to bring a distant object into focus.
Unfortunately, the eye's
Accommodation is the process by which the
vertebrate eye changesoptical power to maintain a clear image
(focus) on an object as its distance changes.
The young human eye can change focus from distance to 7 cm from the
eye in 350 milliseconds. This dramatic change in focal power of the eye
of approximately 12 diopters (a diopter is 1 divided by the focal length in
meters) occurs as a consequence of a reduction in zonular tension
induced by ciliary muscle contraction. The amplitude of accommodation
declines with age. By the fifth decade of life the accommodative
amplitude has declined so the near point of the eye is more remote than
the reading distance. When this occurs the patient is presbyopic.
Once presbyopia occurs, those who are emmetropic (do not require
optical correction for distance vision) will need an optical aid for near
vision; those who are myopic (nearsighted and require an optical
correction for distance vision), will find that they see better at near
without their distance correction; and those who are hyperopic
(farsighted) will find that they may need a correction for both distance
and near vision. The age-related decline in accommodation occurs
almost universally, and by 60 years of age, most of the population will
have noticed a decrease in their ability to focus on close objects.
Light from a single point of a distant object and light from a single
point of a near object being brought to a focus by changing the
curvature of the lens.
Nearsightedness and its Correction
The human eye's ability to accommodate allows it to view
focused images of both nearby and distant
objects. Asmentione
d earlier in Lesson
6, the lens of the
eye assumes a
large curvature
(short focal length)
to bring nearby
objects into focus
and a flatter shape
(long focal length)
inability a wide variance in focal length leads to a variety of
vision defects. Most often, the defect occurs at one end of the
spectrum - either the inability to assume a short focal length
and focus on nearby objects or the inability to assume a long
focal length and thus focus on distant objects.
Nearsightedness or myopia is the inability of the eye to
focus on distant objects. The nearsighted eye has no difficulty
viewing nearby objects. But the ability to view distant objects
requires that the light be refracted less. Nearsightedness will
result if the light from distant objects is refracted more than is
necessary. The problem is most common as a youth, and is
usually the result of a bulging cornea or an elongated eyeball.
If the cornea bulges more than its customary curvature, then
it tends to refract light more than usual. This tends to cause
the images of distant objects to form at locations in front of
the retina. If the eyeball is elongated in the horizontal
direction, then the retina is placed at a further distance from
the cornea-lens system. Subsequently the images of distant
objects form in front of the retina. On the retinal surface,
where the light-detecting nerve cells are located, the image is
not focused. These nerve cells thus detect a blurry image of
distant objects.
The cure for the nearsighted eye is to equip it with a diverging
lens. Since the nature of the problem of nearsightedness is
that the light is focused in front of the retina, a diverging lens
will serve to diverge light before it reaches the eye. This light
will then be converged by the cornea and lens to produce an
image on the retina.
(Note: In the diagram above that the light approaching the
eye from a distant object is traveling as a bundle of rays that
are roughly parallel to each other. Suppose for a moment that
the distant object is the lettering on the chalk board in the
front of the room as you sight at it from the back of the room.
Geometrically, whatever light rays from a particular letter or
word that reach your eye will be traveling roughly parallel to
each other. This is not the case when viewing nearby objects
as demonstrated
Farsightedness and its Correction
The human eye's ability to accommodate allows it to view
focused images of both nearby and distant
objects. Asmentione
d earlier in Lesson
6, the lens of the
eye assumes a
large curvature
(short focal length)
to bring nearby
objects into focus
and a flatter shape
(long focal length)
to bring a distant object into focus. Unfortunately, the eye's
inability to a provide a wide variance in focal length leads to a
variety of vision defects. Most often, the defect occurs at one
end of the spectrum - either the inability to assume a short
focal length and focus on nearby objects or the inability to
assume a long focal length and thus focus on distant objects.
Farsightedness or hyperopia is the inability of the eye to
focus on nearby objects. The farsighted eye has no difficulty
viewing distant objects. But the ability to view nearby objects
requires a different lens shape - a shape that the farsighted
eye is unable to assume. Subsequently, the farsighted eye is
unable to focus on nearby objects. The problem most
frequently arises during latter stages in life, as a result of the
weakening of the ciliary muscles and/or the decreased
flexibility of the lens. These two potential causes leads to the
result that the lens of the eye can no longer assume the high
curvature that is required to view nearby objects. The lens'
power to refract light has diminished and the images of nearby
objects are focused at a location behind the retina. On the
retinal surface, where the light-detecting nerve cells are
located, the image is not focused. These nerve cells thus
detect a blurry image of nearby objects.
The cure for the farsighted eye centers around assisting the
lens in refracting the light. Since the lens can no longer
assume the convex and highly curved shape that is required to
view nearby objects, it needs some help. Thus, the farsighted
eye is assisted by the use of a converging lens. This
converging lens will refract light before it enters the eye and
subsequently decreases the image distance. By beginning the
refraction process prior to light reaching the eye, the image of
nearby objects is once again focused upon the retinal surface.
 
While farsightedness most often occurs among adults,
occasionally younger people will suffer from this vision defect.
When farsightedness occurs among youth, the cause is seldom
related to the inability of the lens to assume a short focal
length. In this case, the problem is more closely related to an
eyeball that is shortened. Because the eyeball is shortened,
the retina lies closer than usual to the cornea and lens. As a
result, the image of nearby objects is formed beyond the
retina. The traditional correction for such a problem is the
same as for adults - the use of a converging lens.
 
A microscope is an instrument that produces a clear magnified image of
an object viewed through it. A microscope must be able not only to
magnify objects sufficiently but also to resolve, or separate, the fine
details of the object that are of interest to the viewer. In the optical
microscope visible light rays, reflected from or transmitted by the viewed
object, pass through a series of lenses and form an enlarged image of
the object. This image is produced at the normal distance of clearest
vision, which is about 10 inches, or 25 centimetres, from the eye of the
viewer.
 Similar in function to the human eye, telescopes work by gathering
and focusing light. But, unlike the eye, which is limited by its available
space and size, telescopes can be modified to take in more and more
light, thereby increasing what they can "see."
  The telescope has a simple design. Generally it consists of an
eyepiece, a mirror or lens, and a metal or plastic tube. The tube ensures
the clearest possible image by keeping the eyepiece and the light-
gathering lens or mirror at an ideal distance apart. It also keeps dust
and moisture from accumulating on the lenses and ruining the image.
Why Can Some Telescopes "See" Farther Than Others?
  While all telescopes start with the same basic components, their
strengths are modified by the size of the objective lens (refractors) or
primary mirror (reflectors). The diameter of the objective lens
determines how much light the telescope can gather, and is known as
the aperture. The larger the aperture, the more light it can collect.
Aperture is measured in inches or millimeters.
 Another aspect of a telescope that determines its strength is the focal
length. When an image hits the objective lens, it is bent or reflected, and
re-formed a specific distance from the lens at what is called the focal
point. The length from the objective lens to the focal point is called the
focal length. Along with the focal length of the eyepiece being used, this
determines the magnifying power of the telescope.