Modeling Turb. Flow With Fluent

Fluent Software Training
TRN-99-003
Modeling Turbulent Flows
D1 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

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What is Turbulence?
u Unsteady, aperiodic motion in which all three velocity components
fluctuate Õ mixing matter, momentum, and energy.
u Decompose velocity into mean and fluctuating parts:
Ui(t) ≡ U i + ui(t)
ui(t)
U i (t)
Ui
Time
u Similar fluctuations for pressure, temperature, and species

concentration values.

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Why Model Turbulence?

u Direct numerical simulation of governing equations is only possible for
simple low-Re flows.
u Instead, we solve Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
equations:
∂U i ∂p ∂ 2U i ∂R (steady, incompressible flow
ρU k =− +µ + ij w/o body forces)
∂xk ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j
where Rij = − ρ uiu j (Reynolds stresses)
u Time-averaged statistics of turbulent velocity fluctuations are modeled

using functions containing empirical constants and information about
the mean flow.
u Large Eddy Simulation numerically resolves large eddies and models
small eddies.
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Is the Flow Turbulent?

External Flows ρUL
where Re L ≡
µ
Rex ≥ 5×10 5 along a surface
L = x, D, Dh, etc.
ReD ≥ 20,000 around an obstacle
Other factors such as free-stream
turbulence, surface conditions, and
Internal Flows disturbances may cause earlier
transition to turbulent flow.
ReDh ≥ 2,300
Natural Convection
gβ∆TL3ρ
Ra ≥ 108 −1010 where Ra ≡
µα

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How Complex is the Flow?

u Extra strain rates
l Streamline curvature
l Lateral divergence
l Acceleration or deceleration
l Swirl
l Recirculation (or separation)
l Secondary flow
u 3D perturbations
u Transpiration (blowing/suction)
u Free-stream turbulence
u Interacting shear layers

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Choices to be Made
Flow Computational
Physics Resources
Turbulence Model
& Computational
Near-Wall Treatment Grid
Turnaround
Accuracy Time
Required Constraints

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Turbulence Modeling Approaches

Zero-Equation Models RANS-based
models
One-Equation Models
Spalart-Allmaras
Include Two-Equation Models Increase
More Standard k-ε Computational
Physics RNG k-ε Cost
Realizable k-ε Per Iteration
Available
Reynolds-Stress Model in FLUENT 5
Large-Eddy Simulation
Direct Numerical Simulation

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Reynolds Stress Terms in RANS-based Models

u RANS equations require closure for Reynolds stresses.
2  ∂Ui ∂U j 
Boussinesq Hypothesis: ijR = −ρ u u = −ρ kδ + µ 
t + 

 ∂x j ∂xi 
i j ij
(isotropic viscosity) 3
u Turbulent viscosity is indirectly solved for from single transport
equation of modified viscosity for One-Equation model.
u For Two-Equation models, turbulent viscosity correlated with turbulent
kinetic energy (TKE) and the dissipation rate of TKE.
k2
Turbulent Viscosity: µt ≡ ρCµ
ε
u Transport equations for turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation rate are
solved so that turbulent viscosity can be computed for RANS equations.
Turbulent Dissipation Rate of ∂ui  ∂ui ∂u j 

Kinetic Energy: k ≡ uiui / 2
ε ≡ν +
Turbulent Kinetic Energy: ∂x j  ∂x j ∂xi 

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One Equation Model: Spalart-Allmaras
u Turbulent viscosity is determined from:


µ t = ρν~  ~ 3
(ν~ /ν )3 
3
 (ν / ν ) + cν1 
u ν~ is determined from the modified viscosity transport equation:

~
Dν 
~ ~ 1  ∂  ∂ν 
~  ∂ν  
~ 2
ν~
( µ + ρ ν )  + ρcb 2    − ρcw1 f w 2
ρ = ρcb1S ν + ~
Dt σ ν~  ∂x j  ∂x j   ∂x j   d
 
Generation Diffusion Destruction
u The additional variables are functions of the modified turbulent

viscosity and velocity gradients.

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One-Equation Model: Spalart-Allmaras
u Designed specifically for aerospace applications involving wall-

bounded flows.
l Boundary layers with adverse pressure gradients
l turbomachinery
u Can use coarse or fine mesh at wall
l Designed to be used with fine mesh as a “low-Re” model, i.e., throughout
the viscous-affected region.
l Sufficiently robust for relatively crude simulations on coarse meshes.

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Two Equation Model: Standard k-ε Model

Turbulent Kinetic Energy
∂k  ∂U j ∂U i  ∂U j ∂  ∂k 
ρ i
U = µt  +  +  µt σ k
( ) −{
ρε
∂xi  ∂x ∂  ∂x ∂ ∂
1i44 i
x x x
1
424 3 144i 424j4  43i
42444 3 Destruction
Convection Generation Diffusion
Dissipation Rate
∂ε  ε   ∂U j ∂U i  ∂U j ∂  ∂ε  ε2 
ρU i = C1ε   µt  +  + ( µt σ ε )  − C2ε ρ  
∂xi  k   ∂xi ∂x j  ∂xi ∂xi  ∂xi  4
k 
1
424 3 14 44442444 44 3 144 42444 3 142 3
Convection Generation Diffusion Destruction
σ k ,σ ε , C1ε , C2ε are empirical constants
(equations written for steady, incompressible flow w/o body forces)

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Two Equation Model: Standard k-ε Model

u “Baseline model” (Two-equation)
l Most widely used model in industry
l Strength and weaknesses well documented
u Semi-empirical
l k equation derived by subtracting the instantaneous mechanical energy
equation from its time-averaged value
l ε equation formed from physical reasoning
u Valid only for fully turbulent flows
u Reasonable accuracy for wide range of turbulent flows
l industrial flows
l heat transfer

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Two Equation Model: Realizable k-ε

u Distinctions from Standard k-ε model:
l Alternative formulation for turbulent viscosity
k2 1
µt ≡ ρC µ where Cµ = is now variable
ε U *k
Ao + A s
ε
n (A0, A s, and U* are functions of velocity gradients)
n Ensures positivity of normal stresses; u 2i ≥ 0
n Ensures Schwarz’s inequality; ( u i u j ) 2 ≤ u 2i u 2j
l New transport equation for dissipation rate, ε:
Dε ∂  µt  ∂ε  ε2 ε
ρ =  µ +   + ρ c S ε − ρc + c1ε c3ε Gb
Dt ∂x j σε ∂ k + νε
1 2
  j 
x k
Diffusion Generation Destruction Buoyancy

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Two Equation Model: Realizable k-ε

u Shares the same turbulent kinetic energy equation as Standard k-ε
u Superior performance for flows involving:
l planar and round jets
l boundary layers under strong adverse pressure gradients, separation
l rotation, recirculation
l strong streamline curvature

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Two Equation Model: RNG k-ε

Turbulent Kinetic Energy
∂k ∂  ∂k 
ρU i = µt S +
2
α k µ eff  − ρε where
∂xi { ∂xi  ∂xi  { 1  ∂Uj ∂Ui 
1
424 3 Generation 1442443 Dissipation S ≡ 2SijSij , Sij ≡ +
Convection Diffusion 2 ∂xi ∂xj 
Dissipation Rate
∂ε ε  ∂  ∂ε  ε2 
ρU i = C1ε   µ t S +
2
α ε µ eff  − C2ε ρ   − R
{
∂xi 142  k
4 43 4 1i4 ∂x  42443 ∂x i   43 Additional term
k
1424 3 142
Convection Generation Diffusion Destruction related to mean strain
& turbulence quantities
αk,αε ,C1ε ,C2ε are derived using RNG theory

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Two Equation Model: RNG k-ε

u k-ε equations are derived from the application of a rigorous statistical
technique (Renormalization Group Method) to the instantaneous Navier-
Stokes equations.
u Similar in form to the standard k-ε equations but includes:
l additional term in ε equation that improves analysis of rapidly strained flows
l the effect of swirl on turbulence
l analytical formula for turbulent Prandtl number
l differential formula for effective viscosity
u Improved predictions for:
l high streamline curvature and strain rate
l transitional flows
l wall heat and mass transfer

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Reynolds Stress Model

Reynolds Stress ∂ui u j ∂J ijk
ρU k = Pij + Φ ij − ε ij +
Transport Eqns. ∂xk ∂xk
∂U j ∂Ui
Generation Pij ≡ uiuk + u juk (computed)
∂xk ∂xk
Pressure-Strain  ∂ui ∂u j 
Φ ij ≡ − p′ + 
 ∂x  (modeled)
 j ∂xi 
Redistribution
∂ui ∂u j
Dissipation ε ij ≡ 2µ (related to ε)
∂xk ∂xk
Turbulent
J ijk = ui u j uk + p ′(δ jk ui + δ ik u j ) (modeled)
Diffusion
Turbulent Pressure/velocity
transport fluctuations
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Reynolds Stress Model

u RSM closes the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes equations by
solving additional transport equations for the Reynolds stresses.
l Transport equations derived by Reynolds averaging the product of the
momentum equations with a fluctuating property
l Closure also requires one equation for turbulent dissipation
l Isotropic eddy viscosity assumption is avoided
u Resulting equations contain terms that need to be modeled.
u RSM has high potential for accurately predicting complex flows.
l Accounts for streamline curvature, swirl, rotation and high strain rates
n Cyclone flows, swirling combustor flows
n Rotating flow passages, secondary flows

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Large Eddy Simulation

u Large eddies:
l Mainly responsible for transport of momentum, energy, and other scalars,
directly affecting the mean fields.
l Anisotropic, subjected to history effects, and flow-dependent, i.e., strongly
dependent on flow configuration, boundary conditions, and flow parameters.
u Small eddies:
l Tend to be more isotropic and less flow-dependent
l More likely to be easier to model than large eddies.
u LES directly computes (resolves) large eddies and models only small
eddies (Subgrid-Scale Modeling).
u Large computational effort
l Number of grid points, N LES ∝ Re2uτ
l Unsteady calculation

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Comparison of RANS Turbulence Models

Model Strengths Weaknesses
Not very widely tested yet; lack of
Spalart- Economical (1-eq.); good track record
submodels (e.g. combustion,
Allmaras for mildly complex B.L. type of flows
buoyancy)
Mediocre results for complex flows
Robust, economical, reasonably
involving severe pressure gradients,
STD k- ε accurate; long accumulated
strong streamline curvature, swirl
performance data
and rotation
Good for moderately complex
Subjected to limitations due to
behavior like jet impingement,
RNG k-ε separating flows, swirling flows, and
isotropic eddy viscosity
assumption
secondary flows
Realizable Subjected to limitations due to

Offers largely the same benefits as
isotropic eddy viscosity
k-ε RNG; resolves round-jet anomaly
assumption
Reynolds Physically most complete model

Requires more cpu effort (2-3x);
(history, transport, and anisotropy of
Stress turbulent stresses are all accounted
tightly coupled momentum and
Model turbulence equations
for)
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Near-Wall Treatments
u Most k-ε and RSM turbulence

models will not predict correct
near-wall behavior if integrated
down to the wall.
u Special near-wall treatment is
required.
l Standard wall functions
l Nonequilibrium wall functions
l Two-layer zonal model
Boundary layer structure

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Standard Wall Functions

Mean Velocity
UP C1µ/ 4k 1P/ 2 ρ C 1µ/ 4k 1P/ 2 yP

U ∗ = 1 ln(Ey∗ ) where U∗ ≡ y∗ ≡
κ τw / ρ µ
Temperature
 Pr y ∗ ( y * < yT* )

T∗ =   1
Pr
  κ
t ln Ey (∗
+ )
P

 ( y * > yT* ) thermal sublayer thickness

(Tw − TP ) ρ c pC 1µ/ 4k 1P/ 2

where T * ≡ and P is a function of the fluid
q&′′ and turbulent Prandtl numbers.

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Nonequilibrium Wall Functions

u Log-law is sensitized to pressure gradient for
better prediction of adverse pressure gradient
flows and separation.
u Relaxed local equilibrium assumptions for
TKE in wall-neighboring cells.
u Thermal law-of-wall unchanged
~ 1/ 4 1/ 2
U Cµ k  ρ C
1/ 4 1/ 2
µ k y
= ln  E
1 
τw / ρ κ  µ 
~ 1 dp  y  y  y − y y
2

where U = U − 
v
∗ 1/ 2
ln   + v
∗ 1/ 2
+ v
2 dx  ρκ k  yv  ρκ k µ

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Two-Layer Zonal Model

u Used for low-Re flows or
flows with complex near-wall
phenomena. Rey > 200
u Zones distinguished by a wall-
distance-based turbulent Rey < 200
Reynolds number
ρ ky
Re y ≡ µ
u High-Re k-ε models are used in the turbulent core region.

u Only k equation is solved in the viscosity-affected region.
u ε is computed from the correlation for length scale.
u Zoning is dynamic and solution adaptive.

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Comparison of Near Wall Treatments

Strengths Weaknesses
Standard wall Robust, economical, Empirically based on simple

Functions reasonably accurate high-Re flows; poor for low-Re
effects, massive transpiration,
∇p, strong body forces, highly
3D flows
Nonequilibrium Accounts for ∇p effects, Poor for low- Re effects, massive
wall functions allows nonequilibrium: transpiration, severe ∇p, strong
-separation body forces, highly 3D flows
-reattachment
-impingement
Two-layer zonal Does not rely on law-of-the- Requires finer mesh resolution
model wall, good for complex and therefore larger cpu and
flows, especially applicable memory resources
to low-Re flows

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Computational Grid Guidelines

Wall Function Two-Layer Zonal
Approach Model Approach
l First grid point in log-law region l First grid point at y+ ≈ 1.

50 ≤ y + ≤ 500 l At least ten grid points within
l At least ten points in the BL. buffer & sublayers.
l Better to use stretched quad/hex l Better to use stretched quad/hex

cells for economy. cells for economy.
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Estimating Placement of First Grid Point

u Estimate the skin friction coefficient based on correlations either
approximate or empirical:
−0.2
l Flat Plate- c f / 2 ≈ 0.0359 ReL
−0.2
l Pipe Flow- c f / 2 ≈ 0.039 Re D
u Compute the friction velocity: uτ ≡ τ w / ρ = U e c f / 2
u Back out required distance from wall:

l Wall functions • Two-layer model
y1 = 50ν/uτ y1 = ν/ uτ
u Use post-processing to confirm near-wall mesh resolution

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Setting Boundary Conditions

u Characterize turbulence at inlets & outlets (potential backflow)
l k-ε models require k and ε
l Reynolds stress model requires Rij and ε
u Several options allow input using more familiar parameters
l Turbulence intensity and length scale
n length scale is related to size of large eddies that contain most of energy.
n For boundary layer flows: l ≈ 0.4δ99
n For flows downstream of grids /perforated plates: l ≈ opening size
l Turbulence intensity and hydraulic diameter
n Ideally suited for duct and pipe flows
l Turbulence intensity and turbulent viscosity ratio
n For external flows: 1< µ /µ
t
< 10
u Input of k and ε explicitly allowed (non-uniform profiles possible).

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GUI for Turbulence Models

Define Õ Models Õ Viscous...
Inviscid, Laminar, or Turbulent
Turbulence Model options
Near Wall Treatments
Additional Turbulence options

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Example: Channel Flow with Conjugate Heat

Transfer
adiabatic wall
cold air
V = 50 fpm 1 ft
T = 0 °F
P
insulation 1 ft
constant temperature wall T = 100 °F

10 ft
Predict the temperature at point P in the solid insulation

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Turbulence Modeling Approach

u Check if turbulent Õ ReD = 5,980
h
u Developing turbulent flow at relatively low Reynolds number and
BLs on walls will give pressure gradient Õ use RNG k-ε with
nonequilibrium wall functions.
u Develop strategy for the grid
l Simple geometry Õ quadrilateral cells
l Expect large gradients in normal direction to horizontal walls Õ fine
mesh near walls with first cell in log-law region.
l Vary streamwise grid spacing so that BL growth is captured.
l Use solution-based grid adaption to further resolve temperature
gradients.

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Prediction of Momentum & Thermal

Boundary Layers
Velocity
contours
BLs on upper & lower surfaces accelerate the core flow
Temperature
P
contours
Important that thermal BL was accurately resolved as well

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Example: Flow Around a Cylinder

wall
2 ft
air 1 ft
V = 4 fps
2 ft
wall
5 ft 14.5 ft
Compute drag coefficient of the cylinder

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Turbulence Modeling Approach

u Check if turbulent Õ ReD = 24,600
u Flow over an object, unsteady vortex shedding is expected,

difficult to predict separation on downstream side, and close
proximity of side walls may influence flow around cylinder
Õ use RNG k-ε with 2-layer zonal model.
u Develop strategy for the grid

l Simple geometry & BLs Õ quadrilateral cells.
l Large gradients near surface of cylinder & 2-layer model
Õ fine mesh near surface & first cell at y+ = 1.

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Grid for Flow Over a Cylinder

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Prediction of Turbulent Vortex Shedding
Contours of effective viscosity µ eff = µ + µt
CD = 0.53 Strouhal Number = 0.297

D
where St ≡
τU

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Summary: Turbulence Modeling Guidelines

u Successful turbulence modeling requires engineering judgement of:
l Flow physics
l Computer resources available
l Project requirements
n Accuracy
n Turnaround time
l Turbulence models & near-wall treatments that are available
u Begin with standard k-ε and change to RNG or Realizable k-ε if
needed.
u Use RSM for highly swirling flows.
u Use wall functions unless low-Re flow and/or complex near-wall
physics are present.

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Solver Settings
E1 © Fluent Inc. 2/23/01

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Outline
u Using the Solver
l Setting Solver Parameters
l Convergence
n Definition
n Monitoring
n Stability
n Accelerating Convergence
l Accuracy
n Grid Independence
n Adaption
u Appendix: Background
l Finite Volume Method
l Explicit vs. Implicit
l Segregated vs. Coupled
l Transient Solutions
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Solution Procedure Overview

u Solution Parameters Set the solution parameters
l Choosing the Solver

l Discretization Schemes Initialize the solution
u Initialization
u Convergence Enable the solution monitors of interest
l Monitoring Convergence
Calculate a solution
l Stability Modify solution
parameters or grid
n Setting Under-relaxation
n Setting Courant number Check for convergence
l Accelerating Convergence Yes

No
u Accuracy Check for accuracy
l Grid Independence No
Yes
l Adaption Stop

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Choosing a Solver
u Choices are Coupled-Implicit, Coupled-Explicit, or Segregated (implicit)
u The Coupled solvers are recommended if a strong inter-dependence exists
between density, energy, momentum, and/or species.
l e.g., high speed compressible flow or finite-rate reaction modeled flows.
l In general, the Coupled-Implicit solver is recommended over the coupled-explicit
solver.
n Time required: Implicit solver runs roughly twice as fast.
n Memory required: Implicit solver requires roughly twice as much memory as coupled-
explicit or segregated-implicit solvers! (Performance varies.)
l The Coupled-Explicit solver should only be used for unsteady flows when the
characteristic time scale of problem is on same order as that of the acoustics.
n e.g., tracking transient shock wave
u The Segregated (implicit) solver is preferred in all other cases.
l Lower memory requirements than coupled-implicit solver.
l Segregated approach provides flexibility in solution procedure.

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Discretization (Interpolation Methods)

u Field variables (stored at cell centers) must be interpolated to the faces of
the control volumes in the FVM:
( ρφ )t + ∆t − ( ρφ )t
∆V + ∑ ρ f φ f V f Af = ∑ Γ (∇φ ) ⊥, f Af + Sφ ∆V
∆t
f
faces faces
u FLUENT offers a number of interpolation schemes:

l First-Order Upwind Scheme
n easiest to converge, only first order accurate.

l Power Law Scheme
n more accurate than first-order for flows when Recell< 5 (typ. low Re flows).
l Second-Order Upwind Scheme
n uses larger ‘stencil’ for 2nd order accuracy, essential with tri/tet mesh or
when flow is not aligned with grid; slower convergence
l Quadratic Upwind Interpolation (QUICK)
n applies to quad/hex mesh, useful for rotating/swirling flows, 3rd order
accurate on uniform mesh.
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Interpolation Methods for Pressure

u Additional interpolation options are available for calculating face pressure when
using the segregated solver.
u FLUENT interpolation schemes for Face Pressure:
l Standard
n default scheme; reduced accuracy for flows exhibiting large surface-normal pressure
gradients near boundaries.
l Linear
n useful only when other options result in convergence difficulties or unphysical
behavior.
l Second-Order
n use for compressible flows or when PRESTO! cannot be applied.
l Body Force Weighted

n use when body forces are large, e.g., high Ra natural convection or highly swirling
flows.
l PRESTO!
n applies to quad/hex cells; use on highly swirling flows, flows involving porous
media, or strongly curved domains.
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Pressure-Velocity Coupling
u Pressure-Velocity Coupling refers to the way mass continuity is
accounted for when using the segregated solver.
u Three methods available:
l SIMPLE
n default scheme, robust
l SIMPLEC
n Allows faster convergence for simple problems (e.g., laminar flows with
no physical models employed).
l PISO
n useful for unsteady flow problems or for meshes containing cells with
higher than average skew.

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Initialization
u Iterative procedure requires that all solution variables be initialized
before calculating a solution.
Solve Õ Initialize Õ Initialize...
l Realistic ‘guesses’ improves solution stability and accelerates convergence.
l In some cases, correct initial guess is required:
n Example: high temperature region to initiate chemical reaction.
u “Patch” values for individual
variables in certain regions.
Solve Õ Initialize Õ Patch...
l Free jet flows
(patch high velocity for jet)
l Combustion problems
(patch high temperature
for ignition)

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Convergence Preliminaries: Residuals

u Transport equation for φ can be presented in simple form: a pφ p + ∑ anbφ nb = bp
nb
l Coefficients ap, anb typically depend upon the solution.
l Coefficients updated each iteration.
u At the start of each iteration, the above equality will not hold.
l The imbalance is called the residual, Rp, where: R p = a pφ p + ∑ anbφ nb − bp
nb
l Rp should become negligible as iterations increase.

l The residuals that you monitor are summed over all cells: R = ∑ | R p |
n By default, the monitored residuals are scaled. cells
n You can also normalize the residuals.

u Residuals monitored for the coupled solver are based on the rms value of
the time rate of change of the conserved variable.
l Only for coupled equations; additional scalar equations use segregated
definition.

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Convergence
u At convergence:
l All discrete conservation equations (momentum, energy, etc.) are
obeyed in all cells to a specified tolerance.
l Solution no longer changes with more iterations.
l Overall mass, momentum, energy, and scalar balances are obtained.
u Monitoring convergence with residuals:
l Generally, a decrease in residuals by 3 orders of magnitude indicates at
least qualitative convergence.
n Major flow features established.
l Scaled energy residual must decrease to 10-6 for segregated solver.
l Scaled species residual may need to decrease to 10-5 to achieve species
balance.
u Monitoring quantitative convergence:
l Monitor other variables for changes.
l Ensure that property conservation is satisfied.

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Convergence Monitors: Residuals

u Residual plots show when the residual values have reached the
specified tolerance.
Solve Õ Monitors Õ Residual...
All equations converged.
10-3
10-6

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Convergence Monitors: Forces/Surfaces

u In addition to residuals, you can also monitor:
l Lift, drag, or moment
Solve Õ Monitors Õ Force...
l Variables or functions (e.g., surface integrals)
at a boundary or any defined surface:
Solve Õ Monitors Õ Surface...

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Checking for Property Conservation

u In addition to monitoring residual and variable histories, you should
also check for overall heat and mass balances.
l Net imbalance should be less than 0.1% of net flux through domain.
Report Õ Fluxes...

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Decreasing the Convergence Tolerance

u If your monitors indicate that the solution is converged, but the
solution is still changing or has a large mass/heat imbalance:
l Reduce Convergence Criterion

or disable Check Convergence.
l Then calculate until solution
converges to the new tolerance.

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Convergence Difficulties
u Numerical instabilities can arise with an ill-posed problem, poor
quality mesh, and/or inappropriate solver settings.
l Exhibited as increasing (diverging) or “stuck” residuals.
l Diverging residuals imply increasing imbalance in conservation equations.
l Unconverged results can be misleading!
u Troubleshooting: Continuity equation convergence
l Ensure problem is well posed. trouble affects convergence of
all equations.
l Compute an initial solution with
a first-order discretization scheme.
l Decrease under-relaxation for
equations having convergence
trouble (segregated).
l Reduce Courant number (coupled).
l Re-mesh or refine grid with high
aspect ratio or highly skewed cells.
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Modifying Under-relaxation Factors

u Under-relaxation factor, α, is φ p = φ p,old + α∆φ p
included to stabilize the iterative
process for the segregated solver.
u Use default under-relaxation factors
to start a calculation.
Solve Õ Controls Õ Solution...
u Decreasing under-relaxation for
momentum often aids convergence.
l Default settings are aggressive but
suitable for wide range of problems.
l ‘Appropriate’ settings best learned
from experience.
u For coupled solvers, under-relaxation factors for equations outside coupled
set are modified as in segregated solver.

TRN-99-003
Modifying the Courant Number

u Courant number defines a ‘time
step’ size for steady-state problems.
l A transient term is included in the
coupled solver even for steady state
problems.
u For coupled-explicit solver:
l Stability constraints impose a
maximum limit on Courant number.
n Cannot be greater than 2.
s Default value is 1.
n Reduce Courant number when

having difficulty converging.
(CFL)∆x
u For coupled-implicit solver: ∆t =
u
l Courant number is not limited by stability constraints.
n Default is set to 5.

TRN-99-003
Accelerating Convergence
u Convergence can be accelerated by:
l Supplying good initial conditions
n Starting from a previous solution.
l Increasing under-relaxation factors or Courant number
n Excessively high values can lead to instabilities.
n Recommend saving case and data files before continuing iterations.
l Controlling multigrid solver settings.
n Default settings define robust Multigrid solver and typically do not need
to be changed.

TRN-99-003
Starting from a Previous Solution

u Previous solution can be used as an initial condition when changes are
made to problem definition.
l Once initialized, additional iterations uses current data set as starting point.
Actual Problem Initial Condition
flow with heat transfer isothermal solution
natural convection lower Ra solution
combustion cold flow solution
turbulent flow Euler solution

TRN-99-003
Multigrid
u The Multigrid solver accelerates convergence by using solution on
coarse mesh as starting point for solution on finer mesh.
l Influence of boundaries and far-away points are more easily transmitted to
interior of coarse mesh than on fine mesh.
l Coarse mesh defined from original mesh. fine (original) mesh
n Multiple coarse mesh ‘levels’ can be created.
s AMG- ‘coarse mesh’ emulated algebraically.
s FAS- ‘cell coalescing’ defines new grid.
– a coupled-explicit solver option

‘solution
n Final solution is for original mesh. transfer’
l Multigrid operates automatically in the background.
u Accelerates convergence for problems with:
l Large number of cells
l Large cell aspect ratios, e.g., ∆x/∆y > 20 coarse mesh
l Large differences in thermal conductivity
TRN-99-003
Accuracy
u A converged solution is not necessarily an accurate one.
l Solve using 2nd order discretization.
l Ensure that solution is grid-independent.
n Use adaption to modify grid.
u If flow features do not seem reasonable:
l Reconsider physical models and boundary conditions.
l Examine grid and re-mesh.

TRN-99-003
Mesh Quality and Solution Accuracy

u Numerical errors are associated with calculation of cell gradients and
cell face interpolations.
u These errors can be contained:
l Use higher order discretization schemes.
l Attempt to align grid with flow.
l Refine the mesh.
n Sufficient mesh density is necessary to resolve salient features of flow.
s Interpolation errors decrease with decreasing cell size.
n Minimize variations in cell size.

s Truncation error is minimized in a uniform mesh.
s Fluent provides capability to adapt mesh based on cell size variation.
n Minimize cell skewness and aspect ratio.

s In general, avoid aspect ratios higher than 5:1.
s Optimal quad/hex cells have bounded angles of 90 degrees
s Optimal tri/tet cells are equilateral.

TRN-99-003
Determining Grid Independence

u When solution no longer changes with further grid refinement, you
have a “grid-independent” solution.
u Procedure:
l Obtain new grid:
n Adapt
s Save original mesh before adapting.
– If you know where large gradients are expected, concentrate the
original grid in that region, e.g., boundary layer.
s Adapt grid.
– Data from original grid is automatically interpolated to finer grid.
n file → reread-grid and File → Interpolate...
s Import new mesh and initialize with old solution.
l Continue calculation to convergence.
l Compare results obtained w/different grids.
l Repeat adaption/calculation procedure if necessary.

TRN-99-003
Unsteady Flow Problems

u Transient solutions are possible with both segregated and coupled solvers.
l Solver iterates to convergence at each time level, then advances automatically.
l Solution Initialization provides initial condition, must be realistic.
u For segregated solver:
l Time step size, ∆t, is input in Iterate panel.
n ∆t should be small enough to resolve
time dependent features and to ensure
convergence within 20 iterations.
n May need to start solution with small ∆t.
l Number of time steps, N, is also required.
n N*∆t = total simulated time.
l Use TUI command ‘it #’ to iterate without advancing time step.
u For Coupled Solver, Courant number defines in practice:
l global time step size for coupled explicit solver.
l pseudo-time step size for coupled implicit solver.

TRN-99-003
Summary
u Solution procedure for the segregated and coupled solvers is the same:
l Calculate until you get a converged solution.
l Obtain second-order solution (recommended).
l Refine grid and recalculate until grid-independent solution is obtained.
u All solvers provide tools for judging and improving convergence and
ensuring stability.
u All solvers provide tools for checking and improving accuracy.
u Solution accuracy will depend on the appropriateness of the physical
models that you choose and the boundary conditions that you specify.

TRN-99-003
Appendix
u Background
l Finite Volume Method
l Explicit vs. Implicit
l Segregated vs. Coupled
l Transient Solutions

TRN-99-003
Background: Finite Volume Method - 1

u FLUENT solvers are based on the finite volume method.
l Domain is discretized into a finite set of control volumes or cells.
u General transport equation for mass, momentum, energy, etc. is

applied to each cell and discretized. For cell p,
∂
∫
∂t V
ρφ dV + ∫ ρφ V ⋅ dA = ∫ Γ∇ φ ⋅ dA + ∫ Sφ dV
A A ∀
unsteady convection diffusion generation control

volume
Eqn. φ
continuity 1
x-mom. u Fluid region of pipe flow
y-mom. v discretized into finite set of
energy h control volumes (mesh).
u All equations are solved to render flow field.

TRN-99-003
Background: Finite Volume Method - 2

u Each transport equation is discretized into algebraic form. For cell p,
( ρφ p )t + ∆t − ( ρφ p )t
∑ ρ f φ f V f Af = ∑ Γf (∇φ )⊥, f Af + Sφ ∆V
face f
∆V +
∆t faces faces
cell p
adjacent cells, nb
u Discretized equations require information at cell centers and faces.

l Field data (material properties, velocities, etc.) are stored at cell centers.
l Face values can be expressed in terms of local and adjacent cell values.
l Discretization accuracy depends upon ‘stencil’ size.
u The discretized equation can be expressed simply as:
a pφ p + ∑ anbφ nb = bp
nb
l Equation is written out for every control volume in domain resulting in an

equation set.

TRN-99-003
Background: Linearization
u Equation sets are solved iteratively.
l Coefficients ap and anb are typically functions a pφ p + ∑ anbφ nb = bp
of solution variables (nonlinear and coupled). nb
l Coefficients are written to use values of solution variables from previous

iteration.
n Linearization: removing coefficients’ dependencies on φ.
n De-coupling: removing coefficients’ dependencies on other solution
variables.
l Coefficients are updated with each iteration.
n For a given iteration, coefficients are constant.
s φp can either be solved explicitly or implicitly.

TRN-99-003
Background: Explicit vs. Implicit
u Assumptions are made about the knowledge of φnb:

l Explicit linearization - unknown value in each cell computed from relations
that include only existing values (φnb assumed known from previous
iteration).
n φp solved explicitly using Runge-Kutta scheme.
l Implicit linearization - φp and φnb are assumed unknown and are solved
using linear equation techniques.
n Equations that are implicitly linearized tend to have less restrictive stability
requirements.
n The equation set is solved simultaneously using a second iterative loop (e.g.,
point Gauss-Seidel).

TRN-99-003
Background: Coupled vs. Segregated

u Segregated Solver
l If the only unknowns in a given equation are assumed to be for a single
variable, then the equation set can be solved without regard for the
solution of other variables.
a pφ p + ∑ anbφ nb = bp
n coefficients ap and anb are scalars.
u Coupled Solver nb
l If more than one variable is unknown in each equation, and each

variable is defined by its own transport equation, then the equation set is
coupled together.
n coefficients ap and anb are Neq x Neq matrices
n φ is a vector of the dependent variables, {p, u, v, w, T, Y}T

TRN-99-003
Background: Segregated Solver
u In the segregated solver, each equation is

Update properties.
solved separately.
u The continuity equation takes the form Solve momentum equations (u, v, w velocity).
of a pressure correction equation as part

Solve pressure-correction (continuity) equation.
of SIMPLE algorithm. Update pressure, face mass flow rate.
u Under-relaxation factors are included in

Solve energy, species, turbulence, and other
the discretized equations. scalar equations.
l Included to improve stability of iterative
process. Converged?
Yes
l Under-relaxation factor, α, in effect, No
Stop
limits change in variable from one
iteration to next:
φ p = φ p,old + α∆φ p

TRN-99-003
Background: Coupled Solver

u Continuity, momentum, energy, and
Update properties.
species are solved simultaneously in the
coupled solver. Solve continuity, momentum, energy,
and species equations simultaneously.
u Equations are modified to resolve
compressible and incompressible flow. Solve turbulence and other scalar equations.
u Transient term is always included.
Converged?
l Steady-state solution is formed as time
increases and transients tend to zero. No Yes
u For steady-state problem, ‘time step’ is Stop
defined by Courant number.

l Stability issues limit maximum time step
size for explicit solver but not for
implicit solver.
(CFL)∆x CFL = Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy-number
∆t = where u = appropriate velocity scale
u ∆x = grid spacing

TRN-99-003
Background: Segregated/Transient
u Transient solutions are possible with both segregated and coupled solvers.
l 1st- and 2nd-order time implicit discretizations (Euler) available for coupled
and segregated solvers.
n Procedure: Iterate to convergence at each time level, then advance in time.
l 2nd order time-explicit discretization also available for coupled-explicit solver.
u For segregated solver:
l Time step size, ∆t, is input in Iterate panel.
n ∆t should be small enough to resolve
time dependent features.
l Number of time steps, N, is also required.
n N*∆t equals total simulated time.
l Generally, use ∆t small enough to ensure
convergence within 20 iterations.
l Note: Use TUI command ‘it #’ to iterate
further without advancing time step.

TRN-99-003
Background: Coupled/Transient
l If implicit scheme is selected, two transient terms are included in discretization.
n Physical-time transient
s Physical-time derivative term is discretized implicitly (1st or 2nd order).
s Time step size, ∆t, defined as with segregated solver.
n Pseudo-time transient
s At each physical-time level, a pseudo-time transient is driven to zero through a
series of inner iterations (dual time stepping).
s Pseudo-time derivative term is discretized:
– explicitly in coupled-explicit solver.

– implicitly in coupled-implicit solver.
s Courant number defines pseudo-time step size, ∆τ.
l For explicit time stepping, physical-time derivative is

discretized explicitly.
n Option only available with coupled-explicit solver
n Physical-time step size is defined by Courant number.
s Same time step size is used throughout domain (global time stepping).

TRN-99-003
Heat Transfer and Thermal Boundary

Conditions
Headlamp modeled with

Discrete Ordinates
Radiation Model
F1 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

TRN-99-003
Outline
u Introduction
u Thermal Boundary Conditions
u Fluid Properties
u Conjugate Heat Transfer
u Natural Convection
u Radiation
u Periodic Heat Transfer

TRN-99-003
Introduction
u Energy transport equation is solved, subject to a wide range of thermal
boundary conditions.
l Energy source due to chemical reaction is included for reacting flows.
l Energy source due to species diffusion included for multiple species flows.
n Always included in coupled solver.
n Can be disabled in segregated solver.
l Energy source due to viscous heating:
n Describes thermal energy created by viscous shear in the flow.
s Important when shear stress in fluid is large (e.g., lubrication) and/or in
high-velocity, compressible flows.
n Often negligible
s not included by default for segregated solver
s always included for coupled solver.
l In solid regions, simple conduction equation solved.

n Convective term can also be included for moving solids.

TRN-99-003
User Inputs for Heat Transfer

1. Activate calculation of heat transfer.
l Select the Enable Energy option in the Energy panel.
Define Õ Models Õ Energy...
l Enabling a temperature dependent density model, reacting flow model, or a
radiation model will toggle Enable Energy on without visiting this panel.
2. Enable appropriate options:
l Viscous Heating in Viscous Model panel
l Diffusion Energy Source option in the Species Model panel
3. Define thermal boundary conditions.
Define Õ Boundary Conditions...
4. Define material properties for heat transfer.
Define Õ Materials...
l Heat capacity and thermal conductivity must be defined.

TRN-99-003
Solution Process for Heat Transfer

u Many simple heat transfer problems can be successfully solved using
default solution parameters.
u However, you may accelerate convergence and/or improve the stability
of the solution process by changing the options below:
l Under-relaxation of energy equation.
l Disabling species diffusion term.
Define Õ Models Õ Species...
l Compute isothermal flow first, then add calculation of energy equation.

TRN-99-003
Theoretical Basis of Wall Heat Transfer

u For laminar flows, fluid side heat transfer is approximated as:
∂T ∆T
q ′′ = k ≈k
∂n wall ∆n
n = local coordinate normal to wall
u For turbulent flows:
l Law of the wall is extended to treat wall heat flux.
n The wall-function approach implicitly accounts for viscous sublayer.
l The near-wall treatment is extended to account for viscous dissipation
which occurs in the boundary layer of high-speed flows.

TRN-99-003
Thermal Boundary Conditions at Flow Inlets

and Exits
u At flow inlets, must supply
fluid temperature.
u At flow exits, fluid
temperature extrapolated
from upstream value.
u At pressure outlets, where
flow reversal may occur,
“backflow” temperature is
required.

TRN-99-003
Thermal Conditions for Fluids and Solids

u Can specify an energy source
using Source Terms option.

TRN-99-003
Thermal Boundary Conditions at Walls

u Use any of following thermal
conditions at walls:
l Specified heat flux
l Specified temperature
l Convective heat transfer
l External radiation
l Combined external radiation
and external convective heat
transfer

TRN-99-003
Fluid Properties
u Fluid properties such as heat capacity, conductivity, and viscosity can
be defined as:
l Constant
l Temperature-dependent
l Composition-dependent
l Computed by kinetic theory
l Computed by user-defined functions
u Density can be computed by ideal gas law.
u Alternately, density can be treated as:
l Constant (with optional Boussinesq modeling)
l Temperature-dependent
l Composition-dependent
l User Defined Function

TRN-99-003
Conjugate Heat Transfer

u Ability to compute conduction of heat through solids, coupled with
convective heat transfer in fluid.
u Coupled Boundary Condition:
l available to wall zone that
separates two cell zones. Grid
Velocity vectors
Temperature contours
Example: Cooling flow over fuel rods

TRN-99-003
Natural Convection - Introduction

u Natural convection occurs
when heat is added to fluid
and fluid density varies
with temperature.
u Flow is induced by force of
gravity acting on density
variation.
u When gravity term is
included, pressure gradient
and body force term is written
as:
∂p ∂p '
− + ρg ⇒ − + ( ρ − ρo ) g
∂x ∂x • This format avoids potential roundoff error
where p ' = p − ρo gx when gravitational body force term is included.

TRN-99-003
Natural Convection - Boussinesq Model

u Makes simplifying assumption that density is uniform.
l Except for body force term in momentum equation, which is replaced by:
( ρ − ρ 0 ) g = − ρ 0 β ( T − T0 ) g
l Valid when density variations are small (i.e., small variations in T).
u Provides faster convergence for many natural-convection flows than
by using fluid density as function of temperature.
l Constant density assumptions reduces non-linearity.
l Use when density variations are small.
l Cannot be used with species calculations or reacting flows.
u Natural convection problems inside closed domains:
l For steady-state solver, Boussinesq model must be used.
n Constant density, ρo, allows mass in volume to be defined.
l For unsteady solver, Boussinesq model or Ideal gas law can be used.
n Initial conditions define mass in volume.

TRN-99-003
User Inputs for Natural Convection

1. Set gravitational acceleration.
Define Õ Operating Conditions...
2. Define density model.
l If using Boussinesq model:
n Select boussinesq as the Density method
and assign constant value, ρo.
Define Õ Materials...
n Set Thermal Expansion Coefficient, β.
n Set Operating Temperature, To.
l If using temperature dependent model,
(e.g., ideal gas or polynomial):
n Specify Operating Density or,
n Allow Fluent to calculate ρo from a cell
average (default, every iteration).
3. Set boundary conditions.

TRN-99-003
Radiation
u Radiation intensity transport equations (RTE) are solved.
l Local absorption by fluid and at boundaries links energy equation with RTE.
u Radiation intensity is directionally and spatially dependent.
l Intensity along any direction can be reduced by:
n Local absorption
n Out-scattering (scattering away from the direction)
l Intensity along any direction can be augmented by:
n Local emission
n In-scattering (scattering into the direction)
u Four radiation models are provided in FLUENT:
l Discrete Ordinates Model (DOM)
l Discrete Transfer Radiation Model (DTRM)
l P-1 Radiation Model
l Rosseland Model (limited applicability)

TRN-99-003
Discrete Ordinates Model

u The radiative transfer equation is solved for a discrete number of finite
solid angles:
4π
∂I s i 2 σT
4
σ
+ (a + σ s )I (r , s ) = an + s ∫ I ( r , s ' )Φ ( s ⋅ s ' )dΩ '
∂xi π 4π 0
absorption emission scattering
u Advantages:
l Conservative method leads to heat balance for coarse discretization.
l Accuracy can be increased by using a finer discretization.
l Accounts for scattering, semi-transparent media, specular surfaces.
l Banded-gray option for wavelength-dependent transmission.
u Limitations:
l Solving a problem with a large number of ordinates is CPU-intensive.

TRN-99-003
Discrete Transfer Radiation Model (DTRM)

u Main assumption: radiation leaving surface element in a specific range of
solid angles can be approximated by a single ray.
u Uses ray-tracing technique to integrate radiant intensity along each ray:
dI σT 4
= −α I + α
ds π
u Advantages:
l Relatively simple model.
l Can increase accuracy by increasing number of rays.
l Applies to wide range of optical thicknesses.
u Limitations:
l Assumes all surfaces are diffuse.
l Effect of scattering not included.
l Solving a problem with a large number of rays is CPU-intensive.

TRN-99-003
P-1 Model
u Main assumption: radiation intensity can be decomposed into series of
spherical harmonics.
l Only first term in this (rapidly converging) series used in P-1 model.
l Effects of particles, droplets, and soot can be included.
u Advantages:
l Radiative transfer equation easy to solve with little CPU demand.
l Includes effect of scattering.
l Works reasonably well for combustion applications where optical
thickness is large.
l Easily applied to complicated geometries with curvilinear coordinates.
u Limitations:
l Assumes all surfaces are diffuse.
l May result in loss of accuracy, depending on complexity of geometry, if
optical thickness is small.
l Tends to overpredict radiative fluxes from localized heat sources or sinks.
TRN-99-003
Choosing a Radiation Model

u For certain problems, one radiation model may be more
appropriate in general.
Define Õ Models Õ Radiation...
l Computational effort: P-1 gives reasonable accuracy with
less effort.
l Accuracy: DTRM and DOM more accurate.
l Optical thickness: DTRM/DOM for optically thin media
(optical thickness << 1); P-1 better for optically thick media.
l Scattering: P-1 and DOM account for scattering.
l Particulate effects: P-1 and DOM account for radiation exchange between gas
and particulates.
l Localized heat sources: DTRM/DOM with sufficiently large number of rays/
ordinates is more appropriate.

TRN-99-003
Periodic Heat Transfer (1)

u Also known as streamwise-periodic or fully-developed flow.
u Used when flow and heat transfer patterns are repeated, e.g.,
l Compact heat exchangers
l Flow across tube banks
u Geometry and boundary conditions repeat in streamwise direction.
inflow outflow
Outflow at one periodic boundary

is inflow at the other

TRN-99-003

u Temperature (and pressure) vary in streamwise direction.
u Scaled temperature (and periodic pressure) is same at periodic
boundaries.
u For fixed wall temperature problems, scaled temperature defined as:
T − Twall
θ=
Tb − Twall
Tb = suitably defined bulk temperature
u Can also model flows with specified wall heat flux.

TRN-99-003

u Periodic heat transfer is subject to the following constraints:
l Either constant temperature or fixed flux bounds.
l Conducting regions cannot straddle periodic plane.
l Properties cannot be functions of temperature.
l Radiative heat transfer cannot be modeled.
l Viscous heating only available with heat flux wall boundaries.
Contours of Scaled Temperature

TRN-99-003
Summary
u Heat transfer modeling is available in all Fluent solvers.
u After activating heat transfer, you must provide:
l Thermal conditions at walls and flow boundaries
l Fluid properties for energy equation
u Available heat transfer modeling options include:
l Species diffusion heat source
l Combustion heat source
l Conjugate heat transfer
l Natural convection
l Radiation
l Periodic heat transfer

Modeling Turb. Flow With Fluent

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Fluent Software Training

Modeling Turbulent Flows

D1 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

u Similar fluctuations for pressure, temperature, and species

D2 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Why Model Turbulence?

where Rij = − ρ uiu j (Reynolds stresses)

u Time-averaged statistics of turbulent velocity fluctuations are modeled

Is the Flow Turbulent?

D4 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

How Complex is the Flow?

D5 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

D6 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Turbulence Modeling Approaches

Direct Numerical Simulation

D7 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Reynolds Stress Terms in RANS-based Models

Turbulent Dissipation Rate of ∂ui  ∂ui ∂u j 

D8 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

One Equation Model: Spalart-Allmaras

u Turbulent viscosity is determined from:

u ν~ is determined from the modified viscosity transport equation:

Generation Diffusion Destruction

u The additional variables are functions of the modified turbulent

D9 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

One-Equation Model: Spalart-Allmaras

u Designed specifically for aerospace applications involving wall-

D10 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Two Equation Model: Standard k-ε Model

σ k ,σ ε , C1ε , C2ε are empirical constants

(equations written for steady, incompressible flow w/o body forces)

D11 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Two Equation Model: Standard k-ε Model

D12 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Two Equation Model: Realizable k-ε

l New transport equation for dissipation rate, ε:

Diffusion Generation Destruction Buoyancy

D13 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Two Equation Model: Realizable k-ε

D14 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Two Equation Model: RNG k-ε

(equations written for steady, incompressible flow w/o body forces)

D15 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Two Equation Model: RNG k-ε

D16 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Reynolds Stress Model

Reynolds Stress Model

D18 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Large Eddy Simulation

D19 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Comparison of RANS Turbulence Models

Realizable Subjected to limitations due to

Reynolds Physically most complete model

u Most k-ε and RSM turbulence

Boundary layer structure

D21 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Standard Wall Functions

UP C1µ/ 4k 1P/ 2 ρ C 1µ/ 4k 1P/ 2 yP

(Tw − TP ) ρ c pC 1µ/ 4k 1P/ 2

D22 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01

Nonequilibrium Wall Functions

D23 © Fluent Inc. 2/20/01