has some merit, but it has to be weighed against the costs and delivery
time.
Often, especially in the larger horsepower sizes, a standard motor
can be purchased at the next horsepower size and the same benefits can
be achieved at a cost reduction. This may not be so in the smaller horse-
power sizes because of larger differences between horsepower ratings.
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
To be succinct operational considerations are confined mainly to

the general purpose, squirrel-cage induction motor.
Under Basic Characteristics we touched on what happened when
the voltage increased or decreased from the nominal voltage rating of
the motor. Within the 10% limits, a voltage increase caused the motor’s
current to decrease and a voltage decrease caused the current to increase.
The changes are about proportional to the percent of change.
When the applied voltage is non-uniform or there is a difference
between the phase voltages, a motor suffers much more than when the
applied voltage is uniformly changed. A small percentage unbalance will
result in a large amount of heat generated in the motor. The unbalanced
voltages create a negative torque that opposes the positive torque of the
rotor. The rotor overheats and causes stator windings to overheat. This
unbalance is calculated as the high phase voltage minus the average of
all three phase voltages divided by the average and multiplied by 100.
For example, assume a 460V motor and the supply line voltage is 480V
(phase A), 470V (phase B) and 465V (phase C). The high voltage is
480V and the average voltage is 472 volts. Now place these values in
the above formula and we find: 480 - 472 x 100/472 = 1.69. There is
a 5 to 6 times that percentage current draw over that which would exist
with balanced voltages applied. It requires only a slight unbalance of
MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROLS 421
applied voltage to cause large unbalanced currents and large amount of

heating. If the system voltage unbalance goes above 3% try to get it cor-
rected. The utility is usually at fault and is usually cooperative in correc-
ting the system.
Remember that a 1.15 service factor can be expended by a small
unbalance alone, leaving nothing to accommodate overloads, and over-
temperature conditions.
Besides the hidden heating effects of unbalanced voltage, another
operational consideration of induction motors that causes hidden deterio-
ration of the windings is too many starts per hour. NEMA has standards
on the number of cold starts and hot starts that a motor can safely with-
stand. There is rapid heating anytime a motor starts and the more starts
in a short time the higher the heating in the rotor and in the stator win-
dings. More than two or three cold starts in fifteen minutes can cause
motor overheating.
Akin to motor starts is the stalled rotor condition. Most motors are
rated to take locked rotor condition for ten seconds. This is a severe oper-
ating condition and one to which motor protective devices may not re-
spond quickly enough. The rotor temperature is accelerating at 100 de-
grees C per second while the stator may only rise 10 degrees C per second.
The protective devices all sense in one way or another the condition of
the stator. Fortunately, the locked rotor condition is something that does
not happen often.
One environmental condition that happens often is the occurrence
of moisture. Heat and moisture are the two principal enemies of electrical
equipment. Moisture is not as important on present day motors as on
the older models that used more hygroscopic insulations. It does degrade
a motor’s insulation envelope and make it more susceptible to damage
from line impulses.
Totally enclosed motors that start and stop are prime candidates
for moisture ingress. A totally enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC) motor which
is turned on and off, will have condensate inside it. This is why motor
manufacturers put drain plugs in the bottoms of TEFC frames. A space
heater is sometimes provided to prevent moisture build-up or condensa-
tion on the windings. These are usually factory installed but there are
some belt-type space heaters that can be field installed. They need to
be turned on when the motor is stopped. Heating of motor windings by
impressing a low voltage when the motor is off is considered more effec-
tive than space heaters in the motor; however, this involves starter modi-
fications and is more expensive than the space heater approach.
When moisture lowers the insulation level of a motor’s windings,
an impulse of a couple of thousand volts can damage a winding that

might otherwise be harmlessly dissipated. Most motors are rated to with-
stand 1OOOV plus their rated voltage. One protection that is inexpensive
is to install a lightning arrester on the terminals of the motor. This should
protect against most lightning secondary effects and switching surges.
Some additional insurance is through installation of a three-phase surge
capacitor. It acts to smooth out and lower the rate of rise of the voltage
spike.
The power factor (PF) is highest when the motor is fully loaded and
it drops off for lesser loads. When induction motors start and also when
they are running at no or little load, the PF can drop to the thirty percent
range. If the power company assesses a penalty for low PF, it behooves
the plant operator to improve his system to save money. Even if there
is no penalty, a low in-plant PF can cost money from cable heating and
lessening of available cable capacity because of increased currents. Usu-
ally installation of a synchronous motor or capacitor banks will improve
the PF. Note in the article on motor types that a synchronous motor can
be used to drive a load and at the same time provide a leading PF. This
may be a costly way to correct PF. The conventional, economical ap-
proach is to install small PF correction capacitors at the motor terminals.
Carefully follow capacitor and motor manufacturer’s recommended
maximum capacitor KVAR sizes or you may damage your motor drive
train if too large a capacitor is installed.
The capacitor problem is related to a recent phenomena that plant
operators observe when a standby generator switches from standby to
normal. With luck only a breaker trips, but a large motor can be lost
if the transfer is made at the wrong time in terms of the phase-angle
relationship between the system voltage and the open-circuit voltage.
The same phenomena exists when a capacitor and motor combination
is switched back on before the motor coasts down. Actually the motor
is acting like a generator for a few milliseconds. The capacitor is capable
of supplying a certain amount of excitation or magnetizing current as
it discharges back into the motor. When the motor is turned back on
too quickly, the rotor is snatched back into step with the line frequency
and the resulting mechanical impact can break the motor shaft, or its
coupling to the driven apparatus.
Be cautious of the application of large motors on frequently swit-
ched circuits, standby generators without in-phase on time-delay trans-
fer schemes, or with too large power factor correction capacitors. Check
with the motor manufacturer when you have a motor rated 100 hp or
over as to its “open circuit time constant”. This will usually be about
MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL 429
one-half second for those motor sizes and will increase for the larger mo-
tor sizes. If you switch off and on a motor, even without capacitor (they
just make it worse), within the open circuit time constant time, you could
damage the motor or its shaft connections.
Even the power company can cause a problem if automatic line re-
closers are on your plant primary distribution feeder. They usually are
and if they are set to open and close in less’than your large motor’s open
circuit time constant, damage could occur. Power companies have been
known to cooperate when a plant’s consultant requests a longer time in-
terval on their recloser operation. One rule of thumb is to delay reclosure
until the voltage drops to 25% of its rated value.
Aside from the problems of almost instantaneous reclosure of
switcher, there is a need to delay the reapplication of power to some pump
motors for other reasons. If a large pump motor is pumping water into
a long pipe line or is applied in deep well pump setting, the reapplication
of power after a loss should be delayed long enough for the water dynam-
ics to settle. Re-energizing a pump motor too quickly can cause damage
to the on-delay timers that may be applied to motor starters to prevent
this problem.
When we were discussing a motor’s power factor performance at
various loads, the motor’s efficiency also changes for different shift loads,
and it changes drastically for light loads. Figure 15-4 shows how fast
F IG . 15-4. - Efficiency for Light Loads

the efficiency drops for light loads. Even at full-load the efficiency of
a typical 100 hp induction motor will drop several points. The peak is
typically at and above 3/4 load.
A motor’s efficiency is affected by heat, which can come from high-
er ambient temperature than 40 degrees C, unbalanced voltages, abnor-
mal balanced line voltage, too frequent starting duty, or dirt. The’latter
conditions can be corrected by good housekeeping. The windings in an
open motor can accumulate a fair amount of dirt deposit over time. Also,
a TEFC or TENV (totally enclosed non-ventilated) motor can accumu-
late a layer of grime over the cooling fins that diminish heat transfer.
Considering motor life, energy conservation, and power factor, a
good compromise would be to specify a next larger horsepower motor
so as to have the motor run cooler, last longer and operate more efficient-
ly. Add a small package of power factor correction capacitors at the mo-
tor terminals and feel confident of a balanced plant electrical system.
Thirty-six hundred rpm, 1800 rpm, and 1200 rpm induction motors
operate at a 85% to 90% PF at full load for sizes above 5 horsepower.
The smaller the motor, the lightly loaded motor, or the slow speed motor
operate at lower PF’s.
MECHANICAL
Enclosures for motors are manufactured to comply with NEMA

standards. The principal types of enclosures are: 1) open drip-proof
(ODP), 2) Totally enclosed non-ventilated (TENV), 3) Totally enclosed
fan-cooled (TEFC), 4) Weather protected, Type 1 (WPI), and 5) Weath-
er protected, Type II (WPII).
Most ODP type fractional horsepower and small integral frame
sizes are built with sheet metal stator housing and cast metal end-plates.
Few “open” motors are made any more, the manufacturers in the fifties
began to add shielding inside the end-plates to make them open-drip-
proof. The NEMA specification for drip-proof is stated such that the
enclosure construction prevents drops of liquid or solid particles falling
at angles of 15 degrees or less from the vertical from entering the motor.
The larger frame size integrals and the slower speed motors, which
require a larger frame size, are usually built with cast-iron frames. Also,
the TENV and TEFC motors are built with cast iron frames.
Totally enclosed non-ventilated motors do not have an external fan
as do the totally-enclosed fan-cooled style. However, both have internal
fans that serve to move the air around the end-turns of the windings.
This fan is typically a cast aluminum extension of the rotor squirrel cage.
M OTORS AND M OTOR CONTROLS 431
Explosion-proof motors are constructed with cast-metal housings

in a TEFC configuration, and may appear to the unfamiliar observer
as a TEFC. There are some important differences: There are two or more
through-bolts than the TEFC, the rabbet fits of the end bells are milled
to closer tolerance and have longer lengths than the TEFC, the junction
box is cast metal and has four or more bolts and the split openings have
longer surfaces than do the TEFC. Moreover, the manufacturer has been
tested and labeled by UL to meet hazardous area environments. Explo-
sion-proof is somewhat of a misnomer in that the motor’s design is such
that it can prevent an internal explosion from igniting surrounding gases.
The longer milled fits of the end-bells and the junction box cool the inter-
nally ignited gas-air or dust-air mixture to a degree that it falls below
its ignition point. So, when the explosive mixture puffs out, the surround-
ing environmental gas is not ignited.
There are several classifications for explosive environments. The
two main groups, Division 1 and Division 2 are classified for degree of
hazard. This is, some TEFC motors are suitable for Division 1 applica-
tions where the hazardous environment is not likely to be present and,
if so, it quickly dissipates. Division 2 applications are the most severe
in that the hazardous environment is a Class 1 (combustible gases and
vapors), a Class 2 (combustible dust) or a Class 3 (combustible fibers).
In addition to the Divisions and Classes, there are Group classifications
such as Groups A, B, C, D for combustible gases and Groups E and G
or combustible dusts. As an example, methane has a Group D classifica-
tion.
An important design criteria for the motor manufacturer is to limit
the maximum surface temperature of the motor below the ignition tem-
perature of the hazardous atmosphere. For example, acetylene has an
ignition temperature of 305 degrees C. A motor would have a Group
A label for such application. Most explosion-proof motors are found with
the following labeling: Division 1, Class 1, Groups C & D. This labeling
makes the motor safe for lower volatility gases and most dusts.
There are two types of motor enclosures designated as weatherpro-
tected, WPl and the WP2 classifications, and are used to define the type
of environmental protection for large motors with fabricated steel enclo-
sures. Many larger vertical and horizontal pump motors are built in Class
WPl or WP2. The main difference between WP2 and WPl construction
is the number of baffles used to change the direction of cooling air so
that large water droplets and dust are removed from the air stream and
prevented from entering the stator windings. Also, WP2 style motor
housings are constructed with corrosion-resistant hardware.
NEMA standards cover frame sizes from the 48 through the 500
series frame. These frame designations carry certain shaft and keyway
sizes, shaft height, and other standard dimensions such as mounting hole
dimensions. This standardization enables the purchaser to buy a certain
general purpose horsepower and speed motor from several manufactur-
ers and be assured that the mounting and shaft dimensions are the same.
All motors have bearings on which the shafts are supported. The
purpose of a bearing is to reduce friction and wear. Bearings are used
to centrally support the rotating member (rotor) while providing a rigid
support for the output shaft. The bearing is the connection point between
the rotating and stationary elements of a motor. Most conventional mo-
tors use a ball bearing connection. Ball bearings are mass-produced,
standardized and relatively inexpensive. Sleeve bearings are still used,
particularly in the fractional horsepower fan and blower motors. Even
in large horizontal pump motors, sleeve bearings are used for their long-
life and low noise characteristics.
Sleeve bearings are lubricated by oil while ball bearings can be lu-
bricated by oil or grease. Sleeve bearings provide cylindrical surfaces
which the rotor slides against through a thin film of oil. Sleeve bearings
cannot take much thrust so they are used for direct connected applica-
tions. Whereas the typical antifriction ball bearing can take thrust loads.
The main types of anti-friction bearings are: 1) single row, deep
groove; 2) single, maximum capacity; 3) angular contact; 4) double row;
5) ball thrust; 6) roller thrust; and 7) cylindrical.
The single row, deep-groove bearing is listed as type “BC” and is
sometimes called a Conrad bearing. This is the most commonly used
bearing in small and medium size induction motors. The bearing races
have no filling slot; the balls are inserted by offsetting the races. Such
bearings give good performance under light to moderate radial loads and
relatively moderate thrust loads. The single row, deep groove bearing
is somewhat self-aligning.
The single row, maximum capacity ball bearing is listed as type
“BL” and contains the maximum complement of balls inserted through
a slot in the raceways. Since this type bearing contains more balls than
the Conrad type, it can withstand higher radial loads, however, this type
bearing will not take thrust loading or accommodate angular misalign-
ment.
The angular contact bearing is designed to carry high thrust loads
in one direction and can carry also a combined radial with thrust loading.
These bearings are designed with an offset wide shoulder, one on the out-
er race and one on the inner race, located on opposite sides of the bearing.
MOTORSANDMOTORCONTROLS 433
The wide shoulder designates the direction of thrust. Angular contact

bearings can be stacked either face-to-face or back-to-back to permit
combinations of thrust and radial loading. These bearings can carry
greater thrust loading than the Conrad or the maximum style bearings.
Three disadvantages of this type bearing are: 1) if mounted with the
thrust shoulder in the wrong direction, moderate thrusts will destroy the
bearing; 2) they are expensive; and 3) they are not as readily available
as common Conrad bearings.
Double row self-aligning ball bearings have two rows of balls; its
construction compensates for angular misalignment resulting from
mounting mistakes, and compensates for shaft deflection and mounting
distortions. Self-aligning bearings of this type are recommended for radi-
al loads and moderate thrust loads in either direction.
Ball thrust and roller thrust bearings are designed for high thrust
loads. The spherical roller thrust bearing combines a very high load-car-
rying capacity in either thrust loading or combined thrust and axial load-
ing. Spherical roller bearings are subject to speed limitations of 1200
rpm (grease lubricated) and 1800 rpm (oil lubricated).
Cylindrical roller bearings are used where large radial-only loads
are imposed. Physically, this bearing is interchangeable with the ball
bearing in any given size. The speed range on the cylindrical roller bear-
ing is low. They can operate at 1800 rpm if oil lubricated and 1200 rpm
if grease lubricated. If any thrust loading is imposed, some means must
be used to absorb the thrust. For example, a cylindrical roller bearing
can be used on the shaft-end of a motor and a ball type bearing put on
the opposite shaft end, for some belt connected high radial, low-thrust
type loading.
Bearings require lubrication to minimize metal-to-metal contact.
At standstill, sleeve and ball cylindrical, and spherical type bearings have
a minute metal-to-metal contact and after only a few degrees of rotation
the lubrication moves between the metal surfaces.
As the shaft in a sleeve bearing starts to rotate, it climbs up the wall
of the bearing. As it climbs, the shaft rolls onto a thicker film of oil and
it begins to slip back. This wedge-shaped cavity causes oil to be drawn
into the bearing contact area and the shaft then rides on a thin film of
oil. On larger motors oil is carried from a reservoir to the top of the shaft
by a slinger ring that rides atop the shaft. Small motors use a wick and
a one-piece bearing. Larger integral horsepower motors use a split bear-
ing with slingers. Sleeve bearings will last the life of the motor if the
oil film is maintained between the sliding surfaces.
Ball, spherical, and cylindrical bearings, and the anti-friction type
bearing family, can be oil or grease lubricated. Actually, it is the oil that
lubricates and grease is a carrier for the oil. Because of the need for oil
reservoir, grease offers a simple method of lubrication. Grease is some-
what self-containing; also it is a good sealant and corrosion inhibitor.
There are several standard greases available, these and their application
are:
1. Sodium/petroleum - Operation in -20 degrees F to 200 degrees
F (-20 degrees C to 93 degrees C) temperatures, good rust protection,
low resistance to rotation
2. Lithium/petroleum - Operation in -40 degrees F to 200 degrees
F (-40 degrees C to 93 degrees C), insoluble in water and recommended
for high moisture environments.
3. Lithium/silicones - Operation in -40 degrees F to 350 degrees
F (-40 degrees C to 177 degrees C), adequate moisture resistance but
restricted load carrying capabilities.
4. Polyurea/mineral oil - Operation in -40 degrees F to 350 degrees
F (-40 degrees C to 177 degrees C), good moisture resistance, good lubri-
cation qualities, and good load carrying characteristics.
The anti-friction bearing grease reservoir designs fall into three ma-
jor types: 1) open bearing construction; 2) shielded bearing construction;
and 3) sealed bearing construction.
Open bearing construction uses a grease cavity in the end bell that
is in proximity to the bearing. There is a removable cap on the inside
of the end bell to allow access to the bearing and sometimes a removable
cap is placed on the outside of the end bell housing. These caps, or guards,
hold the grease in its cavity. They usually are machined to have a close
fitting clearance about the shaft. Inlet grease port and outlet relief port
are provided by means of threaded plugs. Sometimes, an “Alemite” or
“Zerk” fitting is used on the top inlet port to aid in grease insertion by
means of a grease gun. The advantages of this construction are cooler
bearing operating temperatures and capability of regreasing.
The shielded bearing is similar to a Conrad bearing except that a
shield, usually mounted on both sides of the bearing faces, is provided.
This shield is a metallic disc that is machined to have a mechanical fit
to the outer race and a restrictive annular fit at the inner race. This annu-
lar fit provides a small lubrication path, allowing a shield bearing to be
relubricated.
Also, the shield retains the lubricant to the rolling elements regardless
of the degree of fill of the adjacent grease cavity. The shields primary
purpose is to prevent the entrance of large foreign particles into the ra-
ceway surfaces. One other function of the shield is to provide slinger-ac-
MOTORSANDMOTORCONTROLS 435
tion relubrication to the rotating bodies of the bearing.

A sealed bearing construction is similar to the shielded bearing ex-
cept that a non-metallic disc is mounted on both faces of the bearing
races. Each sealing disc is fitted tight against the outer race and remains
stationary. A sliding sealing contact is made with the inner race. Sealed
ball bearings are widely used and are considered to be lubricated for
“lifetime”. They wear out and do so frequently, if not more so than the
shielded and open types. Their life is restricted to the lubrication packed
between the seals of the bearing. Maintenance is to replace the bearing.
There are heating problems, particularly on the larger sizes; therefore,
sealed bearings are not available in the larger sizes; the most important
feature of a sealed bearing is its ability to shield the bearing surfaces
from contaminents. This type bearing is widely standardized and is
readily available at a reasonable cost. Its use in motors has allowed the
manufacturers to simplify the end bell construction and gain cost savings
therefrom.
Bearings fail and do so a little at a time if operated within their
thrust and load capacity, thermal capacity, and operated free from con-
taminents and abuse. Most direct-coupled motors will operate for
100,000 hours before experiencing a bearing failure. Some will fail earli-
er and some will fail later. Before asking for warranty repairs, look at
the method and temperature of operation and possible abuse. Failures
of bearings usually result from one or more of these reasons.
CHAPTER 16
AUTOMATIC VALVES FOR

THE WATER UTILITY
J. E. LESCOVICH
GA Industries, Inc.
The subject of valves for the control of water can be as diverse as

any topic encountered in the water works field. There are many varieties
of valves available, and it would be impossible to discuss the merits of
every valve type in one chapter; therefore, ,discussion will be limited to
automatic valves normally encountered in the water works field. Most
of the automatic valves discussed would not be used in sewage service.
Also, small valves used for chemical feeding and such are not discussed,
because each manufacturer’s product is better described in the specific
data sheet for that unit.
This chapter will emphasize types and functions of automatic valves
generally found in a water utility. One point however, that we do want
to emphasize about valves such as the Gate Valve, Plug Valve, Butterfly
and the like, is that these valves were never intended for continuous throt-
tling.
GENERAL COMMENTS
There are some general statements that can be made relating to con-
trol valves usually found in water treatment plants and distribution
systems. Usually the working pressure is below about 100 pi, and only
a small number of valves operate at pressures up to about 250 psi, there-
fore, for pressures normally encountered, the valve bodies can be made
of cast iron. Typically in the United States, cast iron flanges are rated
125 or 250 ANSI (American National Standards Institute). Flanges for
higher pressure ratings are usually of steel and are more expensive.
It should be remembered that the 125 lb. ANSI flange pressure rat-
ing is actually a saturated steam pressure rating. The American Water
Works Association (AWWA) has permitted the 125 lb. ANSI flange
to be used to 250 psi water pressure. Rating a flange for 125 psi or 250
psi does not automatically make the entire valve or fitting suitable for
that pressure. Each fitting or valve body has its own particular shape
436
AUTOMATIC VALVES FOR THE W ATER UTILITY 437
or geometry to consider. The valve or fitting manufacturers stipulate the

maximum allowable working pressure for their products.
For more information on ANSI flange pressure ratings, it is suggest-
ed that a copy of the ANSI B16.1 for cast iron, and ANSI B16.5 for
steel flanges and fittings be obtained.
VALVE CHARACTERISTICS
Before discussing valve types or valve operation, it is important for

the valve user to understand valve “behavior.”
Each valve type, during its opening and closing stroke will effect
the flow differently. Every valve design has its own’distinctive character-
istics. In fact, each valve type exhibits two different characteristics. One
characteristic being a plot of the valve’s stroke versus its flow coefficient
(CV) on graph paper, the pressure differential being maintained con-
stant. Such a graph would be termed the valve’s “Inherent Characteris-
tic.”
Once a valve is installed in a system, its inlet and outlet pressure
will vary as the valve opens or closes. Virtually every installation is differ-
ent. A graph or curve denoting valve stroke versus flow would be different
in every installation. Such a curve would be called the “Installed Charac-
teristic Curve.” This curve can be useful in that different valve designs
can be compared on an equal basis, and a characteristic can be chosen
that best suits the installation.
The CV factor mentioned earlier is a term commonly used in the
valve industry. It is defined as the water GPM divided by the square
root of the differential water pressure in psi. The flow through a valve
may then be determined by multiplying the square root of the valve’s
differential pressure by the CV. The result is GPM of water.
When trying to choose a valve size to pass a specified GPM at a
desired pressure drop, the required CV for a full open valve may be ob-
tained by the above formula. By referring to various valve manufacturers
catalogs, a valve size equal to or exceeding the required CV can be select-
ed. The valve size chosen is the smallest valve of that design - fully open
- that can pass the required flow at the pressure drop stipulated.
Some rationalizing of the valve size is appropriate. When choosing
a valve, the user should avoid sizes that result in excessively high veloci-
ties even though the valve is capable of passing the flow. Flowing veloci-
ties through “globe” or “angle” pattern valves normally range between
5 to 15 FPS. Ball Valves, or Cone Valves because of their full unobstruc-
ted passageways are sometimes sized for velocities to 35 FPS. Butterfuly
Valves are frequently listed as for 8 FPS, or 16 FPS service. Pressure

loss through a valve also may influence the final choice.
HEAD LOSS
When a liquid passes through a pipe or fitting, the friction of the

pipe wall acting on the fluid consumes some of the pumping energy.
When liquid passes through a valve, the liquid must also make abrupt
turns, it must change velocities as areas change, and turbulence is creat-
ed, as a result some energy is lost. This loss of energy is referred to as
pressure loss (PSI) or head loss (feet).
The valve’s pressure loss or head loss is sometimes an important con-
sideration in valve selection. Higher head losses mean higher pumping
costs. There are valve applications where head loss is not important, such
as pressure reducing installations, tank filling, and free discharge valves.
Though head loss is important, one should not compromise a good valve
design for head loss considerations alone. A valve with a poor characteris-
tic may not perform as well as a valve with a higher head loss but better
suited for the job. Head loss considerations need only be applied to valves
that are to be fully open. Valves that throttle or modulate are actually
trying to create head losses. Installing a Butterfly Valve, Gate Valve,
or Ball Valve for throttling service defeats the purpose of such valves,
the system should therefore be designed with the desired valve type in
mind. Head loss or characteristic curves are available from each valve
manufacturer.
WATER HAMMER
Pumps starting and stopping are the most frequent causes of surge
or water hammer, though valve operation is often blamed for creating
surges. Valves also are available for preventing surges or dissipating
them.
Surges result when the velocity of a water column is changed. The
change in velocity may be either an increase or decrease. As a “rule of
thumb” for each foot per second change in the fluid velocity, approxi-
mately a 50 to 60 psi surge pressure may result. The velocity change must
occur within one surge cycle, or one round trip of the surge wave. Again,
as a “rule of thumb”, use one second per 2000 feet of pipe length. For
example, for each foot per second change in velocity of the fluid in a
pipe 2000 feet long in one second or less will result in possibly a 60 psi
surge which must be added to the existing static pressure. Pipe diameter,
A UTOMATIC VALVESFORTHE~ATER U TILITY 439
wall thickness, and material of construction affect the velocity of the

surge wave. There are many publications on water hammer. A paper by
this author, entitled “Control of Water Hammer by Automatic Valves”
appeared in the AWWA Journal, May 1967.
An i,mportant recommendation which should be emphasized is to
close valves slowly. Many line breaks occur when hydrants are closed
too quickly. Such problems may be avoided if the hydrant closing speed
were gradually reduced as the hydrant approached the seated position.
Such a practice also would be beneficial when closing a gate valve or
butterfly valve, because of their poor cut-off characteristics.
CAVITATION
Cavitation is a word most often associated with pumps, however,

cavitation is an important factor in valve application. Whenever a fluid
is passing through a valve that is required to throttle or modulate, energy
of the fluid is being converted from pressure to velocity. The increase
in velocity may mean a reduction in pressure to near the vapor pressure
where cavitation “bubbles” form. Cavitation denotes the vapor cavities
formed just downstream of the point of maximum velocity which is the
point of smallest opening at the valve seat or throttling element. The va-
por “bubbles” thus formed will collapse when they enter the higher pres-
sure region where the fluid once again slows to the pipeline velocity and
velocity energy is converted back to pressure energy. Should the collaps-
ing bubbles be in contact with the pipe wall or valve body, damage will
result. The collapsing vapor cavities can generate pressures in many
thousands of psi, however, since each bubble is not much larger than a
pin point, the resulting force from one bubble collapse is not great. When
countless thousands of bubbles “implode” on a small area, a high local-
ized stress results which can fatigue the surface of the metal producing
a “pit”. Continuous exposure to cavitation can destroy the valve body,
as it can a pump impeller.
When valves throttle, such as a pressure reducing valve, the pressure
differential across the valve is not the most significant factor effecting
valve life. As the valve’s outlet pressure becomes lower, the potential for
cavitation becomes greater. For example, on a valve reducing pressure
from 200 psi to 100 psi the service is not as severe as a pressure drop
from 110 psi to 10 psi even though both pressure differentials are 100
psi. The 100 psi to 10 psi service being much more severe since the 10
psi is nearer to the water vapor pressure than is 100 psi. (Normal water
vapor pressure is about 0.25 psia.)
The conclusion to be made from this brief discussion is to be watch-

ful when using valves for throttling service. Some valves are better suited
for such service than others. Be especially careful in valve selection when
pressure differentials are high and when outlet pressures are low. Discuss
such requirements with the valve manufacturer.
VALVE TYPES
Valves can be either manually operated, fluid actuated, or automat-

ically operated by electric motors, air, or hydraulic pressure or by other
control pilotry.
Manually Operated Valves. - Valves operated manually refer to
valves that are physically opened or closed by an operator. Such valves
may be Gate Valves with handwheels, Butterfly Valves, either lever or
handwheel operated, Stop Cocks, hydrants, and hand valves.
Fluid Actuated Valves have no controls. It is the fluid level, veloc-
ity, or pressure that actuates the valve. Examples of fluid actuated valves
are simple mechanical check valves, diaphragm operated pressure reduc-
ing or pressure relief valves. Also some water level float operated valves
are direct acting.
Plain Check Valves include four important types as follows:
(a). Swing Check Valve (without springs or counterweights), Fig.
16.1, is the simplest of check valves. Its sole function is to prevent reverse
flow. The valve is comprised of a disc attached by an arm to the hinge
shaft. The hinge shaft is located above and out of the water way. The
swing check valve is available in sizes to 48” and may have a renewable
soft or metal to metal seat. Since this valve is at the mercy of the flow,
the possibility of slamming, as with any plain mechanical check valve,
is great. Check valves slam when caught in the open position by the re-
versing flow. Later we will discuss methods used to minimize slamming
tendencies.
(b). Ball Check Valve, Fig. 16-2, is comprised of a resilient covered
ball which is driven by the fluid back and upward along a track cast on
to the valve body. Claims aremade the valve can be mounted in any posi-
tion, even upside-down employing a floating ball. Repairs would be diffi-
cult and should slamming occur, nothing can be done to the valve to im-
prove its operation. The ball usually seats on the cast iron body. There
is no non-ferrous seating ring for the ball to rest upon.
(c). Foot Valve, Fig. 16-3, is installed on the section of a centrifugal
pump where suction lift is required. The purpose of the check is to main-
tain prime on the pump. A bleed down of the suction riser pipe will often
AUTOMATIC VALVES FOR THE W ATER UTILITY 441
ARM
FIG . 16- 1. - Plain Check Valve

F IG . 16-2. - Ball Check Valve
require a priming system. Foot valves are not easily accessible and do
not employ damping features because of the head loss induced to the
pump suction. Foot valves should be used with care, and when the pumps
employ a power operated check valve with controlled opening, closing
and emergency closing features, the foot valve will defeat the controlled
closing feature of the check valve on power failure. The controlled closing
feature on power failure is used to minimize the upsurge by gradually
permitting some flow back through the pump during its closing time.
(d). Tilting Disc Check Valve, Fig. 16-4, has a disc that swings on
a hinged shaft located usually one half the distance from the valve center-
line to the valve’s inside diameter. The disc which always remains in the
waterway tends to oscillate resulting in higher head loss and premature
wear. The same fluid-dynamic principles which held the disc open con-
tributed to the valves slamming potential. Dampening devices have been
AUTOMATICVALVESFOR THEWATER UTILITY 443
FIG . 16-3. - Foot Valve
attempted, but these devices interfere with the principle which made the
disc “fly” through the flow. Tilting disc valves are metal seated valves
which rely on clearance in the hinge shaft bearings to permit the disc
to find its seat.
Closing Assisted Check Valves. - Closing assisted check valves,
(Fig. 16-5), include four important types: In order to minimize the slam-
ming tendency of plain check valves, attempts were made to preclude
the valve slamming. The use of an external lever and spring were attemp-
ted with some success. The theory being that the check valve, with a posi-
tive closing force, will seat before the reversing water column can slam
the disc closed. Various manufacturers began employing the lever and
spring. In the field however the valve would usually oscillate and wear
the bearings prematurely. The spring on the check valve has a built-in
load when the valve is seated. As the pump starts and the valve opens,
F IG . 16-4. - Tilting Disc Check Valve
the spring must stretch creating an increasing closing force the further
the valve opens, resulting in the oscillation commonly seen.
(a). Weight and Lever Swing Check Valve, Fig. 16-SA. The next
evolution and major improvement was to replace the lever and spring
with a lever and weight. The weight still produced the same positive clos-
ing force, but when opening and from the rotation of the counterweight
arm, the center of gravity of the weight moved inward producing a
smaller closing moment. The result was lower head loss, a maximum
closing effort where it is most needed - at the seated position, and less
chance of oscillation.
The counterweighted swing check valve has been used successfully
for many years. As with any mechanical check valve, every pump shut-
down is similar to a power failure where the pump is shut down at full
speed and the check valve is full open.
(b), Wafer Check Valve, Fig. 16-6, is available in the flanged design
or the flangeless design which clamps between two other flanges. The
most common wafer design is comprised of a flat spring loaded disc at-
tached to a stem which slides in guides in line with the center line of
the pipe. The wafer type check valve is lower in cost, fits in a shorter
space but.has some shortcomings. The head loss is higher than a swing
check valve, and should the valve slam, not much can be done. Any main-
AUTOMATICVALVESFORTHEWATER UTILITY 445
FIG . 16-S. - Spring and Lever Check Valve
tenance requires the valve to be removed from the pipeline.

Another variation of the wafer type check valve is the “double disc”
design. This valve employs a hinge shaft which extends through the cen-
ter of the valve body on which is attached two spring loaded gates or
vanes which are bent back by the flow. Such a valve can never open fully.
(c). Float operated water level control valve, Fig. 16-9, is a direct
float and lever operated valve. The valve position is dictated by the water
level. The lowering of the water level causes the float’s weight times the
levered mechanical advantage to physically lift the valve stem open. The
range of water level over which the valve operates is governed by the
lever lengths. This direct acting valve is usually limited as to the working
pressure allowed.
(d). Air release valves are often misunderstood and misapplied. All
air release valves fall into one of two categories. It is either a small orifice
unit (less than about %“), Fig. 16-10, or a large orifice unit (greater than
FIG , 16-Sa. - Lever and Counterweight Cushioned Swing Check Valve
PARYNQ ww&
I-WDY 4- SPRlNa T-RESIULNT SEAT
I - WJSHINO
f=E a --XRLW
FIG . 16-6. - Wafer Style Check Valve

AUTOMATICVALVESFORTHEWATERUTILITY 447
F IG . 16-7. - Pressure Reducing Pilot Valve
about Y2”), Fig. 16-11. Sometimes the two units are combined into one
casting becoming a combination unit, Fig. 16-12. The small orifice unit
functions to release air under pressure from the pipeline anytime the air
accumulates within the valve usually at a high point in the line. The large
orifice unit vents air during the filling of the pipeline usually at a very
low pressure, although one valve designed around the kinetic principle
can vent air at sonic velocity and high pressures. The large orifice unit
once closed will not open again until the pipeline pressure drops to nearly
atmospheric pressure.
The large orifice unit, Fig. 16- 11 and 16- 12, also will act as a vacu-
um breaker and is sometimes called a vacuum breaking valve.
AUTOMATIC VALVES
Cone Valves, Fig. 16-13, afford the lowest head loss for a valve
FIG . 16-9. - Simple Float Valve
when specified that its passageway is to be bored after assembly. The

cone valve is simply a conical plug in a valve body which rotates 90 de-
grees to produce a full unobstructed pipe opening, or a full closed valve.
The cone valve is a metal seated valve and all throttling is done by the
seats. Fluid dynamic forces must be considered in sizing the operator,
similar to the butterfly valve.
The cone valve mechanism is rather complex. The plug assembly
must be lifted more than l/q” before rotation and reseated on each full
open or full close operation. The use of cone valves has been losing favor
over recent years.
Ball Valves, Fig. 16- 14, have gained in prominence as the cone valve
popularity has declined. The ball valve provides a full unobstructed pas-
sageway for the fluid but does not require the lifting of the rotor prior
to its rotation or the reseating after rotation. It can have metal or resilient
seats, however, as with the valves mentioned earlier, the ball valve
throttles with its seat. Controls for ball valves or cone valves can become
elaborate.
Globe or Angle Valves, Figs. 16- 15 and 16- 16. - Globe or angle
pattern valves, in most respects, are self-actuating, therefore, automatic,
and operate on the differential area principle by way of a diaphragm
r0
I50
l
BODY
P.S.I.
COVER
FLOAT
GASKET
“LII”“l
\W;l?AGE
COVER BOLTS
RETAINING SCREWS
FRAME
IO
1:
I3
14
i7
18
I9
FLOAT A R M
ORIFICE
PIVOT PIN
BUTTON
RETAINING RING
PIPE PLUG
FLOAT
ORIFICE
LINK
RETAINER
1
BUTTON ARM
F IG . 16-10. - Small Orifice Air Release Valve
or piston assembly.
Differential Piston Valves, Fig. 16- 17, generally are the most pow-
erful in operation of the designs to be discussed. This type valve employs
just one moving part, the piston which moves up and down to increase
or restrict the flow passageway. The differential piston valve provides
full 100% flow area when open, putting this valve in the exclusive full-
ported family with the cone, ball, and gate valve.
The method of operation results from the differential forces pro-
duced by the line pressure applied to top and bottom surfaces of the pis-
ton. Line pressure enters the valve under the valve piston. The line pres-
sure times the area of the underside of the piston produces an opening
force. For example, the area of the underside of an 8” valve piston is over
50 square inches. At 100 psi pressure, the opening force is over 5000
pounds. The piston, weighing perhaps twenty pounds, is easily lifted with
just a few psi.
F IG . 16- 11. - Large Orifice Air Release Valve
F IG . 16-12. - Combination Air Release Valve

AUTOMATIC VALVFS FOR THE WATER UTILITY 451
FIG . 16-13. - Cone Valve
FIG . 16-14. - Ball Valve

AREA X EOUALS PIPE AREA

AREA V EOUALS AREA X
AREA w EOUALS TwlCE AREA X THREE WAV COCK OR
AUTOMATIC PILOT
OPENINQ FORCE EOUALS PSI TIMES AREA x

CLOSING FORCE EQUALS PSI TIMES AREA w-x
GLOBE VALVE ANGLE VALVE

FIG . 16-15. - Globe Valve FIG. 16-16. - Angle Valve
FIG . 16-17. - Differential Piston Globe Valve

GATE VALVE
~--
[J_..__.._._.._. --_.-._I,._-
-
!
ANGLE VALVE
TYPICAL GLOBE VALVE
iiB-VEE~Will~ -.-.-.
FIG . 16-17a. - Comparison of Valves (50% open)
The area of the upper surfaces of the same piston is much greater
than the area of the underside of the piston, sometimes twice as much.
When equal pressures are applied to both surfaces of the piston, a power-
ful closing force results. The large operating forces permit the valve to
be operated in any position - even upside down, and often, under water.
Not all differential piston designed valves have a large ratio of areas be-
tween the top and bottom of the piston. Valves used for pressure regula-
tion may have upper piston areas from about 10% to 15% larger than
the bottom area.
A unique feature offered by one manufacturer of the differential
piston valves is the long “vee ports” which, located downstream of the
seating surface, can significantly extend valve life plus provide an im-
proved flow control characteristic, Fig. 17a. Since “vee ports” are down-
stream of the seating surfaces they provide the throttling. Such an ar-
rangement extends the valve life significantly, especially when valves are
required to continuously regulate. Were the “vee ports” to be located
upstream of the seating surfaces, the resulting cavitation would be im-
posed directly on the seating surface, since cavitation occurs directly
F IG . 16-18. - Stem Guided Differential Disc Globe Valve
downstream of the point of maximum velocity. For severe service, the

differential piston type valve can be furnished with stainless steel in lieu
of the bronze construction. Chrome plating is another option.
These valves have been built in all sizes to 42 inches and are avail-
able for most pressures.
Stem-‘Guided Differential Disc Valve, Fig. 16- 18 or floating piston
type valve is a variation of the differential piston valve. It contains a disc
type piston and seating member on a center guided stem. This design
also has been around for nearly 100 years and is generally less expensive
than the differential piston valve mostly because of the amount of bronze
employed.
This disc type valve has a small differential area equal to seal diame-
ter on the lower stem. This design does not provide the great operating
forces obtained by the differential piston design and, as a result, the valve
is recommended for installation in a horizontal position, which also
would minimize bearing wear on the small bearing areas.
The piston of the differential disc design valve which provides the
power for the valve operation has the area on the underside of the piston
exposed to the downstream pressure within the valve. The power for oper-
ation thus becomes the difference in pressure across the valve (head loss)
AUTOMATICVALVELSFORTHEWATER UTILITY 455
----- --,,
---... _-__,I
,
23
7.
10
87
I‘
FIG . 16-19. - Diaphram Valve

times the area of the piston. Since valve pressure drop is normally mea-
sured in feet, under low flows the operating forces are low.
Technically, the differential disc type valve cannot be termed full-
ported since the stem passes through the waterway. When “vee ports”
are specified, a saw tooth washer is provided which is upstream of the
seating surface. The effects of the saw tooth feature shows a minimum
improvement to the valve characteristic curve.
The differential disc type valve is available in sizes to 30 inches in
the globe pattern. Some small sizes are available in the angle pattern.
Diaphragm Operated Valves, Fig. 16-19, is the design most fre-
quently copied or imitated. This design is the least expensive in the
smaller sizes and are manufactured up to 16”; however, in the larger
sizes, the prices are competitive with the other designs. This valve is pow-
ered by the pressure difference across a large diaphragm. The valve seat-
ing element or disc is attached to the diaphragm and guided by a stem
and spokes in the water passageway. The valve has no built-in differen-
tial. An internal spring provides the closing force under balanced p’res-
sure conditions. With only the weight of the internal parts and the spring
providing power to close the valve under such conditions, the diaphragm
type valve is normally installed in a horizontal position.
Because the areas above and below the diaphragm are equal, and
since it is pressure drop which permits the valve to function, the greater
the flow, the greater the operating power. The minimum operating pres-
sure must be adequate to overcome the internal spring force. The dia-
SMALL DISCHARGE - -NEEDLE VALVE
NORMALLY OPEN
FIG . 16-20. - Pressure Reducing Valve
phragm type valve has no “vee ports” or similar feature to improve its
characteristics; therefore it throttles with its seating surfaces.
An advantage of the diaphragm arrangement is that there need be
no packing glands making the valve more suitable for hazardous liquids.
A disadvantage results from the flexing and deteriorating effects on the
diaphragm, and higher head loss. No valve position indicator stem is fur-
nished unless specified.
VALVES AND APPLICATIONS
Of the three basic valve designs briefly discussed, all can be made
to perform virtually all the functions to be described.
@ring regulating operations, such as flow control or pressure regu-
lation, a pilot valve, or series of pilot valves, exhaust or admit pressure
to the upper surfaces of the piston, disc, or diaphragm to open or close
or position the valve.
Various valve types are described and some of their functions.
Pressure Reducing Valves, Fig. 16-20, function using one pilot
FIG . 16-21. - Pressure Reducing with &pass
valve which opens as the valve delivery pressure drops below the set point.
Water is exhausted from atop the valve piston, disc, or diaphragm at
a more rapid rate than water can enter through a closing speed needle
valve. During throttling operations, an equilibrium is established be-
tween the flow entering through the needlevalve and the exhaust through
the pilot valve stem. Any subsequent movement of the pilot stem will
change this equilibrium, resulting in a repositioning of the main valve.
The pressure reducing valve (PRV) can be made to perform several
functions in addition to the control of the valve delivery pressure. The
valve could have electric solenoid controls, a back pressure control, or
reverse flow check, to mention a few. The more severe service require-
ments for the typical PRV is at very low flows or large pressure reduc-
tions where the delivery pressure is very low. Resulting cavitation can
458 MANUAL OF W ATER U T I L I T Y O P E R A T I O N S
IMPULSE LINE CONNECTED TO

OVER PRES3URE CONTROL INLET THRU STOP VALVE
PILOT (TURN HANDWHEEL.
r
CLOCKWISE TO RAISE
PRESSURE) NEEDLE VALVE CONlROl
CLOSING SPEED
3OOY - STOP VALVES -

!t'u G NORMALLY OPEN
i.-le. Q-1031 e-1040 MNGES P E R A N S I 816.1
. _ FIG . 16-22. - Globe Surge Relief Valve

destroy the valve.
A common practice when employing reducing valves where a widely
varying flow demand is required, is to install a small PRV in a bypass
around the large PRV to handle the small flov&. This small PRV would
be set at a higher pressure, perhaps 5 or more psi higher, than the large
PRV, Fig. 16-21.
Over Pressure Relief Valves, Fig. 16-22, have the requirement of
opening and relieving to atmosphere or low pressure system any pressures
above a set point on a control pilot valve. The control of the relief valve
is similar to the reducing valve, except the pilot valve is of the opposite
sequence and arranged to sense the valve inlet pressure. The over pres-
sure setting is generally 10% above the maximum expected system pres-
sure, but easily field adjusted. Relief valves are required to open quickly
and close at a controlled rate of speed.
Relief valves are available in many varieties, one of which is the
A U T O M A T I C V ALVES FOR THE W A T E R UT I L I T Y 459
FIG . 16-23. - Angle Body Surge Relief Valve
“surge anticipator”, Fig. 16-23. This valve is a more sophisticated version

and requires more consideration in its sizing. The anticipator is condi-
tioned to open in response to a cause of a surge prior to the pressure rise.
The anticipator valve opens fully, waits for the returning upsurge to dissi-
pate the energy, then closes at an adjustable rate. This valve also func-
tions as an over pressure relief valve.
CheckValves are the most common of all valve types, with probably
the greatest variety of valve types available. The mechanical check
valves, such as swing check, tilting disc and wafer will not be discussed,
but some features available in the automatic check valve designs will
be mentioned.
Typical Power Operated Check Valve. - Standard power oper-
ated check valves sometimes called electric check valves or pump control
check valves are normally held closed when the pump is “off ‘. Upon en-
ergizing of the pump and satisfactory pressure occurring, the check be-
gins its timed opening sequence, producing a gradual acceleration of the
fluid column. Pressure transients can usually be held to desired limits.
A normal shutdown command initiates a gradual valve closing sequence
while the pump continues to run. The fluid column is brought to a gradu-
al rest. Just prior to the final seating of the valve, the valve actuates a
limit switch which deenergizes the pump motor,and as a result, there
FIG . 16-24. - Electric Check Valve
is no excess surging.
Many pumps could be brought on line or taken off line in sequence
with a minimum of pressure transients because of the independently ad-
justable opening and closing speed adjustments.
In the event of an electrical power failure to the pumps, the check
is directed to close generally at a more rapid rate to preclude excess pump
reversal. On some of the check valves, an emergency closing feature is
provided, permitting a separately adjustable emergency closing speed.
Another useful feature furnished as a standard on some check valves
is the manual operator which provides a means of operating the check
valve should a solenoid coil burnout occur.
Pump Differential Pressure Sustaining Check Valve is one appli-
cation of special pump control check valves, electric check, which are
becoming more sophisticated. This valve employs a pressure sensing pilot
valve of the differential design. Pressure sensing connections are made
to both the suction and discharge sides of the pump. The check valve
then is directed to maintain a pre-selected differential pressure. By main-
taining a constant differential pressure, the pump discharge flow rate
can be maintained. The flow is uniform regardless of fluctuations in the

pump pressure.
Remote Throttling Feature. - The previous valve arrangements
function by sensing the pump suction or discharge pressure. It also is
possible to have a signal originating from a remote location produce a
throttling action of the pump check valve. There are several methods
of accomplishing the valve positioning. One means is by an electronic
servo amplifier feedback potentiometer arrangement using solenoid pi-
lots. Another method is a pneumatic positioner, whereby the valve still
is powered by line fluid.
There are also ways of changing the pressure adjustments of the
pilot valves from a remote location, as well as returning a valve position
signal back to an operator. By a push button arrangement, an operator
may wish to select the valve position manually.
Suction Pressure Sustaining. - In booster pump installations, the
pump suction pressure must be assured to minimize starving the pump.
Where a booster pump attempts to pump at a greater rate than the initial
pump station, pressure switches are sometimes used to shut down the
system. By employing the backpressure sustaining pump control check
valve (electric check) with the pressure sensing line connected to the
pump suction, the check valve can throttle the pump discharge flow
whenever the suction pressure drops to some pre-selected intensity. You
can thus assure the pump an adequate positive suction head without the
need to shut down the system.
Discharge Pressure Control. -On occasions, pumps are installed
where the suction pressure varies considerably. As a result, the pump
discharge head also will vary. To avoid delivering excess pump discharge
pressure into a pressure sensitive zone, the pump check valve can be made
to act as a pressure reducing valve in addition to the normal controlled
opening and closing features described earlier. The check valve regulates
a constant pressure into the system regardless of the varying pump dis-
charge pressure. It is possible to adjust the control to limit the maximum
pressure delivered to the system. In this case, the check valve only
throttles when required.
Backpressure Sustaining. - In addition to standard functions pre-
viously described, a check valve can be provided with a pressure control
pilot valve arranged to sense the pump discharge pressure.
While admitting that any valve that throttles consumes power, and
that variable speed pumps can provide variable pumping rates more effi-
ciently, there is an enormous difference in first cost, maintenance, and
complexity. Also, the throttling requirement of the valve may only be
temporary or for short durations.

The backpressure sustaining feature is useful by limiting the pump
discharge flow when the pump is oversized, or to prevent pump “run-out”
such as when one of many pumps discharge into a large pipeline with
very little line friction available, permitting the pump to operate back
towards its head-discharge curve design point.
On well pump installations, it is then possible to prevent excess
pumping rates during the periods when well production is low.
The pressure sensing pilot valve will raise the system head curve
to any desired point on the pump curve by causing the valve to modulate
and maintain that point.
Water Level Control Valves. - Just as the other valves discussed,
water level control valves can be provided in a great number of variations.
1. The pilot operated float valve is probably the simplest of water
level control valves, Fig. 16-25. The valve is generally controlled by a
pilot valve locally or remotely mounted from the valve. Some float valves
can modulate proportional to the rise and fall of a specific water level
range, while others offer a differential control; the choices are numerous.
2. Altitude Valves have been around for more than 80 years, and
some of the first are still in operation. The more common arrangements
are:
(a) Single Acting admits flow into a tank or reservoir and closes
at a preset high water level. The flow exits the tank by way of a bypass
check valve, Fig. 16-26.
(b)Double Acting valves admit water to a tank or reservoir and close
at the prescribed high water level. A reduction of the system pressure
below the tank height will cause the altitude valve to re-open to permit
flow from the tank.
(c) Back Pressure Sustaining altitude valves are usually found on
low level tanks and used to prevent the high rate of filling from dropping
the system pressure similar to a line break. Only the surplus water is
then admitted to the tank.
Altitude valves are available with differential controls for closing
at one water level and opening at another. Solenoid controls can override
the hydraulic controls to close or open the main valve, Fig. 16-36. When
equipped with a limit switch, the altitude valve can stop the pump when
the altitude valve closes. A pressure switch is a common method of start-
ing the pump at a pre-selected low water level.
It is not possible here to discuss all the altitude valve options, such
as fire reserve, fire demand, and excess flow prevention.
Solenoid Operated Valves, can perform virtually any function
WATER LEVEL AD.JU.STME

TURN CLOCKWISE TO INCR
WATER LEVEL
VALVE NORMALLY CU6DD

CT To EXHAUST
ECT TO D(HAUST
VALVE ccwnoLs
CLOSING SPEED
F I G 16-26. - Single Acting Altitude Valve
WATER LEVEL lOJUSTWLNT

NW CLOCKWISE TO YW)LUE
WATER LEVEL
7
Ncm.E VALVC <
VALVE CLDSINO
FIG . 16-27. - Single Acting Differential Altitude Valve

TWO WAY SOLENOID

PILOT VALVE. ENERGlZE wowAy SOLENO,D
TO OPEN MAIN VALVE PILOT VALVE. ENERGIZE
I TO CLOSE MAIN VALVE
~~- GLOBE BODY
F IG . 16-28. - Solenoid Operated Globe Valve
when properly applied. Solenoid pilots can open, close, or modulate

valves. Energizing or de-energizing the solenoid pilot will exhaust pres-
sure from atop the piston, disc, or diaphragm and the valve will open.
Reversing the solenoid closes the valve. The opening and closing speeds
are adjustable.
The solenoid coils can be provided with manual operators when a
coil burnout or power failure occurs. Valves can be made to fail open
or closed, or assume other duties on loss of electric signals. When furnish-
ed with a feed-back potentiometer, the valve position can be monitored
remotely. Solenoid valves are often controlled by a servo-amplifier when
proportional control is required.
SUMMARY
From this brief discussion, it should have become apparent that au-
tomatic or self-actuating valves can perform countless services. One spe-
cially equipped valve can easily provide the functions of several valves,
and experience shows that these valves can perform these functions reli-
ably for many years.
CHAPTER 17
INSTRUMENTATION
HUGH G. LeCLAIR, PhD.
Trippe F Controls, Inc.
Purposes and Benefits of Instrumentation. - There was a time when

the operator’s job was fairly simple. He kept the tanks full of water that
had an adequate chlorine residual, repaired leaks in the lines and kept
the house meters working. If the customers did not complain, he had it
made!
Life is not so simple any more. As a result of environmental con-
cerns, the energy crunch, the rapid growth in number of lawsuits, in-
creased regulatory pressures from both state and federal agencies, in ad-
dition to operating the facilities, the operator has to collect and report
masses of information and keep it for long periods of time.
One of the principal sources of information is instrumentation, and
that’s what this chapter is about: what it can provide, how the informa-
tion can be used, and how to be assured the information is accurate. Prob-
lems of selection or maintenance and repair are the concern of the design
engineer and the maintenance technician. Your concern is operation.
You want to operate your facilities well, provide a reliable source of safe
water to your customers, and do this as economically as possible. Instru-
mentation can help do this and provide the records and reports that docu-
ment the performance of the facilities.
Nine functions of instruments are listed:
1. Improve process results by providing accurate data on the incom-
ing and outgoing water and the effects of changes made.
2. Provide automatic process control where applicable
3. Increase efficiency of energy and chemical use
4. Provide alarms when process approaches marginal operating lim-
its
5. Provide continuous round-the-clock measurements of *important
variables.
6. Provide more complete records with less manual paperwork
7. Document compliance with regulatory requirements
8. Provide automatic shutdowns to prevent equipment damage
9. Provide increased safety
466
INSTRUMENTATION 467
Every instrument in the system is for a purpose. Often that purpose

is obvious; if not, the plans and specifications may make it clear. If you
are still uncertain, ask questions of your supervisor, the engineer and the
supplier. Unless you know its use, you can not really believe it is impor-
tant, and you will not get the benefits provided.
Defined. - In terms of the general description of what instrumen-
tation can do, instruments are any devices or groups of devices that:
1. Provide useful information or measurements
2. Can act automatically to maintain the process or shut it down
when safety requires, and
3. Provide a means for the operator to the process or override auto-
matic control when necessary.
By this definition instrumentation can be simple: a pressure gauge,
float switch or even an off-on selector switch. Also, such devices include
transmitters, recorders, and controllers which have been around for
years. Today, computers have been added to the list. They may be used
to gather and record data and print reports. Sometimes the computer
keyboard replaces the selector control switches to start and stop pumps
or open and close valves. Some computers are capable of full process con-
trol. Whatever their capabilities, computers are considered a part of the
instrumentation system, which consists of all the devices that together
provide the information and the actions listed above.
It may seem strange to include gauges, switches, and control valves
as a part of the instrumentation system. These items usually are pur-
chased separately. When there is trouble, however, you learn in a hurry
that they belong here. If a pressure transmitter or receiver fails, the
gauge is your back-up to provide operating data. If a pump will not run,
the selector switch, even the one in the starter panel, can be the problem.
If a flow control loop hunts or otherwise acts up, the trouble can be in
the valve operator.
Since a control loop was mentioned this is a good time to define it.
No matter how large or complex the system, it is made up of individual
subsystems, each of which concerns a single measurement. The subsys-
tem itself will have components which make up that control loop. For
example, consider an elevated tank which is kept filled from a two-pump
booster station; the pumps are controlled automatically from the mea-
sured tank level. The control loop includes all these devices:
LT - level transmitter, measures level (actually it measures pres-
sure, but the level equivalent is used and sends a signal representing the
level to
LIR - level indicator-recorder at the pump station which displays
the level measurement on a dial (I - indicator) and marks it on a chart

(R - recorder). In the recorder are the
LS - level switches which are set to start and stop the pumps at ap-
propriate levels. Also included is the
LI - level indicator, at the tanks, which can be observed locally. This
could be (1) an indicator built into the transmitter in which the transmit-
ter would be designated LIT; (2) the target on the.outside of the tank;
or (3) a separate pressure or altitude gauge connected to the same pres-
sure tap. Even if the gauge is not installed, it is a good idea to make provi-
sion to connect a gauge for test purposes.
The low level cutoff switches are normally a part of the loop for the
ground storage reservoir which starts with a different measurement.
The pump loops can be controlled from both tanks. In this simple
example it is discovered that the “system” involves three control loops
for: (1) the elevated tank, (2) the ground storage reservoir, (3) pumps.
A diagram can be drawn for each loop and each loop is assigned its own
number.
At this time, it is appropriate to get acquainted with some other
terms:
Analog is a signal which can vary continuously from zero to maxi-
mum. It can be displayed on a dial or a chart. When discussing measure-
ment we usually are talking about analog signals. In the example above,
LT, LIR, and LI are analog devices.
Discrete is a signal which basically represents a “yes” or a “no.”
There are only these two states. All switches and lights are discrete de-
vices. The LS’s in the example are discrete devices. The settings can be
changed and they operate from the analog signal but their output is al-
ways discrete. All the switch can say is “yes, the level is higher than the
setting” or “no, it is not”.
Digital. Thanks to computer technology it is easy to represent the
current measured value of a variable in digital form. Nevertheless, the
signal coming in is continuous; that is it is an analog signal. It is converted
in the readout device by an analog to digital (A/D) converter so that
the display is in digits instead of a pointer moving across a scale. There
are digital signals as well as analog signals but these are at present pecu-
liar to telemetry and computers, which will be discussed later.
Status is the present state of a discrete signal-pump “on” or “off,”
pressure “high” or “low”.
There is another set of terms found in instrument specifications op-
eration and maintenance manuals. These are important in that they indi-
cate what is expected in performance or calibration.
INSTRUMENTATION 469
Range is the minimum and maximum values between which limits

the instrument can measure, that is, O-1,000 gpm, O-50 psi, O-135 feet
on an elevated tank.
Span is the difference between the upper and lower limits. Using
the same examples, the spans would be 1,000 gpm, 50 psi, and 135 feet.
Accuracy is the uncertainty of the reading; that is, how close is the
reading to the actual value. Here is where the arguments begin. The
statement, “This instrument has 1% accuracy,” is meaningless. The
questions are 1% of what, and over what range? A full, precise accuracy
statement would be something like this:
Accuracy, + 0.5% of (actual reading) (full scale) (span) for read-
ings between maximum and (l/4)( 1 /S)( 1 /IO) of the maximum. Taking
the flow measurement first, a table of the maximum uncertainty at vari-
ous flow rates follows:
Note the difference between the expected results, especially how the ran-
geability part of the statement results in no guarantee of accuracy at
some of the lower flow rates.
Similarly, for the elevated tank transmitter considering only the dif-
ference between statements based on full scale and span and assume 10: 1
rangeability, as this is generally typical. The difference here primarily
affects the amount of “cushion” remaining to keep from running the tank
over.
Repeatability. How near the reading will be to the same value when
moved away from and then returned to the same input conditions. This
is not the same as accuracy. Considering the elevated tank transmitter
again, the repeatability might be expected to be + 0.2% of full scale,
or + 3- l/4 inches. The repeatability means that if the transmitter is cali-
brated by running the tank over, the reading will be within 3-l/4 inches
of full scale each time the tank is filled to the overflow. Obviously, good
repeatability means that the “cushion” can be reduced and still not over-
fill the tank.
Applications in Water Utilities Operation. - Not too many years
ago, instrumentation for water utilities was limited primarily to flow,
level and pressure measurement, and automatic control and monitoring
of pumps and valves. Today, the scope has enlarged. First, the variety
of reliable instruments available at reasonable cost has increased mark-
edly. Improved technology and potential demand have combined to bring
such devices into the market place. The huge increase in energy costs
plus corresponding cost increases in all areas of operation, maintenance
and repair have made instrumentation an alternative to manual opera-
tion. Also, regulatory requirements call for the reporting of new operat-
ing and water quality variables, and corresponding instrumentation is

now available. Reliable on-line instruments are on the market to measure
these variables: (a) processes: flow rate, level, pressure, temperature, pH,
turbidity, chlorine residual; (b) equipment performance: running times,
speed, current, voltage, power, position; (c) through use of monitors of
processes and equipment performance, the following processes can be
controlled: flow, level, pressure, chemical feed for pH, chlorine residual
and others; (d) equipment can be controlled including safety shutdowns:
pumps, valves, basin equipment (flocculators, clarifiers, etc.) overtorque
shutdown, overcurrent/undervoltage shutdown, vibration shutdown,
bearing temperature shutdown; (e) alarms for unsafe conditions include:
chlorine gas leaks, ammonia gas leaks, electrical ground faults.
Data can be collected, collated and printed for operating and main-
tenance reports. This is one of the major roles of the computer. Some
instruments, particularly flow measuring devices and control valves, are
difficult to retrofit into existing facilities. Many others can be installed
without major difficulty. One responsibility of an operator is to be alert
to the possibility that an instrument could pay for itself in increased effi-
ciency and to recommend its consideration and the expected benefits.
Installation and Calibration. - General considerations. Instru-
mentation can provide many benefits to the user in improved operation
and efficiency. There is a condition, however; instruments must be reli-
able. If not they provide wrong data and cause wrong decisions. Then
you decide you can not trust them, so you ignore them and lose the poten-
tial benefits. In this section the benefits of your existing instruments will
be discussed.
It should be assumed that the equipment is basically good, meaning
that if it is on the market, it must have worked somewhere. There is the
warranty protection from the contractor and both the designer’s and the
manufacturer’s reputations on your side. They will all work with you but
they will need your cooperation.
The Problem. - First, read the manufacturer’s literature, the spec-
ifications and the instructions. Compare them to the requirements as you
understand them. It may be that you are expecting more than the equip-
ment is designed to do. Unless you can show that there is a misapplica-
tion, that the equipment can not fill the actual job requirements, you
will be expected to live with what you have. If you think there is a misap-
plication, you should talk to your design engineer.
So far in this section we have obviously been talking about a new
project and new instrument selection. The operator is not in control of
that phase, although it is hoped that he had some input. Now turn to
INSTRUMENTATION 471
the installation conditions, which the operator can do something about.

Installation Guidelines. - It would be a wonderful world if every
instrument were installed exactly the way the manufacturer intended
it to be. In practice many installations fall short, sometime way short,
of the ideal. Improvements, however, to almost any installation can be
made for little cost in materials and your own labor. First, however, you
must give some thought to what is to be accomplished.
Read the instructions. - The manufacturer wants the equipment
to work. The installation instructions will tell what is needed for good
performance. It will probably be idealistic - we would all like to see
every instrument in a clean, air-conditioned, well-lighted space - but
it establishes a goal. Common sense and maybe a phone call to the will
help adapt the recommendations to your situation. There are some gener-
al rules regarding location, mounting, piping and wiring.
Location and mounting. - Accessibility for calibration and servic-
ing is needed. Allow enough room for two people to stand without bum-
ping into each other. Also, the instrument should be mounted at a conve-
nient height and orientation. It is hard to work squatting or on a ladder
or going by feel because the adjustments are on the back toward the wall.
Always mount instruments level. Float type instruments will be put in
a bind if not set with the cable plumb. Differential pressure units are
calibrated with the two pressures exactly equal at zero. When co?sidered
that they are measuring differences in inches, a fraction of an inch differ-
ence in the height of the two inputs can cause significant errors at low
flow rates.
Environment. - Instruments and personnel need protection from
weather, dust and dirt, excessive heat and cold, corrosive gases and li-
quids, and water. For example, if any instrument must be outdoors, a
rain shield can be installed. Preferably, a small wood shelter with a door
opening toward the best bad weather direction and capable of being
blocked part way open (for illumination) may be feasible. If an instru-
ment must go in a vault or manhole, it should have a solid slab to stand
on and a small sump pump to remove water. Provide for heating in cold
weather, a space heater, not just heat tracing on small piping. If there
is a power failure the lace heaters do not have enough of a heat sink to
prevent freezing for more than a few minutes.
Piping. -Most pressure instruments require a connection of small
piping to transmit the pressure from the line tap(s). The lines should be
as short and as straight as possible with a constant slope from tap to in-
strument. If the instrument is at the high end, air bleeds should be in-
stalled at the instrument. Somehow air always gets into these lines and
must work its way back into the process line or to the bleed valves where
it can be vented.
Valves in these lines should be selected on the basis of their function.
Those at the instrument are usually involved in calibration and needle
valves are preferred because they can “ease” the pressure off and onto
the instrument. At the line taps sand, corrosion products, etc., may re-
quire coding out. Valves with clear, straight ports (gate, ball, corporation
cock) are best.
Wiring. - Always ground the instrument case to protect against
electrical shock. Use a ground wire. Do not trust the piping to provide
the ground even when it is copper. If instruments use 115~ power they
normally have just one fuse. Make sure the fuse is on the hot wire and
not the neutral.
Electronic instruments are susceptible to voltage surges on the pow-
er lines as well as on the signal lines and must be protected. A metal-
oxide variator (MOV) is inexpensive ($263) and works well for most
surges (in this area nothing is 100%). Connect it the power terminals.
Signal line transient protectors are more expensive ($40 and up),
but are desirable if there is a long signal line, especially if the line is not
in metal conduit. The line itself should be a 100% shielded pair with
shield tied to ground at one end only. There does not appear to be any
concensus as to which end to ground the shield. Take your pick but be
consistent in your plant. Either put all shield ground at the panel or all
at the field instrument.
Provisions for calibration. - As we have already said, an instru-
ment that is out of calibration is worse than no instrument at all; there-
fore calibration checking should be standard procedure with regular
schedules as well as additional checks whenever an .instrument’s per-
formance is suspected. The installation should include provisions to
check calibration while the instrument is still in service if possible.
Pressure, or differential pressure instruments, should have test connec-
tions in the piping adjacent to the instrument. These consist of a tee and
a valve so you can connect a test gauge or manometer without disturbing
the piping. There may be a gauge already in place serving as a local indi-
cator. Do not trust it for calibration! Use a test gauge for the calibration.
You can put it back afterwards if it shows to be correct. If not, it should
be adjusted, repaired or replaced.
Calibration Checks. - Proper instrument calibration at start-up
and following repair is a task for an instrument specialist. He has the
training, experience and special tools required; and he has specialized
test equipment which represents an investment of several thousand dol-
INSTRUMENTATION 473
lars. Nevertheless, there is much the the operator can and should do with
a few devices costing only a few hundred dollars, to check calibration
and possibly make minor adjustments to correct small drifts in the cali-
bration. These are particularly important if you use contract service. You
can save expensive emergency calls and greatly reduce instrument down
time.
A calibration check involves providing a known input to an instru-
ment and measuring its output. Tables are available with formula which
relates input to output. Whether or not the instrument is working correct-
ly can be determined and minor adjustments can be made.
To make such checks for the most common types of inputs (level,
pressure, differentials) and outputs (pneumatic, electronic, pulse width
and pulse rate) certain equipment is needed.
Level/depth input. - A tape or measuring rod and a reference
mark is needed. The mark is the point from which the measurement is
made. Normally the true zero point in inaccessible. Either it is too deep
or it may be arbitrary. There is a point on the opening to the tank that
can be established as being a precise distance above the zero or the full
scale point. Start from there and compute a reading. Consider, for exam-
ple, a reservoir with a hatch on top. By running the tank full to overflow,
you can mark a point on the side of the opening as being “X” inches
above the full scale point (presumably the overflow point). Then, when-
ever calibrating, measure from the mark to the water surface, subtract
distance “X”, and what is left is the distance down from full scale. Ob-
viously, the reference mark should be scribed, scratched and/or painted
so it will last, and the correction must be recorded in a permanent file.
Pressure input. -A good test gauge with tubing and fittings to con-
nect to the test point are required. Do not screw the.gauge into the gauge
cock every time you use it. That is wear the gauge does not need. Remem-
ber when measuring water pressure the gauge must be at the same eleva-
tion as the instrument to avoid error. Again, a reference mark or a hook
in the wall on which to hang the gauge will insure that your measure-
ments repeat.
You may want to simulate a given input that is different from the
actual pressure. To do this, use air pressure from a small compressor with
a storage tank and feed through a pressure regulator. Pressure capability
of 100 psig should be adequate for almost any instrument, and a compres-
sor can be handy for many other purposes.
Differential pressure input. -A manometer is used to measure ac-
tual inputs, but you do not have to buy one. They are pretty fragile for
field use, anyway. You can make one from a roll of clear plastic tubing
with fittings to connect to the test tees on the pressure lines. A yardstick
or tape measure will provide the measuring scale. Caution (l), make sure
your scale is truly vertical when you make readings. Check it with a level
in two directions at right angles. Caution (2), the total length of tubing
must be sufficient to leave the section filled with air longer than the dif-
ferential you want to measure. Since the air will compress, you have to
allow for this. For example, if the line pressure is 100 psig, a loo-foot
length of tubing filled with air at 0 psig will have the air compressed
into only about 12ih feet, or 100 inches, when you put the line pressure
in. Also, work the tubing to eliminate air bubbles or you will get screwy
readings.
To simulate inputs is easier. Differential pressure devices measure
difference only. Cut test pipes out of copper tubing (to repeat an input
many times) or connect a roll of clear tubing to the high pressure side
and fill it to the desired height. Again, it is critically important to mea-
sure true vertical height. A machinist’s tri-square and machinist’s level
may be used to check this.
Pneumatic outputs. -The general standard for pneumatic instru-
ments is to use a signal range of 3 to 15 psig = 0% and 15 psig = 100%
signal. The same test gauge mentioned earlier may be used. A O-30 psig
gauge with 0.1 psig divisions is recommended. Air supply and regulator
for simulating inputs to a receiver or controller would be same as de-
scribed above.
Electronic outputs. -Most instruments require a 4-20ma DC cur-
rent signal, with 4.00 DC = 0% and 20.00ma DC = 100%. There are
other ranges in such such as 1-5~ DC, 0- 1Ov DC, 2- 1Ov DC, and for cer-
tain special types ranges as low as 0- 1 ma DC and O-50ma DC. Fortunate-
ly, there are many meters on the market, often called multimeters, that
will measure many electrical quantities, including DC volts, AC volts,
DC current, AC current, and ohms over several ranges each. Cost in-
creases with the level of accuracy desired, especially on the DC current
scale. For general purposes of calibration checking, 1% accuracy on the
DC current scale is probably all right. Usually, the DC volt scales are
the most accurate. Manufacturers often recommend a 0.1% precision
resistor that can be inserted into the signal loop so that volts can be read
on the current signals. Using Ohm’s law to make the conversion, E =
IR, and bearing in mind that lma - l/ 1000 amp, the fomula is:
By using a 250 ohm resistor, E will be l-5 v DC for the common 4-20ma
DC signal.
If a receiving instrument is available (or you have a buddy to help
you), check the receiver specifications for its input resistance and use
INSTRUMENTATION 475
that value as above.

To simulate inputs to receivers a current/voltage source is needed.
Since these are fairly costly the transmitter signal which can be changed
as was discussed under inputs can be used to measure the incoming signal
with the voltmeter and check the receiver reading. At least it can be de-
termined if the receiver is tracking its input. If not, it is the instrument
man’s problem, but you have isolated the problem for him so he can re-
pair it faster.
Pulse width outputs. - These occur in telemetering applications.
Basically, the transmitter input is converted into a pulse of varying
lengths of time. A typical example is of a transmitter with a 15second
cycle (the signal repeats every 15 seconds) and a pulse width that varies
linearly from 0 seconds at 0 input to 13.33 seconds at 100% input. The
transmitter has a switch that closes and opens to create the pulse width
signal.
For proper calibration, a special timer or calibrator is required cost-
ing several hundred dollars. A pretty good calibration check can be made
with a hand-held timer. Press the start button when the switch makes
and stop it when the switch opens, then read the time. The instrument
man does not use it because it is not accurate enough. For the signal de-
scribed, that 2-3s of full scale, it is good enough to tell that the instru-
ment is working, but not close enough for adjustments.
Pulse rate signals. - These also occur in telemetering applications.
Usually the signal originates in a propeller or turbine meter, where a
rotating member operates an electronic switch. Standard output for most
meters is O-20 pps (pulses per second). It is an awkward range to check.
The high end is too fast to count; the low end is below the range of the
less expensive electronic counters or frequency meters. Fortunately,
there is no calibration per se. The rate is tied to the propeller. The receiver
usually has an LED which blinks with each pulse. You can eyeball it
to see if the pulse rate is present and if it is steady. If it appears erratic,
pass the word to your instrument man,
Summary. - Following is a list of items we have mentioned. You
will probably have many of them or can acquire them as supplies:
1 Test gauge, O-60 or 0- 100 psig range 6” dial

1 Test gauge, O-30 psig (for pneumatic systems,
primarily)
1 Air pressure regulator, 60-100 psig maximum
1 Air pressure regulator, 20 psig maximum (for
pneumatics)
1 Air compressor, 100 psig, with storage tank

1 lOO-foot roll clear plastic tubing, L/4” or 3/g” OD
1 lot tubing fittings to fit above and connect to
instruments or lines, l/g” through %” NPT
1 20’ measuring tape
1 metal yardstick (easier to use and more divisions
for differential pressure (d/p) measurements
1 (or 2) machinist’s level
1 machinist’s tri-square
1 multimeter (volts, ohms, amps/ma). Once you have
the meter, you can consider accessories such as
clip-on amp leads to check motor currents.
1 hand-held timer (not sweep hand stopwatch)
1 pocket calulator, with a square root key and memory
To make minor adjustments small tools will be needed.
1 set jeweler’s screwdrivers
1 set small Allen wrenches
1 set multi-spline (fluted type) wrenches, 4 spline and
6 spline
1 set small socket wrenches or open-end wrenches
Some manufacturers furnish some of these, especially the wrenches,

in sizes to fit their instruments. It does not hurt to have spares, because
the originals are easily lost.
One last item, a tool box and carrying case and keep these items
out of the normal tool storage.
Level Measurement. - Storage tanks are the cushion between
sudden demands such as fires, line breaks or outage of production capa-
bility. Knowing how full your tanks are and whether they are gaining
or losing is very important to your operations.
Float-Operated Instruments. - These are direct devices and con-
sist of a float on the end of a tape or cable which passes over a pulley
to a counterweight on the other end. The counterweight is heavy enough
to keep the cable taut, but not to raise the float without the buoyancy
of the water under the float. As the water rises and falls the float moves
with it and the pulley turns.
In its simplest form, a pointer on the end of the pulley shaft turns
with the pulley an’d indicates the water level on a marked dial. This is
a float gauge. In a sense, everything else used in a float-operated instru-
ment is trimming. In using float and counterweight cables over separate
pulleys, the counterweight pulley may be smaller so the counterweight
IN.sTRLJMENTATI~N 477
travels may be only 1% inches for each foot of float travel. The pulley
shaft may operate a gear train or lead screw so the pulley can make many
turns while the pointer makes only l/2-3/4 turn.
Instead of a pointer the pulley shaft may be linked to a pen arm

providing a chart record, or it may operate a mechanism that will pro-
duce a pneumatic, electronic, or pulse width signal so the chart record
can be located in a panel. Also, the pulley shaft may have a set of cams
that operate switches. This provides a float switch or float controller.
In a motion-balance device the motion of the float is balanced by
the buoyancy of the water. Every instrument requires some kind of bal-
ancing, whether it is a spring, pressure bellows, or other. Without the
balance the mechanism would go to one extreme or the other like a
switch.
Keep the motion-balance principle in mind because of the implica-
tions for calibration and maintenance. By definition, something moves
and that motion can be interfered with, causing the instrument to be in-
accurate. The interference can be an obstacle, something that physically
prevents movement. Instruments are sometimes improperly assembled
so that the mechanism hits the side of the case. On a float-actuated de-
vice, tuberculation on the inside of the float well or ice on the cable are
two common causes of failure. Another common interference is friction
in the bearings or pivot points. This is called binding. Instead of moving
freely, the mechanism sticks until the unbalance is great enough to over-
come the friction. The motion and the chart record is jerky instead of
smooth.
Having recognized the symptoms, the cure is obvious. Remove the
obstacles and do what you can to prevent their recurrence. To eliminate
friction, keep the mechanism clean and lubricated. Dust and dirt will
collect in lubricating oil if it gets into the case. If you clean an instrument
and find it soon gets dirty, look for faulty door gaskets or unplugged open-
ings and plug them. Keep the cover secured on the case. This is perhaps
the most common source of trouble. Finally, keep spare cable on hand
to restring a float-operated instrument as soon as cable kinks or frays
occur.
Pneumatic transmitter mechanisms - motion type are produced
by a device that will take the input motion and output a 3-15 psig air
signal that is in line with the input. This is accomplished by using a
flapper-nozzle system.
The flapper is linked to the input motion. The nozzle is fastened
to an expandable bellows and spring assembly. The output air pressure
is applied to the bellows so the nozzle will move as the pressure changes.
When everything is in balance the flapper is not quite in contact with
the nozzle, so that air fed to the nozzle will flow out.
Now suppose the float moves up. The flapper will move closer to
the nozzle - if the motion is fast enough it may touch it, blocking the
nozzle. Pressure behind the nozzle builds and that pressure, fed to the
bellows, will cause the nozzle to move away from the flapper. Soon the
nozzle-flapper separation is back to normal, but at a different position,
and the output pressure is at a new higher value. If the float moves down,
the flapper moves away from nozzle, pressure drops and brings nozzle
back near the flapper. That is basically the system. A booster in the sys-
tem function as a sort of amplifier to move air in and out many times
faster than the nozzle by itself can do because of its small size. The boost-
er does not change the principle of operation. It just speeds up the re-
sponse to changes.
Actually, the nozzle pressure (about 9 psig) and the nozzle-flapper
separation will change slightly as the output changes between 3 and 15
psig; but the changes are too small to be significant. If no separation or
a large gap between nozzle and flapper can be observed, report it to your
instrument man as part of the trouble report when the instrument fails.
Since this is a motion-type instrument, cleanliness and lubrication are
important.
Electronic transmitter mechanisms, motion type. - The general
principle is that the input motion causes a change in an electrical input
signal. The electronic board amplifies the input and regulates the output
current. Repair of a failed board is the technician’s problem. If you can
learn to substitute a spare board and adjust zero, you will save down time
and operating problems.
On a float-actuated transmitter, the float moves the wiper of a po-
tentiometer to change the electrical input (a DC voltage) to the board.
Use a meter to see if that voltage changes smoothly as the float is raised
and lowered. This may isolate the source of the problem. Cleanliness and
lubrication are .important as always.
Pulse width transmitters are inherently motion-type systems. They
produce an output that is a switch closure of varying duration.
The mechanism consists of a rotating cam and a switching mecha-
nism actuated by the cam. The input motion positions a rate arm across
the face of the cam and the cam shape determines the duration of the
switch closure. A significant feature of the pulse-width mechanism is
that the cam can be shaped to produce outputs that are non-linear with
respect to the input motion. Many flow measuring devices are non-linear.
INSTRUMENTATION 479
The cam provides an excellent way of linearizing the output signal.

Cleanliness and lubrication are critically important to pulse-width
mechanisms. In addition to the moving parts already mentioned, there
is a motor, cam, rate arm and switch, all of which operate almost 6,000
times per day on the most common 15second cycle. The mechanism
should receive regular visual inspections for wear and deterioration. A
wobbly motor shaft or an oil leak around the shaft indicate a shaft re-
placement or the rotor portion is needed. If readings are erratic, particu-
larly in colder weather, check the time cycle. Motors will run slow, espe-
cially when cold thickens the oil in the motor rotor. If the cycle is any-
thing more than 15 seconds replace the rotor. Replace the switch if the
mercury inside loses its shine.
Ultra-Sonic Level Gauges are relatively new instruments which
have found a ready market because there are no moving parts to clean
and maintain, and only the transducer need be located on the top of the
tank with special cable connecting it to the electronics package up to
1,000 feet away.
The principle of operation consists of a short pulse of sound fired
from the transducer to the water surface. The pulse bounces back and
is received by the transducer. The electronics measures the time interval
between pulse and echo and calculates the distance based on the known
velocity of sound in air.
The frequency of the pulse is above the audible range and the pulse
is repeated several times per second so the measurement can be consid-
ered as essentially continuous. Internally the electronics must be digital.
The result of each measurement must be stored as a digital count and
converted to an analog signal, 4-20ma DC or corresponding voltage, for
transmission. Converters are available for a pneumatic, pulse width, or
pulse rate signal.
Mounting of the transducer is critical to good operation. It must
be horizontal. Also, problems may arise if located on an existing stilling
well where an old float instrument is being replaced. The beam spreads
out about 5 degrees and could produce echoes off the pipe wall.
Temperature compensation also is important. The velocity of sound
in air changes significantly with temperature. Units are usually tempera-
ture compensated, but remember that what is measured is the tempera-
ture of the transducer. Anything that could cause the transducer temper-
ature to be significantly different from the air path temperature is bound
to cause some reading error.
There is not much the operator can check on these devices. If the
meter verifies no output, listen to the instrument and the transducer. Of-
ten a small click can be heard each time a pulse is transmitted. If there
is no pulse your technician should look at the pulse generator circuit.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
Motion-Balance Units. - The most common pressure measuring

instrument is the pressure gauge. Like all pointer-type indicators, it is
a motion-balance device. Better gauges have linkages and gears which
provide range adjustments. Zeroing is usually accomplished by reposi-
tioning the pointer on its shaft. Recalibration of good quality gauges is
a job for your technician or the manufacturer. Low-cost gauges are usu-
ally discarded rather than repaired.
With the exception of the lowest pressure ranges which require a
delicate diaphragm or bellows device, most motion-balance gauges and
transmitters use a Bourdon tube sensor. A Bourdon tube is a coiled or
partially coiled hollow, flat tube which tends to straighten when a fluid
under pressure is applied to the inside. The balance is the “springiness”
of the metal tube, which tries to stay coiled.
The same motion which moves a gauge pointer can position any of
the transmitters discussed to produce pneumatic, electronic or pulse
width outputs. There is one difference when electronic output is desired.
A Bourdon tube does not provide enough force to turn a potentiometer
shaft. It is necessary to interpose a very low input force device, usually
a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) which will convert
motion to electrical voltage. The remainder of the instrument is similar
to the previous description of electronic transmitters.
Force-Balance Devices show little observable movement in con-
trast to what has been discussed. Instead of the device moving to a new
position with each input change, the output signal is fed back in such
a way as to offset the attempted motion.
In the flapper-nozzle suppose that instead of letting the flapper
move visibly things are arranged so that the output signal counteracts
the flapper movement. The nozzle can be fixed in place and the flapper
(armature) is allowed to move only the few millimeters required to
change the nozzle pressure and the booster section pressure. When the
armature moves closer to the nozzle, the output pressure goes up. This
pressure increase in the balance cell cause the armature to back off until
the system is back in balance. Similarly, a decrease in input pressure
moves the armature slightly away from the nozzle until the decreasing
output (and feedback) pressure allows it to move back into balance.
Although there is some movement, it is small. The armature is held
INSTRUMENTATION 481
in place by diaphragms which seal the various sections. Problems stem

from: (1) dirty air, a no-no in all pneumatic systems; and (2) accumula-
tion of dirt around the nozzle. Keeping the air filters and nozzles clean
will prevent trouble. Electronic transmitters that use an LVDT will use
the same feedback principle, but the forces will be magnetic instead of
pneumatic pressure. The instrument remains at or near a single point
as a result of the input change being offset by a force created by the out-
put signal.
Bubbler Systems. - Certain level measurements are awkward for
either float or pressure instruments. Small level ranges, less than three
feet, are commonly solved by the use of a bubbler, a small tube inserted
into the pipe or channel through which a small, steady flow of air is
passed. The pressure in the bubbler line will be equal to the water depth
and this pressure will be the same regardless of the height of the line
because the fluid is air instead of water. This pressure becomes the input
to the high side of a differential pressure (d/p) transmitter, which can
then provide a standard pneumatic or electronic signal proportional to
the measured level.
The bubbler transmitter is a special device that will feed a constant
air flow regardless of the pressure at its output. This is important because
air will have friction loss as it flows through the tubing. If the flow rate
changes with the level being measured, the friction loss changes and af-
fects the measurement. A constant air flow produces a constant friction
loss and can be corrected by the d/p transmitter. A good bubbler has
a rotometer to measure the air flow. The flow should be noted regularly
and adjusted to the original flow as necessary.
Flowmeasurement is perhaps the most important and the most mis-
understood measurement in the water works industry because flow met-
ers determine the revenue that pays the bills. The misunderstanding
comes from the fact that flow is a hydraulic phenomenon that tends to
be ignored by instrument specialists.
Flow is a measure of the volume of water flowing in a given time
past a specific point in a pipe or channel. The basic formula is
Q=AxV
where Q is the flow rate, A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe at the
point of measurement, and V is the velocity of the water flow at that
point. The problem is in determining the velocity. Every flow meter is
based on certain assumptions about the velocity profile, within the pipe
cross-section. Most of the time these assumptions are not exact. They
may be wrong.
Because of viscosity of the water and friction at the pipe walls, there
are many different velocities at different points, highest near the center,
and low or zero near the wall. Downstream of a bend or elbow, the veloc-
ity will be higher on the side at the outside of the bend. Flow through
two elbows at right angles to each other, will produce or swirl, that is,
the flow tends to spiral down the pipe and the direction of flow at a local
point is not parallel to the pipe axis. These examples indicate that the
meaningful average velocity of the flow can be difficult to measure.
Differential Producers get their name from the fact that they have
two pressure-sensing points and the difference in the two sensed pres-
sures relates to the flow rate. This relationship is based on the law of
conservation of energy. Energy can be changed from one form to another,
but cannot be created nor destroyed. The first device invented and
marketed to measure flow rate in large pipes is the Venturi tube.
The Venturi consists of an inlet section followed by a throat section
of smaller size. At the inlet there is a certain velocity and a certain
amount of kinetic energy (K.E.) from the motion of the fluid. It also has
potential energy (P.E.) because it is under pressure. P. E. is directly relat-
ed to the pressure which can be measured with a gauge. We know water
is non-compressible; therefore, to obtain the same flow rate through a
smaller area, the velocity has to increase. This requires more kinetic ener-
gy which comes from the potential energy causing a pressure drop at
the throat. If the difference in the two pressures is measured between
the inlet and the throat, the velocity can be calculated and therefore the
flow rate. The formula from the ASME Fluid Meters Handbook follows:
Q=CxKxhw
Q = flow rate in gpm or MGD.

hw = differential head in inches of water, given by the manufactur-
er. Actually, hw = pressure differential in psi x 2.3 1 (to get
feet of head) x 12 (to get inches of head).
K = a meter constant, resulting from various conversion factors
plus the shapes of the tube, specifically the ratio (beta ratio)
between the diameter of the throat and the diameter of the
inlet section. It is a constant for any given tube.
C = a fudge factor. If you run a volumetric check, you will always
find that the calculated Q is larger than your actual measure-
ment.
I NSTRUMEN T A TION 483
For the original Venturi tube and its descendants, C = 0.98 approxi-
mately. There are other producers on the market with “C’s that range
down to 0.6. In a sense “C” is a measure of how near the meter is to
being perfect (C = 1). If a volumetric check of a meter shows a signifi-
cant error, return it to the manufacturer with a piping sketch of the in-
stallation. The manufacturer may be able to revise the original “C”
based on the actual piping configuration. If the original “C” is correct,
you can use your homemade manometer and trust the measured differen-
tial to check your instrumentation.
The Venturi tube has been the standard measuring device in hy-
draulic labs since the turn of the century, including the calibration labs
of other types of meters. A principal reason for its success is the flow
conditioning that takes place when the flow is squeezed through the
throat. The smaller the throat, the greater the conditioning, i.e., swirl
is reduced, velocities across the pipe become more uniform. If you have
a choice, purchase the smallest throat size you can stand for the differen-
tial and head loss.
Differential Pressure (d/p) Transmitters. - A differential pres-
sure transmitter is one which produces an output proportional to the dif-
ference between two pressures. Observe the flow formula. Flow rate, Q,
is proportional to the square root extractor to get a reading that is linear
with flow. With these two concerns in mind, look at the instruments avail-
able.
Motion balance instruments have been available for many years.
First and oldest, is the mercury manometer-type which is basically a
float-operated instrument with a cast iron float riding on a column of
mercury. The float motion comes out of the well through a stuffing box
where it actuates a motion balance type transmitter very much like those
already described. The mercury and the iron float combined provide
enough power to overcome the usual friction effects so that transmitters
are capable of providing good accuracy over wide flow ranges. One per-
cent of actual rate of flow over 1O:l range is fairly common and wider
flow ranges are available.
There has been much concern over the use of mercury in instru-
ments used on potable water. Keep in mind: (1) mercury is totally insol-
uble in water. If you dumped all the mercury in an instrument into a
pipeline it is doubtful any water analysis would show any trace; and (2)
mercury is so heavy it will not suspend in the water and be carried along
by the flow to any user. The EPA has issued guidelines for the use of
mercury in instruments. Basically, they caution you to keep it off your
skin and keep it under water so that you will not breathe the vapors when
it volatilizes. The biggest danger is from spilled mercury that has not
been cleaned up.
The other type of motion balance device is the d/p cell that has a
torque tube output. The unit has two bellows connected so as to twist
the torque tube and rotate an output shaft in proportion to differential.
The amount of rotation is small, but is enough to actuate some motion
balance mechanisms. These are primarily used in pulse width transmit-
ters with a square root cam to provide output linear with flow.
As with all other motion balance transmitters, cleanliness and prop-
er lubrication are keys to good performance. Also, leveling the instru-
ment is especially critical for mercury well devices. The mercury wells
must be absolutely plumb or inherent errors will occur. If the case is not
exactly level with respect to the mercury wells the mercury wells must
be plumbed.
In checking calibration on flow transmitters with test pipes or mano-
meter, recheck the test pipe length each time. Check with a level as dis-
cussed earlier because the vertical head difference is what counts.
The square root relationship of head to flow presents another con-
cern. Very small errors at high flow rates become large errors at the low
end. It is generally best to check calibration at 20-30% of maximum rate.
Because of the square root factor, this means test heads of only 4-9%
of maximum. The problem becomes one of how accurately the test head
can be measured. A 1 / 16” uncertainty in your measurement represents
a 1% error in output signal. For low differential measurements a compro-
mise is necessary. A minimum test head of about 4 inches is suggested.
Forcq-balance instruments. - Force-balance pressure transmitters
have two input cells. Any d/p transmitter can measure gauge pressure
just by leaving one input open to the atmosphere. These transmitters usu-
ally require a separate square root extractor, although some electronic
units have square root capability either built-in or as a separate board.
Pneumatic square root extractors are troublesome, complicated and dif-
ficult to service and calibrate. They are best serviced by a technician.
Other d/p instruments. - In recent years, electronic technology
has made both strain gauge and variable capacitance-type transmitters
available, with good range and high accuracy. Neither of these can be
classed with either the force-balance or motion-balance types of instru-
ments. In each case there is a primary transducer actuated by the d/p
mechanism. It produces an electrical signal which can be amplified and
include an electronic square root extractor to provide an output propor-
tional to flow. Such transmitters have no moving parts and there is little
that can be done to them other than check calibration.
INSTRUMENTATION 485
Ultra-Sonic Flow Meters are relatively recent entries into the flow
metering field, in water service. They were developed as a less costly al-
ternative to magnetic meters (the next topic in this chapter). Only the
time-of-flight type meters will be considered here. The other type, the
Doppler meter, requires dirty water, suspended solids or air bubbles, to
get a response, so it is not applicable for drinking water applications.
We have discussed ultra-sonic meters for level measurement. The
principle for flow measurement is similar, except in this case the pulse
of sound passes through the water, usually at an angle of 45 degrees.
Also, the pulse is sent through the water in both directions. One pulse
is moving with the flow, so it crosses the pipe faster than when there is
no flow. The other pulse moves against the flow, so it is slowed. The in-
strument measures the difference in these two transit times, which is a
measure of the velocity of the flow. This and the pipe diameter is all that
is needed for the first basic flow formula to generate an output current
or voltage signal proportional to the flow rate.
There are limitations. Almost all manufacturers limit their accura-
cy claims to flow velocities greater than 1 foot per second. This can be
a problem if the meter will be operating at low flows a significant part
of the time. Also, there is nothing similar to the manometer check on
Venturi tubes to use as a check on the transmitter. There are two plusses;
however, the instrument measures velocity and eliminates the need for
square root extraction. The other advantage is that the meter can recog-
nize and measure reverse flows because it is measuring velocity directly.
Magnetic Flow Meters are used mostly on sewage, but occasionally
show up in water service. The principle of operation begins with the basic
physical phenomenon that a conductor moving through a magnetic field
will generate a voltage proportional to the velocity of the conductor. Po-
table water is an adequate conductor (distilled or demineralized water
would not be), so when we put a magnetic field across the pipe we can
generate a voltage that is a measure of the velocity of the water. The
voltage is small but can be amplified to provide a standard voltage or
current signal.
The limitations and advantages of the magnetic flow meter are simi-
lar to those of the ultra-sonic meter.
Propeller or Turbine Flow Meters have a propeller or turbine
which rotates as water flows in the pipe. Rotational speed is proportional
to the velocity of flow. If the propeller covers most of the pipe cross-sec-
tion, the velocity is probably a good average of the local velocities. In
the basic meter, the propeller rotation is transmitted through gears to
a counter or register which accumulates the total flow volume. Mechani-
cal switches can be added to provide a series of output pulses to remote

counters. The pulse rate is slow, not more than 150 pulses per minute
at maximum flow.
More recently, transmitter heads using solid state switches have
been developed to provide pulse rate signals of O-20 pulses per second
and often have a built-in converter to provide the standard 4-20ma DC
signal for remote transmission.
These meters have surprisingly good range and accuracy when first
installed. Their main disadvantage is that the basic meterhead is me-
chanical with many moving parts subject to wear. Your metershop per-
sonnel may be required to perform the repairs. If so have spare parts
in stock because the line will be out of service to remove, repair, and rein-
stall the meterhead.
There is a question of accuracy after field repair. Each meter is’cali-
brated initially at the factory, at which time a set of change gears is in-
stalled to make that particular meterhead register correctly. There is no
easy way to recalibrate the meterhead in the field, so the original calibra-
tion is assumed to be correct. This is a basic question.
ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Some of the instruments used by the plant operator measure chemi-

cal conditions which indicate the degree of treatment needed or accom-
plished. These include pH, chlorine residual, jar tests and turbidity. All
of these are described in some detail in Chapter 12 (Laboratory Exami-
nations).
The fact that these are discussed only in Chapter 12 does not imply
that these instruments should be found only in a laboratory. All water
plants should be capable of making chlorine residual determinations, and
all surface water plants should be capable of determining the remaining
three, that is, pH, jar tests and turbidity.
Control Loops. - Previously instruments for measurements have
been discussed at length.
Instruments which can be used for automatic controls can save man-
power and other operating expenses and provide shutdowns to protect
personnel and equipment from injury or damage.
Closed-Loops are controls in which a change in an input effects a
change in the output that the input can detect and be able to determine
if the end result is what was intended. The classic example illustrating
a closed-loop is that of a thermostat controlling the temperature of a
room. If the thermostat is set for 70 degrees F and the room temperature
INSTRUMENTATION 487
drops to 70 degrees the thermostat controlled switch turns on the furnace.

When the temperature rises to, say, 72 degrees F, the switch turns off
the furnace. This cycle can repeat indefinitely keeping the room tempera-
ture about 70 degrees. The loop is closed because the controller, the
switch, causes an action, operate the furnace, which the measuring in-
strument, the thermometer in the thermostat, can detect, the room tem-
perature. The common term for what happens here is “feedback.” The
controlled action is fed back to the measuring device.
Note that the feedback is “negative,” that is, the control action tries
to reverse the change which caused the action. Feedback must be nega-
tive to provide a stable control system. Positive feedback is inherently
unstable and ultimately destructive. For instance, in our example positive
feedback would mean that the furnace turns on as the room heats up.
Off-on mode. - Control loops operate in different modes, which
can best be illustrated by examples. The simplest is the off-on mode,
which was just described. Another example uses a measuring device with
a tank level transmitter and receiver. Feedback is the change in level
caused by operating the pumps.
The proportionalmode is a little more sophisticated, and is common-
ly used to control tank levels by matching inflow to outflow. Basically
all a controller does is compare the feedback signal to the set point and
generate an output proportional to the difference between the two. In
some instances there needs to be control over the amount of variation
allowed between minimum and maximum levels, the points at which the
valve is wide open or fully closed. A proportional controller has such an
adjustment. Manufacturers call it by different names, “proportional
band” or “gain.” To illustrate, assume that the controller and set point
are the ball cock and pivot point for the fill valve on a commode. The
length of the float is just such that the ball touches both and the valve
is full open when the tank empties; and the valve closes tight just before
the water goes over the overflow. When the tank is half full the ball is
at midpoint. This is the set point. The length of the arm represents the
proportional band, in this case 100% of the measuring range, or gain,
which equals one. This is a proportional controller with a fixed gain of
1, or a 100% proportional band. The gain adjustment on a proportional
controller allows a choice in change of water level to open and close the
valve. Changing the gain means in this case changing the length of the
arm. For example, saw off half of the arm. Now the valve will go full
open when the tank is l/4 full and will close when the tank is 3/4 full.
The gain is now 2, or proportional bank is 50%.
The set point adjustment allows movement of the midpoint of the
swing, or control band, with respect to the tank depth. It is analogous

to bending the arm of the ball-cock to change the full line in the tank
of the commode.
A word of caution. In theory by running the gain way up the water
level can be held just about constant. In practice at some point the system
becomes unstable, the valve will be hunting back and forth, creating
surges in the line and wearing itself out.
One other point illustrated by the commode: the system will only
work properly if the capability of bringing in water is greater than expec-
ted to be let out. If the tank runs dry when the valve is wide open there
is a problem, but it is not a control problem. A larger line ,is needed.
Integral or proportional-speed-floating mode is the name given to
the type of control needed for many flow measurements. The problem
with the proportional mode is that of getting the exact rate dialed on
the set point adjustment except at midpoint of the feedback and set point
range. At all other points there is an offset and the amount of offset
changes when the set point is-changed.
Integral control is a little difficult to explain; the same basic ele-
ments are there, but the controller has a second adjustment called inte-
gral or reset and the valve must have a variable speed drive. The control-
ler compares the set point ot the feedback and drives the valve operator
at a speed that is proportional to the “error,” the difference between the
set point and the feedback. The integral adjustment determines how fast
the valve will move for a given error.
As an illustration the system is shut off, set point zero, valve closed,
and feedback zero. Turn the set point to 50%. That is a big error, so the
valve starts opening fast. Soon the flow meter shows there is flow. The
feedback signal changes, reducing the error. The valve opening slow, but
there is still error, so it continues opening. The flow rate, hence the feed-
back, keeps increasing, which keeps slowing the valve opening. When
the feedback reaches the set point, the error is zero and the valve opening
ceases. If the flow meter signal is the actual flow at that instant in time,
you are in balance. In practice it take a little time, called process lag,
for the flow signal to catch up with the flow rate or valve movement,
so the valve will overshoot a little and then correct itself. Everything will
balance in a short time.
The gain and integral adjustments on the controller make it possible
to tune the controller to the process to get smooth flow control. The pro-
cess itself is a part of the loop. Do not expect the instrument technician
to provide a tune controller. It will have to be tuned in place as the loop
is started. Begin adjustments with low settings, about l/2 gain or less
INSTRUMENTATION 489
and integral at the low end. The response will probably be sluggish, but
that is the safe place to be. Move them up slowly until tuning is complete.
True “-speed-floating” control usually involves a controller and
valve operator designed together specifically for this mode of control and
containing no gain adjustment. It is an ideal mode for filter effluent flow
control Integral-Derivative. Most other flow control loops require a full
Proportional controller to get optimum loop response.
Open-Loop Controls, also called feed-forward loops, differ from
the previous ones in that there is no feedback. Most chemical feed
systems fall in this category. Even an alum analyzer would not provide
the right dosage. A good floe is the goal and the only good floe analyzer
is a trained eye.
Chlorine feed and ammonia feed systems are in a second category.
There are both chlorine residual and ammonia analyzers on the market.
In most potable water applications a feed-forward or pacing system pro-
vides adequate control to maintain a safe residual. The potential savings
in chemical costs will not justify an analyzer and other control devices.
The open loop will have the measuring device, the set point or dosage
adjustment and a positioner as well as the controlled device (pump or
chlorinator). The positioner can be considered as a proportional control-
ler with fixed 50% set point.
Telemetry. -Various types of transmitters for remote control have
been discussed. Pneumatic and electronic signals are accurate for about
1,000 feet; they are basically inplant devices.
Telemetry equipment can operate over distances of many miles.
Some of them can operate as far as radio, telephone or satellite systems
can take them. Signals can be transmitted in various ways with the prop-
er equipment.
D/C Telemetry. - Pulse width and the slower speed pulse frequen-
cy transmitters are designed to work through telephone circuits or private
lines. They are limited only by the resistance of the circuit, and because
the information is transmitted in terms of time measurements, they are
not affected by changes in the circuit characteristics. If the circuit has
been opened or shorted, the equipment goes back into service without
adjustments or calibration after repair. D.C. circuits are becoming al-
most impossible to lease from the telephone companies, but these devices
still have applications over private lines, such as might be buried in the
ditch with a new pipeline. Number 19 gauge cable can transmit up to
30 miles, perhaps more with a ground return system. Only one (two with
ground return) signal to a pair of wires is possible.
Troubleshooting this equipment seems to be difficult, especially if
the phone company must be convinced, it has a problem. Here are some
hints.
The metering system can be considered in three parts, transmitter,
circuit, and receiver. First isolate the problem to one of them, for instance
the receiver. Remove the signal wires and connect the ohmmeter. The
transmitter is just a switch across the wires. Every 15 seconds it will short
the wires together for awhile and then open them. The ohmmeter will
read some resistance and then show an open circuit. If this does not occur,
there are problems on circuit or transmitter. If the ohmmeter shows as
described, the problem is in the receiver.
While the signal wires are disconnected, take a short jumper wire
(insulated, of course) and hold it across the input terminals for about
10 seconds. When it is removed, the pointer or pen should be above 50%
of scale. This verifies that the receiver is working.
Now reconnect the signal line and go to the transmitter. The cam
should be turning and the switch operating. Connect the voltmeter across
the switch. When the switch is closed there will be zero volts. When it
is open the voltmeter will show the supply voltage from the receivkr.
Again, it will cycle every 15 seconds. If there is no voltage there are cir-
cuit problems. Be sure to check the voltage at the receiver terminals. If
the meter never reads zero, there is a bad switch or other transmitter
problem.
Tonemultiplexing. - If there are several pieces of data to transmit,
tone equipment may be interposed between the transmitters and receiv-
ers. The leased circuit will now be classed as voice grade and the phone
company will provide it. On one circuit you can connect 26 tone frequen-
cies, each handling one or two pieces of data. Data can be sent in both
directions on the same pair. Tone transmitters can be keyed by a pulse
width or pulse frequencies or by control switches or status contacts. The
tone receivers will give back what was fed into the transmitters, so the
outputs can be connected to the appropriate devices.
Scanners. - Scanner transmitter or multiplexes take multiple bits
of discrete data, code them into a pulse train, and let the pulse train key
and modulate a tone channel. At the receiver end, the tone receiver passes
the coded pulse trains to the scanner receiver or demultiplexer which
sorts out the discrete bits to operate lights, relays, or switches.
What the scanners can do with discrete data also can be done with
analog data. The scanner transmitter performs analog/digital conver-
sion 1-4 signals and transmits the data as a binary coded message. The
receiver decodes and performs digital/analog conversion to provide the
original analog signal.
INSTRUMENTATION 491
Scanners are available to handle from as little as 8 discrete bits of

data to as much as 4 analog signals plus 32 discrete bits. Since a separate
scanner can be connected to each of the 26 tone channels on a single
pair of wires, a single pair should be adequate.
Troubleshooting of tone and scanner equipments. - One of the po-
tential problems with this equipment is that if the telephone circuit or
the scanner is lost, a lot of information is lost all at once. It is important
to get the system back up in a hurry.
The first safeguard is to provide at least one spare for each of the
telemetry devices. If the problem is isolated to a piece of equipment, the
spare can be substituted, and the signal level adjusted if it is a tone trans-
mitter. Remember that tone channels must be substituted as a set, both
transmitter and receiver, because they are tuned to a specific frequency.
The second safeguard is to become thoroughly familiar with all the
visual indicators on these units.
1. On a tone transmitter - SPACE, MARK, CARRIER. Carrier,
if on, tells you the unit is sending out a tone. Space and Mark are the
two shifted states that carry data. Normally these will not both be on,
but there are a few exceptions. If a scanner is feeding the tone transmit-
ter, these normally will be blinking off and on. If they are both out or
one is on steadily, you have a scanner problem. Scanners are known to
“lock up.” The first thing to try is to turn the power off or to unplug
the scanner and after a while plug it back in. If it goes back to work,
log the failure. Note the time, weather conditions, operating conditions
(had a pump just turned off or on?). This could be vital diagnostic infor-
mation if this trouble starts repeating.
2. A scanner transmitter often has no lights. If yours does, search
the instructions for its significance.
3. On a tone receiver - SPACE, MARK, CARRIER LOSS. Carrier
loss, if it is on, you are not getting a strong enough signal or no signal.
It could be transmitter failure or circuit loss. If space and mark, like on
the transmitter, shows the same as the transmitter, you probably have
transmitter problems. If different, look to circuit if you also have carrier
loss, otherwise to receiver.
4. On scanner receiver - SCAN FAIL. If the tone receiver shows
carrier loss, solve that problem first. It will likely clear the scan fail. If
analog instruments start showing steady outputs instead of normal
changes, check the telemetry. Most scanners are programmed to retain
and continue to output the last valid data they received.
If there is more than one channel on a telephone circuit, check the
LED’s on all such units. If they all show failure, probably the circuit
is at fault.
The equipment that has been discussed so far is designed to operate
over a continuous circuit. As such it is suitable for private dedicated lines
or microwave.
Polling systems. - If the system is to be controlled by radio link,
over the telephone network with dial up, or if the system is large, polling
systems are useful. A polling system is one which one site, usually a con-
trol center, is designated as the master and all others are satellites. The
master controls all communications for the whole system. Satellites
speak only in response to request or command from the master. Certain
results follow from this condition, for example:
1. Communication with any site is discontinuous.
2. Because of this, data accumulated at remote sites must be stored
until requested. Flow totalization, particularly, must be made at the re-
mote, the accumulated total to date being sent, usually in BCD format,
on each update request.
3. Each remote must be monitored and cut off if necessary. Other-
wise the whole system will malfunction.
4. Because only one site talks at a time, communications and data
transmission is much faster than by tone. Tone channels are limited to
25 bits per second. Polling modems can go up to 1200 bits per second
on the telephone network and even much higher on radio links.
There is not much more to be said except to point out that such
systems are inherently computer-based. Even the satellites contain a
small microcomputer for acquisition and especially storage of data or
back-up control functions to provide fail-safe operations if communica-
tions are lost.
Computers and Programmable Logic Controllers. - Computers.
- In just a few years there will be many more computers used in the
water works industry. Using them must be considered. Here are suggest-
ed applications.
1. Data Acquisition. As mentioned, with polling systems the master
computer controls the communications with remotes, transmits the data,
stores it for retrieval and reporting, makes computations and stores or
prints-out the results, generates alerts and alarms for operators to han-
dle.
2. Control Functions. All the automatic control functions discussed
in this chapter can easily be handled by a computer. Some control deci-
sions you might let the computer make are:
(a) choose which of equal size pumps to run based on run time (the
computer knows this already) or pump efficiency (if you store power,
INSTRUMENTATION 493
pressure, and flow data, the computer will calculate the efficiency (see
chapter 2 1, Energy Conservation).
(b) start pumps based on rate of consumption as well as or instead
of tank levels. The computer can take the flow rates into the system and
the rate of change of tank levels and calculate the current consumption
rate almost instantaneously.
3. Preparation of Reports. Reports can be daily, weekly, monthly,
annually. The limitation on the time periods will be influenced by the
computer memory size. Any reasonable size with hard disk storage can
handle a month’s data for a large system. Set the formats for your needs
and those of the regulatory agency.
4. Record Keeping and File Maintenance. Records of equipment
data, maintenance records, parts inventories can be stored and retrieved,
usually more quickly than with hard files. And you can get rid of a lot
of paper.
5. Reminders of Preventive Maintenance Requirements and Ac-
countability. A computer never forgets. If you tell it to remind next Janu-
ary 15 to check calibration of the raw flow meter, it will do it. Further-
more, it can be programmed to require the entry of a person’s access
code before it will accept an acknowledgement, and you will have a re-
cord of who got the message. Some, perhaps all, of these tasks are re-
quired or desirable in any system, no matter how small.
Programmable Logic Controllers have been around longer than the
small computers, but are not widely used in water utilities. Basically,
a PLC is a very small computer with limited memory. It was designed
for the automotive assembly line to perform a limited sequence of func-
tions, start and stop motors, do timing and counting. Costs are as low
as a few hundred dollars, so they are competitive with relay logic controls
for medium-sized pump stations. They are worth exploring.
RECORD KEEPING
The records needed can be determined by asking two questions:

A. What Do I Have? Each instrument has a specific function, is
at a specific location in the plant and has an identity (name, rank, and
serial number). It is intended also to meet certain performance criteria.
All this information should be readily available along with reference to
the appropriate instruction book and parts list in your O&M manuals.
It can easily be kept on a single sheet of paper or even a 5 x 8 card. The
choice depends on how to keep the data, in a card file, notebook, or in
the computer files.
The format is also a choice. The key question to ask here is: How
should it be referenced? In computer files the speed of retrieval depends
on how the computer makes its search. There is usually a retrieval pro-
gram that gives priority to, perhaps, the first blank in the form. If you
’ can make the format so that retrieval is normally the first line of the
form, time will be saved. Do not copy our sample form. Make a form
for your use.
B. How Has It Been Doing? Here is where the track record of pre-
ventive maintenance, repair or calibration is kept. The reference to an
invoice number allows a search through existing records kept by law in-
stead of wasting time doing lots of copy work. You may be able to do
the same with written work orders if they are used.
The basic concept is: use the paper you have. Do not hand copy or
transfer data unless there is no alternative. Operators and service people
are doers, not writers.
CHAPTER 18
STORAGE OF POTABLE WATER
MARK V. LOWRY, P.E.
Regional Engineer, Texas Department of Health
Storage of potable water for drinking purposes is and has been a

prerequisite to survival of man throughout history. Early man used only
such containers as he could carry on his person and those were generally
made of animal skins, or organs. Development of other forms of transpor-
tation, such as boats and ox carts, allowed man to handle greater quanti-
ties of water and to use more substantial containers such as barrels and
clay pots. Even at this point, water was stored strictly for drinking pur-
poses, since those places to which most travelers were headed, had no
dependable source of supply. Loss of any portion of the stored water
could jeopardize the lives of all the travelers. Most such travelers were
merely looking for another piece of ground where adequate water existed
to meet the needs of their families and their livestock.
Today’s population densities are such that it is not generally possible
to obtain sources of supply of great enough capacity to meet the short-
term peak demand needs of most municipalities. For this reason, it is
necessary to provide storage facilities sufficient to store water to meet
these short-term peak demands and allow relatively constant pumping
rates from the source(s) of supply, be it from surface water treatment
facilities, wells, or both.
Other advantages of providing such storage facilities include main-
taining a reserve for emergency conditions ‘(interruptions of supply
sources, fire demands, and main breaks) maintaining a constant pressure
on the distribution system, allowing uniform pumping rates and some-
times lower pumping costs, allowing the use of smaller sources of supply,
thus saving on plant construction costs, serving as a relief valve on the
distribution system, and making provisions of adequate service to outly-
ing areas more feasible.
GROUND STORAGE
Facilities in this general classification may be reservoirs or stand-

pipes. The shell height of the standpipe is greater than its diameter
495
whereas the shell height of a reservoir is equal to or less than its diameter.
Water is usually pumped from ground storage reservoirs into the distri-
bution lines in contrast to standpipes which “float on the system”. Steel
and concrete are the principal materials of construction for storage facili-
ties. Concrete foundations are likely required for standpipes over about
60 feet in height, or for either type of tank if the load exceeds the allow-
able soil pressure. Standpipes or reservoirs may be equipped with cone,
dome, umbrella or ellipsodial roofs. Ground storage tanks should be lo-
cated at or near the water treatment plants or well heads or at points
of need within the distribution system to store water for normal use and
for fire and other peak demands. Any reasonable and desired pressure
can be maintained in the distribution lines served from ground storage
by means of direct pumping.
The principal advantages of ground storage include: (1) lower first
cost, (2) lower maintenance cost, (3) accessibility for observation and
sampling to determine quality of stored water, (4) greater safety, and
(5) avoidance of possible considerations and other objectionable features
of elevated storage.
The reservoirs are usually circular in shape and range in capacity
from a few thousand gallons to 25 million gallons or more. Rectangular
tanks with cantilevered walls may be constructed to any desired capacity
F IG IS- 1. - 0.5 MC Ground Storage Tank. Photo courtesy Steel Plate Fabricators Asso-
ciation, Inc., Hinsdale, Illinois
STORAGE OF POTABLE WATER 497
FIG . 18-2. - 2 MG Fluted Pedestal Elevated Tank. Photo courtesy Steel Plate Febrica-
tors Association, Inc., Hinsdale, Illinois
depending on local foundation conditions.

As an aesthetic measure, ground storage tanks may be blended in
with the surrounding area by camouflage or through ornamental type
design. For some areas, ground storage can serve a multipurpose function
in that it can be surrounded by a park or pedestrian mall lined with rented
producing shops.
ELEVATED TANKS
Water storage in a distribution system may include reservoirs or

tanks elevated above the area served to provide the necessary pressure
for distribution by gravity. The reservoirs or tanks may rest on hills or
be elevated on towers or other structures to give the desired height. It
is necessary, of course, to pump water into elevated storage in order to
obtain pressure required for gravity flow from it. The advantages of ele-
vated storage include: (1) elimination of the need for continuous opera-
tion of pumps, (2) water pressure in the distribution system is not percep-
tibly affected by short-time shutdowns of power or pumps, (3) equaliza-
tion of pressure in the distribution system by selective location of the
tanks, and (4) minimization auxiliary power requirements.
Elevated storage is occasionally used at pumping stations to dampen
effects of surges in pressure on the lines in the distribution system. In
some cases, elevated tanks are used as fire water storage units. Small
cities make use of elevated storage to meet peak demand loads. The pres-
sure in a distribution system served by elevated storage varies with the
level of water in the tank, making this type of storage undesirable from
that standpoint. The relative economy of surface and elevated storage
depends on local conditions and on the design of the water works. Elevat-
ed storage tanks constructed on towers are generally more expensive than
surface storage.
In locating an elevated storage facility in or near a residential area,
careful consideration should be given to the appearance of the facility
and to the effect its presence may have on the community. As an aesthetic
measure, elevated storage tanks may be made ornamental or camou-
flaged to blend in with the landscape to further their acceptance in the
community.
DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRS
Reservoirs which store and facilitate the distribution of water are

included,in the water system so that instantaneous and daily demands
for water may be met without interruptions in supply to the users. The
reservoirs are designated equalizing storage because they “float on the
line” and make it possible to equalize flow in accordance with daily de-
mand to meet the maximum and minimum requirements for the 24-hour
period. The reservoirs also make it possible for the water treatment plant
to operate at a constant rate and still meet the variations experienced
in the demand for water. The tanks are usually connected to the distribu-
tion system by a single pipe which delivers water into the tanks when
the demand is less than the input from the treatment plant or wells and
which permits water to flow from the tanks into the distribution system
when the demands exceed the supply. It is essential that the equalizing
tanks be elevated to provide adequate pressure for distribution. Proper
elevation of the tanks may be realized by placing them on towers, hills,
or hillsides. In level areas, the pressure necessary for distribution of the
water may be obtained by maintaining the ground storage under constant
air pressure. The distribution reservoirs should be located centrally or
as close as possible to the area they serve to reduce friction losses in the
system by reducing the distance traveled by the water. Dependable
sources of electric power should be available for use in pumping water
from ground storage into the mains. Generators driven by gas or liquid
fuel internal combustion engines, preferably diesel, should be available
for operating selected pumps and appropriate facilities at the water treat-
ment plant during periods of failure of electric power.
STORAGEOFPOTABLEWATER 499
SANITARY REQUIREMENTS
In Texas, the storage and distribution systems for potable water

must be designed, constructed, and operated in accordance with the Tex-
as Department of Health’s Rules and Regulations for Public Water
Systems (see Appendix B). These rules also are specific to the storage
of potable water and give detailed information on the design and con-
struction of clear wells, standpipes, reservoirs, and elevated tanks for po-
table water, and provide that they shall be covered and constructed of
durable materials meeting American Water Works Association
(AWWA) Standards and shall be provided with approved type vents,
manholes, manhole covers and overflows. It is stated also that the covers
shall be sloped to prevent the collection of water on the cover.
The Health Department’s rules and regulations are specific as to
the distribution of the potable water and give detailed information on
the design and standards for all potable water distribution systems. The
rules include provisions that pump stations, mains, ground and elevated
storage shall be designed, installed and constructed in accordance with
current (AWWA) standards, with reference to materials used and con-
struction procedures to be followed. In the absence of AWWA standards,
Departmental policy may be established based upon American Society
for Testing Materials, commercial and other recognized standards.
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FM)

REQUIREMENTS
The FAA is invested with certain powers of control over the place-
ment of high structures in navigable airspace. When the construction
of an elevated tank is contemplated, the FAA representative in the area
should be consulted relative to the location of the tower and, if it should
present a hazard, the marking and hazard lighting to place on it.
TANK CONSTRUCTION
Distribution reservoirs are usually classified according to their posi-

tion as surface or elevated, or according to the material construction,
such as concrete, steel, or other substance.
Reinforced Tanks. - Reinforced concrete water storage tanks
have been in use for many years, giving excellent service when properly
designed, constructed, and maintained. The walls of the reservoir are
usually made of the gravity, cantilever, counterfort, vertical beam, or
cylindrical type.
In conventional construction, the seams and joints of concrete tanks
usually undergo thermal dimensional changes, necessitating the installa-
tion of water seals and stops to avoid deterioration and loss of water.
Steel Tanks. - Steel is the most widely used of the materials avail-
able for the construction of potable water reservoirs, especially the ele-
vated storage tanks. The tanks can be obtained or constructed of any
capacity and placed on steel towers of any height desired. They are avail-
able also from a number of companies in a variety of designs of both
tank and tower. Appearance is now receiving major attention; companies
are offering new designs with aesthetics being foremost in mind. The
American Iron and Steel Institute, 150 East 42nd Street, New York,
N.Y. has published a brochure illustrating modern design concepts.
For any given volume of water stored there is for each type of tank
construction, a certain ratio between its diameter and depth for mini-
mum cost. The economical dimensions for any given capacity are used
as standard by the Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Company, Chicago
Bridge and Iron Company, Darby Corp., R.D. Cole Mfg. Company,
General American Transportation Corp., and other builders, and infor-
mation on any specific problem is readily available on request from any
of these companies.
TANK APPURTENANCES
As stated previously, tank appurtenances such as overflows, roof

hatches, level indicators, and other items must be fabricated to meet re-
quirements for potable water storage facilities. Figure 18-3 depicts an
approved roof hatch with raised curb, overcapping cover, proper dimen-
sions and provisions for locking. Figure 18-4 shows one type of properly
designed and screened roof vent. Note that the placement of the screen
is such that birds and insects are not able to nest on top of any portion
of the screen. Figure 18- provides details of an overflow with a hinged,
self-sealing flap valve. Each of the above depicted facilities are specifi-
cally designed to prevent contamination of the stored water by birds or
insects. Screen mesh sizes of 16-mesh or finer, are specified to prevent
entrance of midge flies which will produce in the larval stage a red worm
if allowed to gain entrance to a storage facility. Another common prob-
lem in facilities with unprotected openings is the horsehair worm or wire
worm, which is an intestinal parasite of crickets or grasshoppers. When
such insects gain access to the tank and drown in the water, these long
slender worms appear, normally prompting considerable comment from
STORAGE OF P OTABLE W ATER 501
LOCK
FIG 18-3. - Roof Hatch Cover
16 MESH SCREEN
FIG . 18-4. Vent
HINGED FLAP VALVE
FIG 18-S. - Overflow
the system’s customers. The problem is one of aesthetics as these worms

are not known to cause diseases in humans. Screening material used for
protecting stored water should be corrosion resistant to prevent prema-
ture failure. The flap valve assembly should be inspected periodically
4” SGiiEENEP VENT
I Cll LCVtL
_ ,.,.-mm . m..-.
WA
INDICATORS
30” MANHOLE
FIG . 18-7. - Water Storage Tank FIG 18-6. - Water Level Indicator
and lubricated to ensure that it will seal properly.

Another important area of tank construction which is often modi-
fied after a tank is built is the drain outlet connection to the tank. In
heavily populated areas drain and overflow outlets are often times con-
nected to storm sewer inlet facilities. When this is done, an air gap of
at least two pipe diameters must be provided to prevent contamination
of the stored water. In addition, enclosing such facilities in an inlet struc-
ture obscures the view of the flap valve and hinders proper maintenance
to ensure that the flap is sealing as intended. A flap valve in plain view
and easily accessible is much more likely to be maintained properly, and
provide the necessary protection.
TANK INSPECTIONS
All tanks should be inspected annually to determine whether or not

water is being stored in a way that will not allow contamination, and
to ensure that the tank itself is not suffering excessive deterioration. Such
inspections should start at ground level and should include the founda-
tions and anchorage systems. For ground storage tanks, the outside shell
should be inspected for pitting, rusting, and leakage. Paint film thickness
should be checked. For elevated tanks, the support superstructure (ped-
estal, legs, etc.) should be checked as well as the ladders, overflow lines,
riser pipe, and drains from ground level to the balcony. Paint film thick-
nesses should again be checked on all painted surfaces.
The next step in the inspection process is to go up on top of the tank
to check the top itself, as well as the roof hatch, vent and screen, overflow
and flap valve (if terminated at top of tank instead of being brought down
to ground level), ladders, navigational lights, if any, and any other appur-
tenances which penetrate the top of the tank. As before, paint film thick-
nesses are checked on representative portions of painted surfaces.
With the outside of the tank now fully covered, the inspection can
move into the tank interior. To do this, the tank must normally be drained
completely to be ready for inspection. On the way into the interior, the
ladder structure and attachment brackets should be carefully inspected,
as well as the inside sidewalls, the painters ring, the roof beams, and any
interior structural members. While in the tank, care should be taken to
ensure that inlet and outlet connections are operable, that the standpipe
(if applicable) has a safety grate and that the standpipe itself is in usable
condition. Paint film thickness should be checked in representative loca-
tions and particular attention should be paid to the areas at and just
above the normal water level (corrosion of these areas is normally accel-
erated, inasmuch as cathodic protection where used, is effective in pre-

venting corrosion only on submerged surfaces, and since this area is sub-
ject to chlorine vapors and water vapor on a continuous basis. This same
area should be checked for evidence of floating scum or oil, and the bot-
tom should be observed for evidence of sediment and dead spots which
would allow development of anaerobic conditions. Evidence of any of the
above would be indicative of problems elsewhere in the system which
should be corrected.
Although the described procedure for inspection involves draining
the tank completely, some inspections can be made by divers in the tanks
which remain full. These inspections must, however, be made under care-
fully controlled conditions to avoid problems of contamination of the
stored water. Divers must be fully enclosed in a wet suit which is either
new or which has not been used for any purpose other than diving in
drinking water facilities. Diver and wet suit must be immersed in a chlo-
rine solution of not less than 50 ppm for a minimum of 5 minutes prior
to entering the tank. The chlorine immersion solution must be near
enough to the opening into the tank to enable the diver to be transferred
to the tank without recontaminating the surfaces of the suit. Time inside
the tank must be kept to the minimum necessary to complete an inspec-
tion and/or make repairs. Chlorine residual of the stored water should
be increased to a minimum of 5.0 ppm free chlorine. Residual levels
should be retested after the work in the tank is completed. If the residual
is less than 1.0 ppm, the tank must be disinfected in accordance with
one of the methods listed in the American Water Works Association
standards. It is not intended that major improvements of material, or
removal of deposited sludge take place by this method. If major cleaning
and/or repairs are needed, the tank should be drained as described earli-
er.
REPAIRS
The primary reason for frequent tank inspection on a regular basis

is to detect conditions requiring minor repairs before they result in major
damage. Blind reliance on a coating system or even a sophisticated ca-
thodic protection system to protect your utility’s major investment in
storage is foolhardy. Adjustments must be made in either one of these
systems (spot-treatment of pin holes on holidays or adjustment of elec-
trode anchorage and current flow). In any event, proper protection for
your storage facilities requires strict attention to details when making
repairs.
STORAGEOFPOTABLEWATER 505
Corroded areas of the tank should be sandblasted to bare metal prior

to making repairs and again prior to recoating if necessary. Corroded
areas can be built up with epoxy paste or fillet welding in some instances,
while more extensive repairs will require removal of the damaged plate
and rewelding a replacement piece on both inside and outside seams.
Welding steel plate over weakened or corroded portions of the tank is
only a stop-gap measure and may actually enhance deterioration of the
original plate as well as the patch.
PAINTING AND RE-PAINTING
Cull (1983) reports that tank painting for new tanks represents 10
to 15% of the total cost of the tank. This represents a sizeable investment
which can provide an effective barrier to corrosion damage, if properly
applied, or can fail completely in a very short time if improperly applied.
A poorly applied coating can leave pinholes which actually accelerate
localized corrosion thereby accelerating the speed at which damage to
the tank occurs. The first area which must be of concern in painting is
surface preparation. Paint simply will not adhere properly to a surface
that is coated with rust, millscale, grease, oil, or other contaminants. For
this reason, the surface should be washed with a degreaser, and sandblas-
ted to bare metal. This should be performed on new tanks as well as to
remove surface films (rust, millscale, oil) which form during the produc-
tion and construction stages. Standards have been established by the
Steel Structure Painting Council and the National Association of Corro-
sion Engineers that depict in detail what each successive stage or degree
of blast looks like. It is recommended that an area be sandblasted to the
degree specified by the contract, with the inspection and concurrence
of all parties, and that this area be coated with a clear lacquer to be used
as a reference standard for questions which may arise later. Of equal
importance to the cleanliness of the blasted metal is the blast profile or
difference between high and low points of the blast. The coatings current-
ly in use vary as to their ability to cover surface roughness without allow-
ing rust to form during the curing process for the first coat and the appli-
cation of the second coat. The paint manufacturer should be consulted
concerning the proper blast profile for a given coat.
Coating material selection represents another critical factor in the
longevity of a tank coating. Current AWWA standards include seven
paint systems recognized for use inside water storage tanks and five
systems for exterior surfaces. Exterior paint systems are largely a matter
of personal choice, although it has been shown that darker colors tend
to absorb and transfer greater of heat through the tank shell, adversely
affecting the life of the interior coating. Any color of coating with a re-
flectivity rating of less than 50% should be avoided (Campbell, 1985).
Interior coating systems should be specified to meet AWWA stan-
dards and individual components should have approval for use as a con-
tact surface with food or food grade products by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, United States Food and Drug Administration, or
other agency or entity contracted to perform such evaluations, and au-
thorized by one or the other federal agencies above.
CATHODIC PROTECTION
The interior portions of steel water storage tanks can be protected

against corrosion by the use of cathodic protection devices. In any situa-
tion where a metal is immersed in water, the electrochemical activity
of the elements involved will result to some extent in corrosion of the
metal. This corrosion will cause metal ions to dissolve in the water, travel
to another location in the tank and become deposited. The site from
which the metal dissolves is known as the anode, and this area is weak-
ened and pitted as metal is removed from it. The site at which the metal
is deposited is called the cathode and deposits will build up on this area.
To provide protection to the tank, a network of sacrificial anodes is sus-
pended in the water and an electrical current is transmitted into the
anodes, through the water and onto the tank. These sacrificial anodes
then become the source of the metal moving into the solution, which prev-
ents metal ions from being removed from the tank itself. This system
is reported to provide adequate protection to tanks made of uncoated
metal. However, the use of a properly applied tank coating greatly re-
duces the amount of electrical current that must be used, and therefore
reduces operating costs.
Components of a cathodic protection system include anodes, which
may be of aluminum, high silicon cast iron, platinized Niobium wire,
or other metal, a rectifier circuit with a variable amperage DC output,
connections between the rectifier and the anodes, an anode suspension
or anchorage system and an automatic controller. System maintenance
consists of monthly observation and recording of the current and voltage
outputs from the rectifier to each anode string, since some areas require
more current than others because of the amount of exposed tank surface
to be protected, the setting of the adjustment on the rectifier, and the
optimum tank to electrolyte (water) set point on the controller. This in-
formation can be collected by local personnel and any significant devia-
tion from recorded normal conditions should give rise to inspection and
repair of the system.
The cathodic protection system also should be inspected during the
annual tank inspection to ensure that it continues to provide acceptable
service.
DISINFECTION
Potable water storage reservoirs must be disinfected after initial

construction and painting operations, after cleaning, repairing, repain-
ting, or performing any other operation which requires entrance of the
tank by water utility or contractor personnel. Several methods of disin-
fection with chlorine, including completely filling the tank with a chlo-
rine solution, washing down the walls manually with a high strength solu-
tion and then filling to. normal level and either discharging the high
strength chlorine solution to waste or allowing the chlorine level to dimin-
ish and restoring the tank to service without draining are listed in the
AWWA standards. These standards and their subsequent revisions are
adapted as part of the Appendix A, and are used in determining adher-
ence to the regulations.
Potable water storage facilities represent a sizeable portion of the
investment of most utility systems, and they are constantly in the public
eye. Properly maintained and neat appearing facilities project a positive
image of your utility as an efficient and properly managed concern.
Hopefully, that is an image that all organizations find worth striving for.
REFERENCES
1. BORELLI, J., AND RACHFORD, T.M., “Treated Water Storage for Design Capacity
Reduction,” Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 99, No. EE4, 1973.
2. DEB, A.K., “Optimization of Water Network Systems,” Journal of the Environmental
Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 102, No. EE4, 1976.
3. Key Rate Schedule for Grading Cities and Towns of Texas with Reference to their Fire
Defenses and Physical Conditions, Texas Board of Insurance, Austin, Texas, 1982.
4. BEAVER, P.C., JUNG, R.C., and CUPP, E.W., Clinical Parasitology, 9th Ed., Lea
and Febiger, Philadephia, Pa., pp400-401, 1984.
5. MEANS, E.G.,III, PRESTON, A.E., and McGUIRE, M.J., “Scubadiving: A Tool for
Managing Water Quality.” Journal AWWA. Vol 76. No. 10. DD . 86-92. 1984.
6. ROBINSON, M.P., Jr., and BLAIR, R.E., Jr.,‘” Pump’Station ‘Design: The Benefits
of Computer Modeling,” Journal AWWA, Vol. 76, No. 7, pp. 70-77, 1984.
7. “Standard for Painting Steel Water-Storage Tanks”, AWWA D102-78.
8. “Standard for Steel Welded Tanks for Water Storage”, AWWA DlOO-84.
STORAGE OF P OTABLE W ATER 507
tion from recorded normal conditions should give rise to inspection and
repair of the system.
The cathodic protection system also should be inspected during the
annual tank inspection to ensure that it continues to provide acceptable
service.
DISINFECTION
Potable water storage reservoirs must be disinfected after initial

construction and painting operations, after cleaning, repairing, repain-
ting, or performing any other operation which requires entrance of the
tank by water utility or contractor personnel. Several methods of disin-
fection with chlorine, including completely filling the tank with a chlo-
rine solution, washing down the walls manually with a high strength solu-
tion and then filling to’normal level and either discharging the high
strength chlorine solution to waste or allowing the chlorine level to dimin-
ish and restoring the tank to service without draining are listed in the
AWWA standards. These standards and their subsequent revisions are
adapted as part of the Appendix A, and are used in determining adher-
ence to the regulations.
Potable water storage facilities represent a sizeable portion of the
investment of most utility systems, and they are constantly in the public
eye. Properly maintained and neat appearing facilities project a positive
image of your utility as an efficient and properly managed concern.
Hopefully, that is an image that all organizations find worth striving for.
REFERENCES
1. BORELLI, J., AND RACHFORD, T.M., “Treated Water Storage for Design Capacity
Reduction,” Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 99, No. EE4, 1973.
2. DEB, A.K., “Optimization of Water Network Systems,” Journal of the Environmental
Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 102, No. EE4.1976.
3. Key Rate Schedule for Grading Cities and Towns of Texas with Reference to their Fire
Defenses and Physical Conditions, Texas Board of Insurance, Austin, Texas, 1982.
4. BEAVER, P.C., JUNG, R.C., and CUPP, E.W., Clinical Parasitology, 9th Ed., Lea
and Febiger, Philadephia, Pa., pp400-401, 1984.
5. MEANS, E.G.,III, PRESTON, A.E., and McGUIRE, M.J., “Scubadiving: A Tool for
Managing Water Quality,” Journal AWWA, Vol 76, No. 10, pp. 86-92, 1984.
6. ROBINSON, M.P., Jr., and BLAIR, R.E., Jr., “Pump Station Design: The Benefits
of Computer Modeling,” Journal AWWA, Vol. 76, No. 7, pp. 70-77, 1984.
7. “Standard for Painting Steel Water-Storage Tanks”, AWWA Dl02-78.
8. “Standard for Steel Welded Tanks for Water Storage”, AWWA DlOO-84.
CHAPTER 19
CUSTOMER METERS
FRANK DANNENBAUM
Rockwell In terna tional Corporation
The use of water meters today is accepted by water utilities as the

most equitable manner to distribute the cost of operating a water system.
It also is one of the best tools at the disposal of the water utility for the
conservation of existing supplies. If the cost of a meter installation can
be jusrified in the first place, it follows that the cost of keeping this meter
in a reasonably accurate condition thereafter also can be justified. Met-
ers should not be placed in service and forgotten until they fail to func-
tion. Some routine repair program should be established, based upon the
water, its cost, soil, and other conditions peculiar to that particular sys-
tem.
TYPES OF METERS
Positive Displacement Meter. - The positive displacement meter

is a meter containing a measuring chamber with a fitted disc or piston.
As this chamber "fills" and "empties" one time, the disc or piston makes
one cycle, thereby measuring the volume of water of the chamber assem-
bly by physically and positively displacing it. By use of gears, these cycles
are counted and transferred to the meter register either in gallons or oth-
er desired units of measure.
In the past, there have been several types of positive displacement
meters, but today there are only two manufactured in the United States
for ordinary utility service. These are the oscillating (piston) and the nu-
tating (disc). They both operate on exactly the same principle, except
for the motion of the piston.
For many years the positive displacement meter contained an open
or oil-enclosed gear train, stuffing box and standard round or straight
reading register. The objection to this meter was that in time the stuffing
box would wear, and then leak. Condensation would collect under the
glass, making it difficult to read and in time, dirt and moisture would
enter the register itself.
19-1. - Nominal Capacity Ratings and Related Pressure Loss Limits for Cold-
TABLE
Water Displacement Meters - AWWA Standard C700
Max~mum Recan-
Pmum mndcd*
We' Loss at M e Maurnurn Maumum Number of
Maumum bumurn RAW of Norm81 DISCN u ~ t m Or
s
Meter Operating Opmtng Cont~nuous M~nrmum Test Flow P~stonOrctlhtlons
Sizc c4-1~ Gpaty Opmt~ons Test Flowt Lrmtst
in. RP"' pri gP"J gpm gPm per 10 gal per cu fr
I3 10 % 1- 20 580 435
13 15 M 2- 30 333 250
13 25 % 3- 50 153 l 15
See Scc. AS.1. A W W A SUnQrd C700

t See Scc. 18-Regstmtion Accuracy. AWWA Standard 0 0 0
Note: Table is quad with p r m i s s ~ o n f m m " A W W A Standard for Cold-Water Mcters-
IhsplrcemenI Type." A W W A #a) copyrighted b y the American Water Wwks Assocml~on.
Today, all American meter companies manufacture a magnetically

driven meter with a sealed register. A permanent magnet is driven by
a disc or piston spindle inside the water compartment. A receiving mag-
net is located in a separate compartment with the reduction gears and
register. Each revolution of the disc or piston spindle enables the driven
magnet to revolve. The receiving magnet turns the same number of rev-
olutions and transfers this information through a series of gears to the
register itself and records in gallons or cubic feet. The use of magnets
to transmit the information from the measuring chamber to an externally
sealed compartment eliminates the stuffing box and stuffing box leaks.
It enables all the gears and register to be contained in a dirt and moisture-
proof container. These sealed register meters come in two types, those
that are permanently sealed by the manufacturer and those that can be
disassembled and repaired in the local meter repair shops. Characteris-
tics of displacement meters are shown in Table 19-1.
Current Meters. - The current or velocity type meters are of two
types - turbine type for customer service in which water flowing
through it operates a bladed wheel and a propeller type for main line
applications. In the turbine type, the turbine is placed in a removable
cage. The propeller or wheel in the propeller meter is not so arranged
and operates in the line or meter body. As the velocity of the water in-
creases, the speed of the wheel increases and this information is calibrat-
ed in gallons or cubic feet. Current meters have a relatively low loss of
head but are not considered suitable for use on a domestic service where
TABLE
19-2a. - Nominal Capacity Ratings and Related Pressure Loss Limits for Cold-
Water Meters - Turbine Type
.. for Customer Service A W W A Standard
C701 Class I
CLASS I k l n Line (High Vdocity Type)
all rates of flow will be encountered. This meter is not accurate on low
flows. These meters are used generally as the large size of compound
meters. Table 19-2a and 19-2b list characteristics of current meters.
Improvements in turbine type meters have been made relative to
design, accura cy and loss of hea d. For informa tion-concerningthese met -
ers and their improved characteristics, refer to the latest revision of
A W WA C- 701, Standard for Turbine Type Meters (2).
Another type of velocity meter introduced into this country is the
multi-jet meter. These meters are manufactured in sizes %-in and larger
and for the most part are either imported, or manufactured under foreign
patents. The ability to pass sand or other foreign substances is normally
considered better than the displacement type meter of the same size;
however, they have the disadvantages of other velocity type meters. That
is, their accuracy will be affected by pulsating flow, chemical build up
on the wheels or cages, and any decrease in the size of the openings or
orifices that direct water to the bladed wheel will cause the meter to be-
come fast to a degree beyond that of the displacement type meter.
TABLE
19-2b. - Nominal Capacity Ratings and Related Pressure Loss Limits for Cold-
Water Meters - Propeller Type for Main Line Applications, AWWA
Standard C704
Maximum Loss
Safe Maximum M a x m u m Rate of Head at Safe
Meter Operating for Continuous Maximum Normal Test Minimum
Size, Capacity, Duty, Operating Flow Limits, Test Flow
in. k'pm RP" Capacity -psi gpm RPm
Note: Tables 2a and 2b are quoted with permission from AWWA Standards AWWA
C701 and AWWA C704 respectively, copyrighted by the American Water Works Association.
The AWWA has issued C-708-82 (8), Standard for Cold-Water

Meters, Multi-Jet Type for Customer Service.
Compound Meters. - The compound meter uses two meters
housed in the same case with an automatic valve. Usually a displacement
type meter is used to measure the low flow, and the current type is used
to measure the high flow. It is so designed that when the demand exceeds
the capacity of the displacement meter a valve will automatically open,
allowing the current meter to begin operation. At this point where the
automatic valve begins to open, the initial water entering the current
wheel may not be enough to operate it accurately. This is usually of a
very short range and is provided for in the A.W.W.A. Specifications (4)
for compound meters. Characteristics of compound meters are given in
Table 19-3.
Fire Service Meters. -One type of fire service meter is a combina-
tion of two or more meters and differs from the compound meter in that
the main line side is a proportional meter. A proportional meter, as the
name implies is a meter where only a portion of the water is diverted
through a meter. The remainder of the water passes through without
TABLE
19-3. - Nominal Capacity Ratings and Related Pressure Loss Limits for Cold-
Water Meters - Compound Type, AWWA Standard C702
Maximum Allow-
able Loss of
Safe M a x ~ m u m Maxlmum Rate Head at Safe
Meter Operat~ng for Contmuous Maximum Normal Test Mtnlrnum
Slze, Capac~ty, Duty, Operating Flow Lirn1t5 * Test Flows,
in KPm RP'n Capacity, prr XPm ?P'"
2 160 80 20 2- 160 ?4
3 320 160 20 4- 320 !A
4 500 250 20 6- 500 34
6 1 ,ooo 500 20 10- 1,000 1%
8 1,600 800 20 16- 1,600 2
10 2,300 1,150 20 32-2,300 4
* Registration: See Sections 15 and 19 AWWA Standard C702 At normal

test flow, rates shall be not less than 97% nor more than 103% of water actually
passed through the meter, except in the registration of flows within the "change-
over" from by-pass meter to main meter. The registration at these rates of flow
shall be not less than 85%. The difference in the rate of flow at the beginning
and end of the "change-over" shall not exceed the figures given in the following
table:
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 gpm
3 ........................................ 20 gpm
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 gpm
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 gpm
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 gpm
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100gpm
'
Note: Table 3 is quoted by permission from A W W A Standard C702 T h e footnote is adapted from
Sec. 19 of the same standard.
contacting any measuring device. The meter which measures a portion

of the water is so calibrated to include not only the water that it actually
measures, but it also infers the entire amount passing through the meter.
The measuring device may be either the displacement type or the velocity
type. This type of meter will not measure low to intermediate flows. I t
is usually used on fire lines where a low loss of head is desirable, and
normally in conjunction with an automatic valve, which allows the small
meter to measure the low flows. The accuracy of this meter is highly
influenced by the piping arrangement on the inlet side of the meter. In-
stallation instructions from the manufacturer should be closely followed.
This meter is not currently covered by an AWWA standard.
In addition to the fire service meter previously described, there is
a device commonly known as the "detector check" used on private firel-
ines. This is not a meter in the true sense, but is a monitor to ascertain
the unauthorized movement of water into a private fire service. I t consists
of a check valve comparable in size to the size of the fireline, plus a small
disc meter located beside the check valve with its inlet above the check
TABLE
19-4. - Nominal Capacity Ratings and Related Pressure Loss Limits of Fire Ser-
vice Meters - Adapted from A W W A Standards C703
Safe Maximum Maximum Normal

Operating Loss of Minimum Test Ftow
Meter S m Capacity Head Test Flow Llm~ts
I I l 11
~ A1!)/Il psi gpn7 gp1rr
3 400
4 700
6 1,600
8 2,800
10 4,400
12 6,400
Registration: Minimum test flow: not less than 95%.
Normal test flow: not less than 97% to 103%.
Change-over: Not less than 85%.
valve and its outlet below. All water is measured by this small meter until
the flow becomes great enough to open the check valve. Usually a 3 1/
2 to 4 psi drop in pressure across the valve will open this valve. The water
that flows through the open check is not metered, but any consumption
on the small meter above that necessary for testing purposes, should war-
rant an inspection for illegal usage or wastage.
ACCURACY
In purchasing new meters and in repairing old ones, a judgment

should be made of their accuracy before installation. The publication
of the American Water Works Association, entitled, "Water Meters -
Selection, Installation, Testing and Maintenance" and designated
AWWA No. M6, Third Edition (1986) (9), is a dependable guide. With
respect to accuracy of new and old meters, the following is adapted from
that publication copyrighted by the American Water Works Association
with their permission:
Meters have an inherent variation of 2-3 percent in registration over

the entire range of flows, except very low flows just above those that the
meter will not register. As an example, a 78in. water meter in good condi-
tion will register within the following limits: 95 percent or higher at 1/
4-gpm flow, rise to a maximum of 101.5 percent at 2 gpm (usually 10
percent of rated meter capacity), and then falling off on a flat curve to
I I I I I I
v!"""""
88g%(g%1
not less than 98.5 percent at 20 gpm, which is the rated meter capacity
for a %-in meter
It is not considered feasible to repair older meters to pass the accura-
cy requirements for new meters on the minimum rate. For this reason,
separate accuracy limits are shown in Table 19-5 for new and repaired
meters on the minimum flow test. The limits for repaired meters are con-
sidered to represent those that require good meter shop procedures to
achieve. It is not considered that acceptable meter repair work is being
accomplished if repaired meters will not register at least 90 percent on
this test. A higher percentage is recommended for desirable shop quality
standards.
SELECTION OF METERS
Selection of Type of Meter. - On the average domestic water ser-

vice requiring various rates of flow, the displacement type meter is usual-
ly used up to 2" in size. On most services larger than 2" in size, where
various rates of flow are encountered, compound meters are usually se-
lected. Occasionally, where withdrawals are limited to uniform moderate
to high rates of flow, a current meter will suffice. In most cases where
water for fire protection is required inside the property, such as fire
hydrants or sprinkling systems, a fire service meter is desirable.
Selection of Size of Meter. -Determining the proper size of meter
for a particular service can be a difficult task. In most cases, the maxi-
mum amount of water provided by the various sizes of services and met-
ers can be used by the experienced operator to determine a proper size.
It is not uncommon for services to be over-metered where preliminary
service studies have not been made. Frequently an architect will suggest
a meter and service size inconsistent with the actual water requirements.
Rather than take a chance on the service being too small, he will usually
recommend an over-size meter. Lower pressure conditions at various
places in the distribution system might necessitate a larger service and
meter than would be required in other parts of the system having higher
pressure. These factors, along with knowing some peak demands of a
particular consumer, will be most helpful in selecting the proper size.
The number and type of water outlets is also an important factor in deter-
mining the proper size along with the length of services from the main
to the customer. The "Meter Manual," (9) AWWA No. M6, Third Edi-
tion, (1986) and "Sizing Water Service Lines and Meters," AWWA No.
M22 (1975), provide tabular data on the various factors involved and
sample calculations.
REPAIRS
The repair shop, whether servicing a large utility with assembly line
procedures or a one man shop, does essentially the same job. A water
meter should be in-tested in some cases; dismantled, cleaned, reassem-
bled with proper repair, and tested. These functions should be performed
regardless of the size of the shop. The following procedures should be
followed in the repair of displacement type meters.
Dismantling. - A meter removed from service should first be
"hosed down" to dislodge the easily removed dirt that might be attached
to the outer case. It should then be dismantled. This function does not
require a lot of experience with meters, but should be done with the ut-
most care. Steel hammers should never be used in separating the meter
cases or various meter components. Instead, rawhide mallets or plastic
hammers should be used which will not distort the component parts. It
is generally agreed that it is advisable to keep the various meter parts
together as a unit so that they might be reassembled as the same unit.
This is not necessarily true of the meter register and intermediate gear
train, which is a self-contained unit.
Cleaning. -There are various types and methods of cleaning water
meters and their component parts. Perhaps the most common procedure
is the use of commercial cleaners. Most of these commercial cleaners
contain muriatic acid with an inhibitor. These inhibited acids are much
safer to use and do not damage the meter parts. Some of the electronic
companies have developed ultrasonic cleaners which are used successful-
ly by some meter repair shops. This is accomplished by the use of diluted
inhibited acids, along with the sound waves from the ultrasonic machine.
There are several types of vapor blast machines on the market which
use various kinds of abrasives. Most of these abrasives are gentle enough
to clean the meter adequately without harm to the most delicate parts.
Reassembly. -The assembly of the meter is essentially the assem-
bly of its component parts. The repair of the register is primarily a thor-
ough inspection and replacement of worn gears, bushings and faded dial
plates. Many shops prefer to reset the register to a zero reading although
magnetic drive meters are not normally reset to zero. The repair of the
intermediate gear train includes an inspection of the individual gears,
pinions, bushings and shafts. Those worn beyond reuse should be re-
placed. Adequate lubrication should be provided for the gear train. The
heart of the meter is the measuring chamber. To do an adequate job of
repairing a measuring chamber requires more skill than perhaps any oth-
er part of the meter. In case of the nutating type, the chamber itself
should be cleaned thoroughly and the disc pistons should be carefully
examined. The fit of the disc in the measuring chamber is very critical.
In some cases it is necessary to use over-size balls to insure a proper fit
in case the sockets of the chamber are worn. In other types of nutating
chambers, it might be necessary to rotate the bottom plate or possibly
replace this plate in order to get the proper fit.
In case of the oscillating type measuring chamber, the repair will
consist of the careful inspection of the chamber interior and the removal
of any scratches or burrs that may interfere with the piston movement.
The piston should be examined carefully and all burrs and scratches re-
moved. The rollers should be inspected carefully for wear and replaced
if necessary. In the repair of all measuring chambers, whether nutating
or oscillating, the sense of "feel" plays an important part. Only experi-
ence can provide the repairman with this essential element.
In the reassembly of the meter, all gaskets should be replaced and
stuffing box packing renewed. The assembler should use precautions to
see that the proper alignment is made between the gear train measuring
chamber and register as they are reassembled. An experienced assembler
will blow gently through an assembled meter to detect any misalignments
which might have occurred before it is tested for final approval.
Testing. - The testing, as explained here, pertains to the displace-
ment type meter. The purpose of testing a reassembled meter is to deter-
mine whether it will perform with the degree of accuracy expected. If
there have been any mistakes in the repair and assembly, it will be disclo-
sed here and should be corrected. The testing of meters before they are
repaired is a good way to evaluate the over-all efficiency of meters in
service. Before a routine repair program is instituted, the test of meters
that have been out various lengths of time will be of invaluable help in
determining the proper time element for a meter program.
The most common type of shop testing of small meters is the use
of the volumetric tank which is used in conjunction with most test
benches. The tank is reasonably inexpensive and permits the testing of
a number of meters a t one time. The tanks are calibrated accurately and
equipped with a small diameter gauge glass with an adjustable measure-
ment scale for accurate reading. All test tanks should be checked periodi-
cally for accurate calibration. For the average shop, two tanks should
be provided. Gravimetric (weigh) tanks provide compatible or better ac-
curacy if the scales are properly maintained. The tanks should have ca-
pacities of ten and one hundred gallons, or one and ten cubic feet as the
case might require. These tanks are large enough to provide adequate
capacity for one complete revolution of the test hands on all meters up
I WORK TABLE
I
SHELVES UNDER,
I DISASSEMBLY BENCH
FIG . 19-1. - Diagrammatic Plan of a Disassembly and Cleaning Room. No Scale
to 2" in size.
Various rates of flow and various quantities of water have been es-
tablished by A.W.W.A. for various types and sizes of meters in the tes-
LWORK
TABLES
FIG. 19-2. - Diagrammatic Plan of a Well-Arranged Repair Shop. No Scale

ting of cold water meters (see Table 19-5).
Rate of Flow Control. - It is important that meters be tested at
known and controlled rates of flow, rather than by testing through an
orifice which will vary greatly under various pressures. There is a device
available for the testing of water meters that will give the rate of flow
from 1/ 4 gpm upward, This device remains reasonably accurate in deter-
mining the rate of flow, regardless of the number of meters tested, or
the variation in pressures that might occur. This device is provided on
many test benches.
Five-eights inch meters should be tested with at least three rates
of flow: a minimum rate of 114 gpm, an intermediate rate of 2 gpm and
a maximum rate of from 15 to 20 gpm. The exact rate of flow at the
maximum rate is not so important but the minimum and intermediate
rate should be adhered to closely. Rates of flow to be used in the testing
of other sizes and types of meters are shown in the figures.
Because of the variations in waters, water costs, scarcity of water
and meter repair costs, the degree of accuracy required of a repaired
meter will vary in different locations. With water becoming more scarce
in many places, and more costly in virtually all places, it may be well
to increase accuracy desired. The American Water Works Association
specifications require a new %" meter to register no less accuracy than
95 percent and no more than 101.0 percent on the minimum flow rate
of 114 gpm, and shall register with 98.5 percent to 101.5 percent on the
normal rates of flow from 1 gpm to 20 gpm. Many utilities today require
their %" repaired meters to meet these standards except the minimum
rate of flow accuracy is lowered to 90 percent.
In many cases it is desirable to test a meter for accuracy because
of a consumer's complaint of a high bill. In such cases, it is desirable
to have the consumer witness the test in person. This is not always possi-
ble, however, and in such cases some routine understandable analysis
of the test should be sent to the customer. The characteristics of the dis-
placement type meter are such that it is almost impossible for it to be
fast. The meter can be over-read or under-read, meter hands on the round
reading type can be knocked from one position to another. In such cases,
the billing will be in error. A careful examination of all register hands,
register gears and change gear combinations should be made on all con-
sumer complaint meters. Many water utilities will test a meter removed
for a consGmer complaint at four or five different rates of flow. The re-
sults of the over-all accuracy are then mailed to the consumer. It is rare
indeed that adjustments are necessary because of a fast meter, but this
service is helpful in maintaining good customer relations. Some suppliers
provide small portable testers specifically for this purpose.
Many of the larger water utilities have facilities for testing current,
compound and fire service meters in their shops. Such equipment is ex-
pensive and is not financially feasible for the smaller shops. This equip-
ment usually consists of tanks holding in excess of one thousand gallons
and rates of flow devices. These meters are tested in a similar manner
to the smaller meters; however, in the testing of compound and fire ser-
vice meters, specific rates of flow should be selected that will determine
the accuracy of all meters contained in the compound or fire line meters
being tested. In the repair of compound and fire line meters, the repair
of the automatic valves is equally as important as the repair of the meters
themselves.
FIELD INSTALLATION AND TESTING
It is desirable to test and repair 2" and larger compound fire line
meters in the field. Before this can be done, an adequate installation is
essential: ample working space, valves on both inlet and outlet side of
the meter, sufficient drainage for discharged test water. Either perma-
nent or temporary bypasses around the meters are preferable, in order
to make the test and repair without discontinuing water service to the
consumer, which otherwise would mean night or weekend work. The per-
formance of fire service meters is influenced by the piping arrangements
on the inlet side of the meter. Hence, it is better to get a test on the meter
in place, rather than in the shop. It is recommended that the meter be
set in a level position, with a minimum of eight diameters of straight
pipe the same size as the meter, installed on the inlet side of the meter.
Most larger cities have standard installation specifications for large size
meters.
Field test equipment usually includes a small displacement type me-
ter (%" to 1") to test the low flows and a 3" or larger current type meter
to make the higher test. I t is preferable to have test equipment in the
shop that can handle these test meters, in order that they will stay a t
their maximum accuracy at all times. It is desirable to have orifice plates
of various sizes, which can be installed on the outlet side of the test met-
ers, in order to have a consistent variation of flow. It is also desirable
to use a stop watch in conjunction with these orifices, in order to establish
the exact rate of flow. Of course these orifices will pass different amounts
of water in various parts of the distribution system, because of the vari-
able pressures involved. In cases where the velocity type meter is used
for test purposes on large flows, it may be advisable to have an exact
accuracy curve computed with shop testing equipment. When this meter
is used for field testing, the meter being tested can be corrected to the
curve of the test meter. Normally, the test meter can be calibrated close
enough to 100 percent accuracy and the curve is flat enough to make
this procedure unnecessary. It is desirable, when conditions permit, to
in-test all large meters for repair, as well as to test them after repair.
In this way you can properly evaluate the work being done. Again, most
suppliers are providing prepackaged large meter testers that will facili-
tate field testing of a11 large meters.
LENGTH OF SERVICE
Long before a meter will actually stop registering from wearing out
it will get slow, particularly on low flows. We are not referring to the
meter that has stopped because of sand, pipe scale, ice or hot water. These
are all natural enemies of any cold water meter and will stop a new meter.
Rather, we are referring to the meter that is allowed to stay in service
year after year, and because it has a larger reading this month than it
did last month, it is allowed to remain in service. This meter, like any
other instrument with moving parts, will wear gradually. The gradual
decrease in accuracy over a few months is so small that it will not be
noted by the meter readings. However, over a period of many years (and
some meters have been left in service for over 25 years without attention),
the degree of slowness will be substantial.
Various time and consumption factors have been proposed as crite-
ria for the removal from service and routine repair of water meters. No
definite time can be established which will pertain to all meters in all
systems. This is because of quite a variation of the different meters, soil
conditions and water quality. When a meter stays in service long enough
for decreased revenue to pay for the replacement or repair, it is common
sense to remove it. In addition, each water utility has a moral obligation
to treat all customers the same. Each operator should determine for him-
self at what years of registration the meters should be removed for rou-
tine replacement or repair. The information gathered by in-testing met-
ers that have been out for differing numbers of years, with various
amounts of registration, will be helpful in determining a repair cycle.
Table 19-6 gives suggestions on the frequency of testing. However,
many state regulatory commissions have adopted regulations on the sub-
ject, and these are listed in the AWWA Meter Manual No. M6, Third
Edition (1986) (9). In places where meter records are not available, these
will be valuable in establishing a routine repair program.
RECORDS
The keeping of adequate meter records is not a big undertaking.

In larger utilities automatic equipment keeps them. The small or average
size shop can keep adequate meter records on a card system. The infor-
mation to be compiled on this card should identify the size, make, model
and number of the meter, location of the meter setting, date of the meter
setting and identification of the individual doing the work. When this
meter is removed from its location, it should be noted on the card with
CONSUMER
METERS
TABLE19-6. - Years Between Tests
Meter Size Displacement Compound Current Fire Service

Inch Meters Meters Meters Meters
the reading and date of its removal. Parts and labor used in the repair
should be shown. This information can also be recorded on prenumbered
work sheets. These sheets should show the various parts used and labor
involved in the repair. In turn, this work sheet number could be recorded
on the card for easy referral. Various colored plastic tabs can be used
to represent a particular calendar year, and to indicate time in cycle for
repair.
Field Repair and Test Record. - Field records also are important.
All types of repairs and tests on meters in the field should be recorded
and filed for quick reference. The records should include the nature of
repair and meter data, including the change gear data if the meter is
so equipped.
CARE AND PROTECTION OF' METERS
Water meters are the cash registers for the water works. The people
handling meters in the repair shop or in the field should be trained to
handle and protect them properly. Regardless of make, size, type, new
or used, meters should be handled with proper care. Failure to care for
meters properly could result in unnecessary loss of revenue and costly
repairs. All meters should be protected from the sunlight, especially in
hot weather. The pistons, bushings, and other internal components are
made of hard rubber and synthetic polymers which will expand or de-
grade when subjected to heat or sunlight, possibly sticking the meter or
warping the internal parts causing the meter to register slow. Also, ex-
treme cold or freezing weather will damage the meter, since water is
trapped in the upper case and in the measuring units. Fire in any form
should never be applied to a frozen meter; this will cause extensive dam-
age. It is good practice when meters are not in use to cover the inlet and
outlet ports, as this prevents the entry of insects and foreign matter to
the measuring units. Solid spud cap protectors can be used on small met-
ers. These caps are usually made of rubber or plastic and are relatively
inexpensive for the protection which they afford. These caps also protect
meter spud threads. When storing water meters, the type with oiled gear
train should be in an inverted position - this eliminates the oil leaking
down to the measuring units. A little extra care and provisions for protec-
ting these "cash registers" will result in increased revenue greater than
the cost for the efforts put forth. It is almost impossible to over-empha-
size the care and protection of water meters.
SOME SUGGESTED SHOP EQUIPMENT
Besides ample storage space, common hand tools, such as electric

soldering iron, selected screw drivers, wrenches and punches, are neces-
sary for properly repairing water meters. The average meter shop will
find the following equipment useful:
1. Variable speed drill press

2. Electric grinder and buffer
3. Air compressor
4. Pneumatic or electric screw driver
5. Pneumatic or electric impact wrenches
6. Special tools, jigs, and gadgets
The larger repair shops have their own, or access to a machine shop,
and all types of welding and brazing equipment. This helps further to
reduce repair costs.
A current set of AWWA standards pertaining to the several types
of cold water meters should always be available to those responsible for
maintaining meters. Copies of individual standards, as well as one on
the relatively new development of direct-reading remote registration
systems and the Meter Manual, AWWA No. M6, may be purchased
from American Water Works Association, 6666 West Quincy Avenue,
Denver, Colorado 80235. Utility members normally receive a discount
when purchasing AWWA publications.
REFERENCES
The latest revision of each of these standards should be used.

1. AWWA C700- (Displacement Type).
2. AWWA C701- (Turbine Type for Customer Service).
3. AWWA C704- (Propeller Type for Main Line Applications).
4. AWWA C702- (Compound Type).
5. AWWA C703- (Fire Service Type).
6. AWWA C706- (Direct-Reading Remote Registration Systems).
7. AWWA C707- (Encoder-Type Rework Registration Systems).
8. AWWA C708- (Multi-Jet Type).
9. "Water Meters -Selection, Installation, Testing and Maintenance," AWWA No.
M6, Third Edition (1986).
10. AWWA M22. "Sizing Water Service Lines and Meters."
CHAPTER 21
ENERGY CONSERVATION IN PUBLIC WATER

SYSTEMS
T. ANTHONY REID, P.E.
Freese and Nichols, Inc., Consulting Engineers

Arlington, Texas
The cost for energy has assumed an increasing percentage of a pub-

lic water system’s operating expense in recent years, and it will likely
increase in the foreseeable future. Although always important, current
trends require greater consideration of energy consumption in a water
system’s operation.
Conservation studies on how energy could be saved in the operation
of a water system suggest that there are a series of logical actions that
should be followed to accomplish this objective in any water utility. These
steps are:
1. Determine the quantity of energy being consumed in the opera-
tion of the water system and at what cost.
2. Determine how or where the energy is being consumed.
3. Evaluate the physical characteristics of the water system equip-
ment that have the most significant impact on the energy requirements.
4. Evaluate the operational procedures that involve this equipment
with particular emphasis on establishing how efficiently the equipment
is being used.
5. Establish revised operational procedures that are designed to
make the most efficient use of the water system equipment.
The determination of the quantity of energy consumed in the opera-
tion of the water system and at what cost can normally be made from
a review of the previous utility bills. A typical annual distribution of the
electrical consumption and demand are illustrated in Figure 2 l- 1. Slight-
ly more than one-half of the total consumption occurs during the period,
June through October. This emphasizes the importance of efficient oper-
ation in both the high and low demand periods.
How or where the energy consumption is occurring can be answered
by a detailed energy audit of the facilities. An energy audit is simply
a tabulation of all items that use some form of energy with a listing of
their significant energy consuming characteristics. Where electrical
544
ENERGY CONSERVATION 545
CITY OF ARLINGTON
WATER TREATMENT PLANT 1977 ELECTRICAL POWER CONSUMPTION
PU 1P CONSUMP ‘ION
M A M
FIG. 21-1. - Water Treatment Plant Electric Power Consumption, 1977 Arlington, Tex-
as
power is consumed, the items should be categorized by their electric ser-

vice power meters as the energy audit is performed. This action permits
a greater refinement of where or how the energy is used. Typical results
of an energy audit indicate that, although a small amount of energy may
be used for building heating and other secondary operations in the water
system, pumping requirements are by far the largest consumer of energy.
In a typical surface water supply system, raw-water and finished-water
pumping will represent from eighty to ninety percent of the total required
energy. In ground water systems, where no treatment other than chlori-
nation (and perhaps fluoridation) is needed, pumping may account for
more than ninety five percent of the energy requirements. These percen-
tages and the amount of energy used per unit of water produced can vary
significantly from system to system depending on where the raw water
sources lie in relation to the distance and elevation from the customers.
Since such a high percentage of the energy required is consumed
by the pumping units, it is obvious that the recommended third step, to
evaluate the physical characteristics of the water system equipment that
have the most significant impact of the energy requirements, should be

primarily towards the pumps. Although pump manufacturers often pro-
vide curves that describe the head-discharge-efficiency characteristics
of a pump, the pumps characteristics normally change with wear. The
actual application operating conditions may not correspond to the as-
sumed design conditions. Pumps should be tested in the field to determine
whether the present head-discharge relationships remain in general
agreement with the original manufacturer’s curves when operating un-
der actual field conditions.
Tests performed in the field are rarely as accurate as those that can
be obtained under controlled laboratory conditions. A method of testing
has to be devised which permits the measurement of the operating head,
the rate of flow, and the amount of power consumption with a reasonable
degree of accuracy. The discharge pressure can be effectively measured
with a pressure gauge mounted on the discharge piping of each pump.
The suction elevation can be determined from measurements of the water
surface level in a clearwell or in a lake. The operating head can be varied
by manipulation of a valve downstream from the pump or by operating
other pumps which discharge into the same header. The use of valves
to adjust the head should be carefully considered. Valves, particularly
a gate valve, can be damaged if the velocity through the valve becomes
too great. It is important to vary the head over as wide a range as possible
in order to obtain a reliable comparison with the original manufacturer’s
head-discharge-efficiency curves. See Chapter 14.
The flow rate can be determined by measuring the level change in
a clearwell of known dimensions over a carefully noted time span during
which the pump is operated against a reasonably constant discharge pres-
sure. It is important to insure that no water enters the clearwell during
the test or leaves by any other means than the test pump. The elapsed
time of the test should be sufficient to minimize the effect of any error
in the determination of the change in volume. A stop watch can be used
to insure accuracy in measuring the elapsed time to within a very few
seconds. The clearwell level can be measured with a weighted steel tape
normally to a precision of one quarter of an inch. Determining the flow
rate with the change in the volume for a known period of time is recom-
mended, but flow meters can be used if that is the only method readily
available. The calibration of the meter should be carefully determined
before the test and checked after the test is completed. The results with
a flow meter will probably not be as reliable as those obtained from a
volume change test because of the accuracy of the meter and the ability
to read the indicated flow.
A vital part of any water system energy conservation study is the

determination of each pump’s unit energy consumption in kilowatt hours
per gallon. To do this, the power drawn by a pump motor must be mea-
sured or calculated accurately over the normal operating range of flows
and pressures of the pump.
The electrical power consumed during the test can be measured us-
ing the standard power meter already installed by the electric service
company. The rotating disc in the meter moves at a speed that is propor-
tional to the power demand. The time required for the disc to complete
an appropriate number of revolutions, usually five to ten, can be mea-
sured. Many power meters have a specific constant, or a multiplier (often
shown on the meter nameplate) which must be used to determine the
total power used. The specific constant is frequently expressed as one
thousand times its actual value. The local power company should be able
to confirm the proper factor. An inventory of the energy consuming
equipment whose usages are recorded by the meter should be made prior
to the test to insure that the meter readings reflect only the power de-
mand of the pump’s electrical motor.
.With the determination of the power meter’s characteristics and its
operation during the test, the actual electric power demand, expressed
as horsepower, can be determined from the following equation:
Eleatritz Demand <HP) = Sprcific Constant X No. of Rsv x 3600

1000 X Elrprrd time(reo) X 0.746 KW/HP
The overall efficiency is the ratio of the energy delivered by the

pump to the energy supplied to the input side of the driver. For example,
the overall efficiency of a motor driven pump is the ratio of the liquid
horsepower to the electric horsepower. This method of testing pumps is
fairly inexpensive and requires no special equipment, yet the results ob-
tained can give a valuable indication of each pump’s performance.
The results of field tests of the head-discharge-energy relationship
for a specific pump using this method are illustrated in Figure 21-2. This
illustrates the information that can be obtained from tests of this type.
The pump was one of the oldest and smallest in use in the water system.
The three test points which lie below and to the right of the head dis-
charge curve indicate that the modern-day system head levels are not
sufficiently high to allow the pump to operate in its design range. As
it is commonly stated, the pump is running off the end of its curve. The
548 M ANUAL OF W ATER UTILITY O PERATIONS
WHEELER ECONOMY HORIZONTAL

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
10x8 TYPE M PUMP 17SORPM
P U M P SEftlAl. NUMBER AS- 22499-2
DISCHARGC IN IO00 OILLOW PER MINUTE
FIG . 21-2. - Pump No. 1, Wheeler Economy Horizontal Centrifugal Pump 10 x 8 Type
M, 1750 RPM Ser. # AS-22498-2
fact that the data points fall below the manufacturer’s head-discharge
curve is a further indication that the pump is worn and the pump is appar-
ently no longer providing the anticipated design flows.
The heads that a pump are required to operate against are other
factors that should not be overlooked. High-service pumps are a combi-
nation of the static lift from the water surface in the clearwell to the water
surface in an elevated storage tank and the frictional head losses which
result from the flowing of the water through the water system’s pipeline
network. The loss of head that results from water flowing through a cer-
tain pipeline can be expressed as:
The C in the equation is an expression of the internal “conveyance capa-

bility” of the pipeline and is commonly referred to as the “C-Factor”.
The electrical power required to pump the water through the pipe
at a certain rate can be expressed as:
The power required to pump a certain rate is directly related to the inter-
nal condition of the pipeline.
The conveyance capability (C-Factor) of a new pipe properly in-
stalled is normally around 140. As the pipe is used through the years,
the conveyance capability decreases. The rate of decline is dependent
on many factors. Some of the more important are the pipe material, wa-
ter quality and velocity. An appropriate relationship for the rate of de-
cline of the conveyance capability with time can be determined from field
tests on selected pipelines in the water system. The conveyance capability
of installed pipelines can be determined in the field by measuring the
head loss between two selected points that are a known distance apart
and by determining the average velocity in the pipe during the test. A
typical conveyance capability-time relationship is illustrated in Figure
21-3. Starting with a C-Factor of 140, the conveyance capability declines
on the average to approximately 94 after ten years. C-Factors much be-
low this level are not desirable in the principal pipeline network.
Primary distribution pipelines are often designed to carry the design
flow at approximately two to three feet of head loss per 1,000 feet of
pipeline. Another technique that is frequently used is to design for a max-
imum velocity of five to six feet per second. The method of designing
pipelines for minimum total cost (construction and operating costs), is
a subject that has received considerable attention in the past. Regardless
of the design method selected, the pipeline’s interior condition must be
maintained near the assumed design conditions if the pipeline is to con-
tinue to perform satisfactorily throughout its life. An alternative to main-
tenance is the construction of additional pipelines to supply the lost ca-
pacity. A systematic program for cleaning major distribution mains be-
comes more favorable economically as power costs continue to increase.
A program of this type will provide a more precise basis for selection
of new pumping units and a continuing schedule for cleaning mains will
permit operation of pumping units at or near peak efficiency throughout
the life of the pumps. A program of testing the present conveyance capa-
bilities of selected pipelines should be included to permit consideration
of the effects of the condition of the water system distribution network
on the energy consumption.
Most public water supply systems have several high pressure pumps
that can be used alone or in combination to meet the range of system
demands. Many of today’s operators have worked at their water utilities
for years and know by experience which pumps will meet the demands
and provide sufficient flow and pressure to customers. Only rarely, how-
ever, does a water utility have any guidelines for the operators to follow
HAZEN - W I L L I A M S “C” F A C T O R S
ARLINGTON DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
I50
140
I30
I20
Ito
100
90
80
70
.
60
0 IO 20 30 40
AGE OF PIPE
IN YEARS
FIG 21-3. - Hazen Williams “c” Factor
for obtaining optimal performance from their pumps. Consequently,

pump selection is often inefficient in terms of energy usage, though the
operator’s selection of pumps meets the flow and pressure demands. Even
in the best-operated systems, highly experienced operators will uninten-
tionally waste pumping energy because they do not know how much wa-
ter production they can get per unit of energy for the various pumps.
The basic operational approach to the conservation of energy is
through proper use of the pumping units. Operating conditions which
differ significantly from the design criteria can cause pumping units to
operate less efficiently than intended. The fourth step in the determina-
tion of how energy can be saved is through evaluation of the current
pump operational procedures.
An evaluation of the water system’s operating procedures to deter-
mine modifications to the procedures or improvements to the physical
system that will result in energy consumption reductions requires a de-
tailed recording of the operational actions. These actions should include
all critical items such as the raw water pumps, clearwells, high service
pumps, high service discharge pressure, flow rates, elevated storage lev-
els, and booster pump operations. The operating conditions should be
recorded in every category each time a pump is started, stopped and on
each hour. Data on the operating procedures should be collected over
a range of both low and high demand conditions. Although it represents
a considerable amount of effort to complete a daily form, some managers
have found it to be so beneficial they have continued the use of the form
beyond the data collection period.
Useful discoveries can be made by reviewing water system’s records
in this manner. The most obvious discovery is that each water system
can reduce its energy consumption and costs significantly by using the
most efficient combinations of pumps every day, rather than coming
across these efficient combinations at random. It is not unusual to see
energy consumption differences of 10 to 20 percent or more from one
day to the next. These differences result entirely from pump selection
by the operators. Large pumps are often run when smaller pumps can
do the job; pumps or pump combinations are run that consume more en-
ergy per gallon than other pumps or pump combinations; and variable-
speed pumps are run at inefficient rates. Pump selection for energy effi-
ciency costs almost nothing to implement and can save thousands of dol-
lars annually in energy costs. The technique can be applied in a simple,
manual manner or it can be programmed for computer control, depen-
ding on the preference of the water system manager. It appears that wa-
ter system energy costs can be reduced by 5 to 10 percent in practically
552 MANUAL OF W ATER U TILITY O PERATIONS
80
60'
0
I2 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 1011 12 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II,
HOURS
FIG . 21-4. - Comparison of Demand and Pumping Rates
any system by improving pump use selection.

To determine the electrical energy used by each pump for each con-
dition requires a calculation involving the discharge, head, and overall
efficiency. To assist in this process, a computer program can be developed
to perform the computations if a large number of pumps is involved. An
in depth evaluation of a system’s operation using a computer program
of this type or calculations performed by hand can provide a valuable
understanding of a public water system.
Once the pump tests have been made to determine energy consump-
ENERGY CONSERVATION
AAISDN OF 0
0 PUMPING R
0*
I2 1 2 3 I I 6 7 6 9 IO II I2 I 2 3 4 ,
HOURS
FIG . 21-S. - Comparison of Demand and Pumping Rates
tion under various operating conditions, and the operating data have
been analyzed and used to develop energy-efficient operating rules, the
only thing left for the operator is to make predictions every day of what
the next day’s system demand will be and then select the pump combina-
tions that are optimum for that projected demand. Daily demand can
be projected by considering the trends of the previous days or weeks in
conjunction with weather forecasts.

Before suggesting some general guidelines for efficient pumping op-
eration which can be used to evaluate the current operating procedures
and as possible revisions for future operations, it is important to note that
the prime responsibility of any water system operator is to provide ade-
quate service to all the customers. To satisfy this responsibility often re-
quires less than the most energy efficient operating procedures. This con-
dition can result from equipment characteristics and system limitations;
however, as opportunities arise, modifications can be made that will per-
mit more energy efficient operating procedures while satisfying the
prime responsibility of adequate service.
General guidelines for the most efficient pumping operation for en-
ergy conservation which are frequently suggested are:
1. Use the pump stations that operate against the lowest total heads,
and deliver water to consumers by pumping the fewest times possible.
2. Anticipate the required daily pumpage and make efforts to meet
demands with constant-rate pumpage combined with flow to and from
elevated storage.
3. Use the most efficient combination of pumps available at a given
pump station to provide the required flow.
4. Ensure that all valves are completely open during the pumping
operations.
5. Avoid throttling or bleeding flow between pressure planes within
the system.
Directly related to pump operating procedures are the elevated stor-
age operating procedures. Many water systems control the operation of
their raw water and high service pumps according to the water levels
in their ground storage and elevated storage tanks. Some water systems
operate distribution storage facilities by rules of thumb or by maintain-
ing a nearly constant reservoir level. Although this practice may be nec-
essary in some cases to maintain a reserve of raw water or to maintain
adequate pressures in the distribution system, in many cases a full tank
is not necessary. This type of operation invariably results in wasted elec-
trical energy and money. Water retained in storage facilities must also
be kept fresh. Therefore, storage reservoirs must be depleted and refilled
periodically. Properly sized and located elevated storage facilities can
provide substantial reductions in the peak rate pumping requirements.
The application of some of these general guidelines can be illustrat-
ed with some examples. The need to anticipate the required daily pum-
page and to make an effort to meet the demands with nearly constant-
rate pumpage with flow to and from storage is illustrated in Figures 21-
4 and 21-5. These illustrations were selected to compare pumping rates

with hourly demands on both an average day and a higher demand day.
In both examples, the pumping rates actually exceeded the demand dur-
ing the higher use period. This means that the elevated storage tanks
were being filled rather than being used to level out the pumping. On
the higher demand day (Fig. 21-5), the elevated storage tanks were used
during the highest demand period, but less than one million gallons were
used from storage during the highest two hours.
A second guideline that was evaluated in the development of these
examples is the use of the efficient combination of pumps available at
a given station to provide the required flow. A review of the operational
procedures used on the average day (Fig. 21-4), indicated that the select-
ed pumps were operating in a fairly inefficient range during the early
morning hours. The efficiencies attained a more desirable level in the
evening. The inefficiencies in the early morning hours probably results
from the fact most pumps are selected to operate with the greatest effi-
ciency at the higher demand rates. For the variable equipment, the best
selection of pumps may have been made. As an indication of what might
be achieved in the area of pump selection, if all the pump efficiencies
that were less than 80%, a 3 to 4% on this average day were increased
to at least 80% a 3 to 4% savings in energy could be obtained. If this
degree of reduction were achieved throughout a year, a more efficient
pump for the lower demand rates would pay back in only a few years.
Modifications to existing equipment would pay back even sooner.
No evaluation of energy conservation in water systems would be
complete without consideration of pricing. Use of the most favorable
electric rates available will not conserve energy, but it can conserve dol-
lars. Most electricity rate structures have at least two components, a
charge for power (demand) and a charge for energy (consumption).
Electrical demand is the highest average electrical load, expressed in
kilowatts, which the metered facility uses during a specific interval of
time, usually 30 min. Electrical consumption is the total monthly amount
of electrical energy, expressed in kilowatt hours, that the facility uses.
In a water system, the billing demand for the year is normally set
during the summer months when customer demand for the water is high-
est and, consequently, the greatest amount of water production and
pumping occurs. The annual cost of electricity can be reduced signifi-
cantly if power demand in the summer months can be reduced signifi-
cantly. Many electric power companies offer an “off-peak” or “time-of-
day” rate to municipal and commercial customers. These rates allow the
customer to reduce billing by shifting some of its power demand to hours
of the day when total power demands on the electric utility’s generating
capacity are relatively low (late night and early morning).
It is difficult to take advantage of off-peak power rates unless the
water system has a substantial amount of either raw-water or finished-
water storage capacity. If sufficient storage capacity exists, the utility
can fill storage with its largest pumps during off-peak hours, then use
smaller pumps, which use less power in conjunction with a drawdown
of water in storage, to meet peak daily needs of water customers.
Some power companies also offer interruptible power service con-
tracts to customers. Water systems with ample storage and/or engine-
driven pumps, and that have the ability to sustain adequate service to
water customers during summer peak water use days while operating
under reduced electric power, are candidates for such contracts. These
contracts allow the power company to interrupt or reduce power for up
to a specified number of hours during a summer day and up to a specified
maximum number of hours per year. For the privilege of being able to
interrupt or reduce power to the water system, which helps the power
company avoid blackouts, the power company gives the water utility a
negotiated credit on its power bills. Prior to implementation of an off-
peak method of operation, a thorough evaluation of the operational and
economic ramifications should be undertaken.
In conclusion, the five general steps that a water system should con-
sider in the determination of how the energy requirements can be re-
duced are:
1. Determine how much energy is being used.
2. Determine where the energy is being used.
3. Evaluate the physical characteristics of the primary energy con-
suming equipment.
4. Evaluate the operational procedures that involve this equipment.
5. Revise the operational procedures that involve this equipment
while continuing to provide satisfactory service.

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Texas Water Utility Handbook

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CHAPTER 2

GROUND WATER SUPPLIES

ANDREW L. WILLIAMS, JR., P.E.

Ground Water is important to each person and to each living crea-

began polluting. We cannot afford water pollution - there is not enough

The adequacy of natural recharge to aquifers determines the feasi-

FIG . 2-2. - Hydrologic Cycle.

Production of Water from Wells. - Ground water can be captured

(An Age Old ProblemI)

FIG . 2-3. - Folklore Searching for Water. -

It is essential to consult with competent and locally experienced pro-

FIG . 2-4. - Sample the Formations.

FIG 2-5. - Read the Logs.

WATER QUALITY SAMPLING

Fig. 2-6 - Sample by Pumping.

Figure 7 illustrates the decision to complete the test hole as a pro-

FIG . 2-7. - Do You Complete the Test Hole as a Well?

Figure 8 depicts the first step in construction of a production water

FIG . 2-8. - Construction of a Production Well.

FIG . 2-9. - Installation of Screen.

Figure 10 illustrates a development process using a tandem swab

FIG . 2-10. - Development of Production Well, Phase 1.

Figure 11 illustrates the use of temporary pumping equipment to

FIG . 2-11. - Well Development, Phase 2.

YIELD = 500 (IPM

FIG . 2-12. - Calculate Specific Capacity.

level drawdown. Measurements of time periods after starting and stop-

FIG . 2-13. - Causes of Well Failure.

Figure 13 illustrates the changes caused by excessive sand (suspend-

ed increase in water entrance velocity in the remaining open screens ac-

corrosion of iron and steel and to mitigate scaling or precipitation. Se-

At least, annual review of test information will reveal changes in the

In less favorable aquifers, the disadvantages of ground water may

The assistance of many persons contributed significantly to the fifth

SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES

WILLIAM F. BUCHHOLZ. Jr.

Texas receives an average of about 413 million acre-feet of rain per

SURFACE WATER PATTERNS

Stream flows vary both geographically and with time. Geographi-

THE NEED FOR RESERVOIRS

Contributing Drainage Average Runoff

Canadian River Basin 9,405 34

All of these conditions have existed and there is a long history of

the money to build them.

ENGINEERING ANALYSIS OF RESERVOIR SITES

The multiple uses of reservoirs raises problems. Occasionally these

3. The expected rate at which municipal, industrial, and agricul-

Stert of Dry Period

Straight linr of best fit

3-2. - Frequency Distribution of Required Storage plotted on Arithmetic-

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF RESERVOIR SITES

Methods of Analysis. - Projects are analyzed economically for

PW = Present Value of Benefits - Cost of Construction -

If PW exceeds zero the project should be built. If multiple projects are

B/C = Present Value of Benefits

If B/C exceeds 1 .O the project should be built; if less than 1 .O it should

on the future benefits of a water supply, or the most challenging of all

Dams are designed on two levels. Preliminary design validates the

Almost all major dams in Texas have compacted earth em-

0 zoo 400 600 so0 l.OCQ

FIG . 3-4. - Typical Reservoir Area Capacity Curves.

Area-Capacity Curves. - To calculate how much water will be

operating life of the dam.