Mechanics of flight

AIRCRAFT STABILITY AND CONTROL

AND ROTARY WING AIRCRAFT
(ASSIGNMENT)

1/14/2011
Farnborough college of technology
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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION:.....................................................................................................3
EFFECTS FROM PILOT INPUTS TO THE ELEVATOR ,AILERON AND RUDDER
CONTROLS:............................................................................................................4
Elevator :............................................................................................................4
Aileron :..............................................................................................................5
Rudder:...............................................................................................................5
HOW LATERAL STABILITY MAY BE ENHANCED :.....................................................6
FULL,CLEAN ,POWER STALL :.................................................................................7
Stalling Characteristics:......................................................................................9
STATIC STABILITY IN PITCH:...................................................................................9
HOW AERODYNAMICS FORCES AND MOMENTS ARE PRODUCED IN PITCH AND
YAW:....................................................................................................................10
LONGITUDINAL STATIC STABILITY:.......................................................................11
Positive Stability:..............................................................................................12
Neutral Stability:...............................................................................................13
Negative stability:............................................................................................14
SINGLE ROTOR AIRCRAFT: (BELL 206 )................................................................14
Advantages:.....................................................................................................15
Disadvantages:.................................................................................................15
TANDEM ROTOR AIRCRAFT:(Boeing CH-47 )........................................................15
Benefits:........................................................................................................15
Disadvantages:..............................................................................................16
ROTOR LAYOUT:...................................................................................................16
ANTI-TORQUE SYSTEM:.....................................................................................17
CONTROL AND STABILITY:................................................................................18
BLADES SHAPE AND ITS EFFECT ON LIFT :...........................................................20
REFERENCES :......................................................................................................22
REFERENCES :

TABLE OF FIGURES:

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FIGURE 1:FORE FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
FIGURE 2: ELEVATOR.........................................................................................................4
FIGURE 3: AILERON............................................................................................................5
FIGURE 4: RUDDER............................................................................................................6
FIGURE 5: DIHEDRAL WING................................................................................................7
FIGURE 6:SWEEP-BACK WING............................................................................................7
FIGURE 7: ANGEL OF ATTACH............................................................................................9
FIGURE 8: THREE TYPES OF STATIC STABILITY.................................................................10
FIGURE 9: A NASA DIAGRAM DEPICTING THE THREE DIFFERENT FORMS OF STATIC
STABILITY AS THEY APPLY TO AIRCRAFT...................................................................12
FIGURE 10: POSITIVE LONGITUDINAL STABILITY..............................................................13
FIGURE 11: NETURALLY SABLE AIRCRAFT........................................................................13
FIGURE 12: NEGATIVE LONGITUDINAL STABILITY.............................................................14
FIGURE 13: BELL 206 HELICOPTOR..................................................................................15
FIGURE 14: FRONT ,TOPAND SIDE VIEW OF BELL 206 HELICOPTOR................................17
Figure 18: front ,topand side view of Bell 206 helicoptor

INTRODUCTION:

An aircraft is a complex man made system .It has been a very

hard work by mankind to make dream come true. Which was flew through the air
.Hard work of decade after decade, century after century which given us
modern days aircraft .Still engineers around the world everyday spending their
days and nights for the sake of development, of new ideas and inventions to
make it very efficient than ever before.

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EFFECTS FROM PILOT INPUTS TO THE ELEVATOR

,AILERON AND RUDDER CONTROLS:

Elevator :
At the rear of the fuselage of most aircraft one finds a horizontal stabilizer and
an elevator. The stabilizer is a fixed wing section whose job is to provide stability
for the aircraft, to keep it flying straight. The horizontal stabilizer prevents up-
and-down, or pitching, motion of the aircraft nose. The elevator is the small
moving section at the rear of the stabilizer that is attached to the fixed sections
by hinges. Because the elevator moves, it varies the amount of force generated
by the tail surface and is used to generate and control the pitching motion of the
aircraft. There is an elevator attached to each side of the fuselage. The elevators
work in pairs; when the right elevator goes up, the left elevator also goes up.
This figure shows what happens when the pilot deflects the elevator.
The elevator is used to control the position of the nose of the aircraft and the
angle of attack of the wing. Changing the inclination of the wing to the local
flight path changes the amount of lift which the wing generates. This, in turn,
causes the aircraft to climb or dive. During take off the elevators are used to
bring the nose of the aircraft up to begin the climb out. During a banked turn,
elevator inputs can increase the lift and cause a tighter turn. That is why
elevator performance is so important for fighter aircraft.

Figure 1: effect of elevator

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Aileron :
Ailerons can be used to generate a rolling motion for an aircraft. Ailerons are
small hinged sections on the outboard portion of a wing. Ailerons usually work in
opposition: as the right aileron is deflected upward, the left is deflected
downward, and vice versa. This slide shows what happens when the pilot
deflects the right aileron upwards and the left aileron downwards.
The ailerons are used to bank the aircraft; to cause one wing tip to move up and
the other wing tip to move down. The banking creates an unbalanced side force
component of the large wing lift force which causes the aircraft's flight path to
curve. (Airplanes turn because of banking created by the ailerons, not because of
a rudder input.

Figure 2: aileron

Rudder:

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At the rear of the fuselage of most aircraft one finds a vertical stabilizer and a rudder. The
stabilizer is a fixed wing section whose job is to provide stability for the aircraft, to keep it
flying straight. The vertical stabilizer prevents side-to-side, or yawing, motion of the aircraft
nose. The rudder is the small moving section at the rear of the stabilizer that is attached to the
fixed sections by hinges. Because the rudder moves, it varies the amount of force generated
by the tail surface and is used to generate and control the yawing motion of the aircraft. This
figure shows what happens when the pilot deflects the rudder, a hinged section at the rear of
the vertical stabilizer.

Figure 3: rudder

HOW LATERAL STABILITY MAY BE ENHANCED :

This is the stability which concerns rolling of the aircraft about the longitudinal
axis. Two ways in which lateral stability can be enhanced are as follows:

• Using of dihedral wing –this is when the wings are inclined from its
lateral axis, the angle from the horizontal when viewed from the nose or
tail of an aircraft is called dihedral angle. Hence, an aircraft with a dihedral
angle will have higher angle of attack and as such when the aircraft banks,
the tilted lift vector will initiate a side slipping action. Due to dihedral
angle, the airflow meets the lower wing at a larger angle of attack than
the higher wing, as a result the quantum of lift increases on the lower
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wing thus setting up a balancing movement to correct the bank. However,
excessive dihedral will have an adverse effect on lateral manoeuvring
qualities. The airplane may be so laterally stable that it will resist any
intentionally rolling motion. For this reason, airplanes that require fast roll
or banking characteristics usually have less dihedral than those designed
for less manoeuvrability. See figure 2 on next page.

Figure 4: dihedral wing

• Using sweepback wings- A slide slip occurs when an aircraft is banked.

In the case of an aircraft with sweptback wings, the lower wing offers a
shorter effective chord with a greater effective camber than the raised
wing thereby resulting in a greater amount of lift on the lower wing which
in turn restores lateral stability. Sweepback wings also contribute to
directional stability in that, when turbulence or rudder application causes
the airplane to yaw to one side, the right wing presents a longer leading
edge perpendicular to the relative airflow. The airspeed of the right wing
increases and it acquires more drag than the left wing. The additional drag
on the right wing pulls it back, yawing the plane back to its original path.

Figure 5:sweep-back wing

FULL,CLEAN ,POWER STALL :

A stall is a (usually undesired) condition in aerodynamics and aviation.
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Normally, increasing the angle of attack between a wing and the airflow causes the lift
produced to increase. This can continue until a point is reached where maximum lift is
generated and this is known as the stall or stall angle. Any further increase in angle does not
produce a corresponding increase in lift, and will in fact lead to a sudden reduction in lift, a
change in pitching moment or a wing drop.
This graph shows
the typical
behaviour of
most airfoils:

An aeroplane
can be made
to stall by
reducing the
speed to the
stall speed
(which
corresponds to
the stall angle
described
above) and
attempting to
prevent the
plane from
descending by

Figure 6: lift curve

applying increasing up elevator control input. When an aeroplane approaches

the stall speed it has already adopted an extremely

Nose-high attitude, and the pilot will notice the controls have become less responsive. The
pilot may also notice some buffeting, an aerodynamic vibration caused by the airflow starting
to detach from the wing surface.
In most cases, as the stall is reached the aircraft will start to descend (because the wing is no
longer producing enough lift to support the aeroplane) and the nose will pitch down.
Recovery from this stalled state usually involves the pilot lowering the nose and increasing
the speed, until normal flight can be resumed. The manoeuvre is normally quite safe and if
correctly handled leads to only a small loss of height. It is normally taught and practiced
purely in order to help pilots recognise and avoid it.
A special form of asymmetric stall in which the aircraft also rotates about its yaw axis is
called a spin.

Stalling Characteristics:
Different aircraft types have different stalling characteristics. A benign stall is one where the
nose drops gently and the wings remain level throughout. Slightly more demanding is a stall
where one wing stalls slightly before the other, causing that wing to drop sharply, with the
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possibility of entering a spin. A dangerous stall is one where the nose rises, pushing the wing
deeper into the stalled state and potentially leading to an unrecoverable deep stall.

Figure 7: angel of attach

STATIC STABILITY IN PITCH:

There are three types of static of static stability.

1. Positive static stability:

The tendency of the aircraft to return to its initial condition of stability
after a disturbance
2. Negative static stability:
The tendency of the aircraft to increase the disturbance.
3. Natural static stability:
The tendency of the aircraft to remain at its new condition.

Figure 8: three types of static stability

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HOW AERODYNAMICS FORCES AND MOMENTS ARE

PRODUCED IN PITCH AND YAW:

Aerodynamics is a branch of dynamics concerned with studying the m o t i o n

of air, particularly when it interacts with a moving object.
Aerodynamics is a subfield of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, with much
theory shared between them.

The four forces of flight are lift, weight, thrust and drag. These forces
make an object move up and down, and faster or slower. How much
of each force there is changes how the object moves through the air.

Figure 9: forces acting on a aircraft

Pitch means the movement on lateral axis.

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Figure 10: aerodynamine forces and moment produced inpitch

Yaw an aircraft means the movement on vertical axis.

Figure 11: aircraft movement on three axis

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LONGITUDINAL STATIC STABILITY:

The longitudinal stability of an aircraft refers to the aircraft's stability in the pitching plane -
the plane which describes the position of the aircraft's nose in relation to its tail and the
horizon. If an aircraft is longitudinally stable, a small increase in angle of attack will cause
the pitching moment on the aircraft to change so that the angle of attack decreases. Similarly,
a small decrease in angle of attack will cause the pitching moment to change so that the angle
of attack increases.

Figure 12: A NASA diagram depicting the three different forms of static stability as they
apply to aircraft

Positive Stability:
If an aeroplane has positive longitudinal static stability it will return to straight
and level flight after an external disturbance, e.g. due to air turbulence. To
achieve this, as the aircraft is moved away from straight and level, a reacting
force must be generated to return it to equilibrium. As an example, a glider
flying into a thermal will pitch up on meeting the rising air. The pitching up will
cause the glider to climb until its kinetic energy is dissipated, and it slows down.
As it slows down, the lift generated by the wing and the down force from the
tailplane will both diminish, whilst the effect of the aircraft’s weight in front of
the centre of gravity (previously balanced by the downforce of the tailplane) will
remain the same. As a result, the glider’s nose will now drop, causing airspeed
to increase and the downforce on the tail to increase again. Eventually the
weight moment will balance the downforce moment and equilibrium will be
restored.
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.

Figure 13: positive longitudinal stability

Neutral Stability:

If the centre of gravity acts through the centre of lift, the aircraft is considered to
be neutrally stable. In this case, if disturbed, the aircraft will continue in the
direction caused by its last disturbance. No restoring force will be applied, so the
pilot will have to make control inputs to maintain straight and level flight. On a
sailplane this has the benefit that there is minimal downforce and resultant
induced drag from the tailplane, so the overall lift/drag ratio is maximised. This
configuration results in high pilot workload, so this is only likely to be done in
competition.

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Figure 14: neturally sable aircraft

Negative stability:

Negative stability means the centre of lift is ahead of the centre of gravity, and
any disturbance will be exacerbated by the aircraft’s configuration. In straight
and level flight, an upforce is required on the tailplane to maintain an
equilibrium, so if the aircraft pitches down, it will accelerate and the tailplane
upforce will increase with increasing airspeed, pitching it down even further.
This effect makes an aeroplane almost impossible to fly by a pilot, and requires a
computer in the control loop which is fed with data such as airspeed, angle of
attack, attitude and the pilot’s demanded input. The computer will then apply
control inputs and power demands to meet the pilot’s control ‘request’. This
system is used on modern fighter aircraft to achieve extreme levels of
responsiveness and manoeuvrability.

Figure 15: negative longitudinal stability

The Su-47 Berkut technology demonstrator from the Sukhoi design bureau is a
negatively stable design, totally reliant on its computer interface between the pilot and
its three sets of control surfaces to achieve apparent positive stability. 2-D thrust
vectoring make it even more agile.

SINGLE ROTOR AIRCRAFT: (BELL 206 )

The Bell 206 is a family of two-bladed, single main rotor helicopters,

manufactured by Bell Helicopter at its Mirabel, Quebc plant. Originally developed
as the Bell YOH-4 for the United States Army's Light Observation Helicopter
program, the 206 failed to be selected. Bell redesigned the airframe and

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successfully marketed the aircraft commercially as the five-place Bell 206A
JetRanger.

Figure 16: Bell 206 helicoptor

Advantages:
• The main advantages of bell206 is that it is light weight helicopter .For
small distance flight it is very handy .
• As its comparatively lighter so fuel consumption is very economical .flies
quicker than other heavy helicopter .
• Widely used in military and civil aviation .
• Bell 206 has got good control and stability .Because it uses trail rotor for
engines counter torque .

Disadvantages:
• Very light weight so cannot carry heavy load .
• Not very efficient for long distance flight .
• For trail rotor configuration it makes more noise .
• Because of open trail rotor it could hit flying things ,which could be very
dangerous for a helicopter .

TANDEM ROTOR AIRCRAFT:(Boeing CH-47 )

Chinook helicopters were introduced in 1962 as the CH-47 Chinook, and models
A, B and C were deployed in Vietnam. As the product of a modernization
program, which included refurbishing existing CH-47s, the first CH-47Ds were
delivered in 1982 and were produced until 1994. A central element in the Gulf
War, they continue to be the standard for the U.S. Army in the global campaign
against terrorism. Since its introduction 1,179 Chinooks have been built.

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Benefits:
• Ability to lift heavy loads whose position relative to the helicopters centre
of gravity is less critical.

• The torque of each single rotor is neutralized because of the opposite

rotation of the rotors.

• The blades are generally smaller in diameter and can therefore turn much
faster, with lower torque and thus lower weight of the transmission.

• Because there is no anti-torque rotor, full engine power can be applied in

lifting a load.

Disadvantages:
• The two rotors are directly behind each other and will therefore work with
as substantially smaller air mass than two laterally arranged

• Complex transmission and more drag due to its shape and excessive
weight

Figure 17:chinook CH-47 helicoptor

ROTOR LAYOUT:
Bell 206 has got single main rotor and a tail rotor . main rotor blades works a
long rotary wings to small chord to produce lift . it has also two blades trail rotor
which works as a

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Figure 18: front ,topand side view of Bell 206

helicoptor

counter torque to keep fuselage straight during the flight .the blades mounted on
engine driven shaft .as they move through the air ,they generates lift same way
as affixed wing .the advantages of rotary wings over a fixed wing aircraft is that
the rest of the aircraft does not need to move relative to the air ,and it can
therefore hover.

Lift in a Chinook ch-47 helicopter is produced by a rotor system consisting of

two fully articulated counter-rotating rotors. Each rotor has three fibre glass
blades. The forward rotor is driven by the forward transmission through the rotor
drive train. The aft rotor is driven by the aft transmission through a vertical drive
shaft. The rotor head consist of s of a hub connected to three pitch varying
shafts by three horizontal hinge pins. These pins permit blade flapping (the up
and down movement of the rotor blade. Stops on the top and bottom of the hub
limit the blade flapping motion. The aft rotor head is equipped with centrifugal
droop stops which provide increased blade flapping angle for ground and flight
operation.

ANTI-TORQUE SYSTEM:

On Bell 206 a tail rotor been placed to overcome the torque . A tail rotor is
situated on the tail of a Bell 206 helicopter. The purpose of the tail rotor is to
reduce the effect of torque and the yaw motions inherit in helicopter flight. The
tail rotor is comprised of mainly two or four small airfoils that the pilot is able to

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control in the cockpit by manipulating the rudder (anti torque) pedals. It also
used as a rudder in this helicopter .

Helicopters that use dual-rotor( Chinook CH-47) systems do not require the use
of a tail rotor as the two rotors are designed to spin in different directions
canceling out the yaw created by one another without the need for a tail rotor.

The second way to counteract torque is with a NOTAR (No Tail Rotor) system.
NOTAR is a fairly new form of anti-torque system developed by McDonnell
Douglas. This system removes the tail rotor, which makes it much safer and also
means less noise is generated.

As with any system, NOTAR has advantages and disadvantages. Its advantages
include: Reduced noise levels - around 60% of the noise from conventional
helicopters normally comes from the tail rotor. Safety - the tail rotor striking
something causes many accidents. By removing the tail rotor you remove this
possibility and there is a significant reduction in the helicopter's vibration.
NOTAR's disadvantages are it isn't as efficient as a tail rotor and helicopters that
use a NOTAR system will have a loss of manoeuvrability.
The last way to counteract torque is known as a fenestron. This is actually a form
of tail rotor commonly known as a Fantail. A fenestron is a tail rotor which is
fitted within a housing. In application, a fenestron performs the same as a
conventional tail rotor but there are design differences.
A Fenestron has between 8 and 18 blades, compared to a standard tail rotor
having merely 2-4 blades and offers many advantages and a few disadvantages
over a normal tail rotor. The advantages include: Safety - these are much safer
for ground operations because the tail rotor is enclosed in a housing. More
protected - less likely for foreign objects to get into the tail rotor and cause
damage and reduced noise.
The disadvantages include: Higher weight and higher air resistance which leads
to increased fuel consumption. Fenestrons are also more expensive to produce
and less efficient
Anti torque systems are vital to the safe operation of a helicopter, regardless of
the type of system used.

CONTROL AND STABILITY:

On simple single rotor helicopter ,direct control of the amount of lift generated
by the main rotor blades is provided by the collective pitch mechanism which
changes the incidence or pitch angle of all of the blades by the same amount
simultaneously .in addition a cyclic pitch mechanism is provided ,this causes the
incidence of the blades to increase and decrease once per cycle .the cyclic pitch
is used to control both the nose up or down attitude of the helicopter ,and the
roll motion about the longitudinal axis .the small trail rotor is also provided with a
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mechanism which can be used to vary the incidence of its blades ,thus altering
the amount of thrust produced .this allows it to be used to yaw the aircraft .

Now the tail rotor. Simply just to counter act the torque generated by the main
rotor, shaft and engine. Without it the whole fuselage will spin opposite the
direction of the main rotor blades' rotation. So in Newton's Third Law States that
" For every action, there is an equal an opposite reaction". It will not be possible
to control the helicopter for sure. The pitch of the tail rotor blade is variable in
order to control the degree of pitch. Aside for counteracting the main rotor
torque, it is also used as directional control of the helicopter in the Y-axis
(vertical axis). And for stability, controlling it alone manually to stabilize the
fuselage is almost impossible because the variable conditions that contributes.
To mention a few, the throttle, specially during hovering pilot will tend to adjust
the throtle to compensate for the wind conditions. Tilting the main rotors to
balance the heli will affect the required power, hence constant adjustment to the
throttle is necessary.

So the appearance of gyros ( not gyroscopic effect ), a small rotating disk housed
in a casing becames necessary to effectively control the tail rotor. This gizmo is
connected to the tail rotor servo to creates a dampening effect and stabilized the
fuselages rotation. When an external force is applied to the fuselage, either a
gust of wind, main rotor downwash, the tail rotors' will counteract by applying an
opposite force. Its like an autopilot. To illustrate further using an example of
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driving a car. The steering wheel is our means of control to steer tha car left or
right. We balance the cars' direction by constantly steering the wheel. If the car
is moving to the right for example, maybe a strong wind is causing it to go to the
right, we will counteract by applying an opposite force. So this is how a gyro
works.

There are some more to consider in the tail rotor's stabilizing effect. We call it
translating tendency. It is the natural reaction of the helicopter to drift either left
or right depending on the main rotors' rotation and tail rotors' thrust. When the
helicopter is in a hovering mode, the tail rotor counteracts the main rotors'
torque to keep the fuselage steady. But the tail rotor is a creating a wind on the
perpendicular side of the fuselage so its' trying to drift the whole aircraft away.

When the helicopter is very close to the ground, the controls are very sensitive
due to the phenomenon called "ground effect" . The rotor down wash hits the
ground which creates a dampening effect.

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BLADES SHAPE AND ITS EFFECT ON LIFT :

A helicopter flies for the same basic reason that any conventional aircraft flies, because
aerodynamic forces necessary to keep it aloft are produced when air passes about the rotor
blades. The rotor blade, or airfoil, is the structure that makes flight possible. Its shape
produces lift when it passes through the air. Helicopter blades have airfoil sections designed
for a specific set of flight characteristics. Usually the designer must compromise to obtain an
airfoil section that has the best flight characteristics for the mission the aircraft will perform.
Airfoil sections are of two basic types, symmetrical and nonsymmetrical. Symmetrical
( Bell 206)airfoils have identical upper and lower surfaces. They are suited to rotary-wing
applications because they have almost no center of pressure travel. Travel remains relatively
constant under varying angles of attack, affording the best lift-drag ratios for the full range of
velocities from rotor blade root to tip. However, the symmetrical airfoil produces less lift than
a nonsymmetrical airfoil and also has relatively undesirable stall characteristics. The
helicopter blade must adapt to a wide range of airspeeds and angles of attack during each
revolution of the rotor. The symmetrical airfoil delivers acceptable performance under those
alternating conditions. Other benefits are lower cost and ease of construction as compared to
the nonsymmetrical airfoil.
Nonsymmetrical (cambered) airfoils may have a wide variety of upper and lower surface
designs. They are currently used on some CH-47 and all OH-58 Army helicopters, and are
increasingly being used on newly designed aircraft. Advantages of the nonsymmetrical airfoil
are increased lift-drag ratios and more desirable stall characteristics. Nonsymmetrical airfoils
were not used in earlier helicopters because the center of pressure location moved too much
when angle of attack was changed. When center of pressure moves, a twisting force is
exerted on the rotor blades. Rotor system components had to be designed that would
withstand the twisting force. Recent design processes and new materials used to manufacture
rotor systems have partially overcome the problems associated with use of nonsymmetrical
airfoils.

Rotary-wing airfoils operate under diverse conditions, because their speeds are a combination
of blade rotation and forward movement of the helicopter. An intelligent discussion of the
factors affecting the magnitude of rotor blade lift and drag requires a knowledge of blade
section geometry. Blades are designed with specific geometry that adapts them to the varying
conditions of flight. Cross-section shapes of most rotor blades are not the same throughout
the span. Shapes are varied along the blade radius to take advantage of the particular airspeed
range experienced at each point on the blade, and to help balance the load between the root
and tip. The blade may be built with a twist, so an airfoil section near the root has a larger
pitch angle than a section near the tip.

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Figure 19: cross section of a helicopter blade

REFERENCES :

http://www.google.co.uk/imgres?
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BOOKS:

1.Aircraft flight (RH barnard and DR philpott)

Fourth edition

2.Aircraft Flight: A Description of the Physical Principles of Aircraft

Flight [Paperback]

Dr D.R. Philpott (Author), Dr R.H. Barnard (Author)

3.Understanding Flight, Second Edition

B002O3VJGU

David Anderson (Author), Scott Eberhardt

Scott Eberhardt (Author)

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Meshkath ibne sayed
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 Mechanics of flight 201
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4.Flightwise: Aircraft Stability and Control v. 2 [Hardcover]

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Flightwise: Aircraft Stability and Control v. 2 [Hardcover]

Chris Carpenter (Author)

Meshkath ibne sayed

ID:20068604