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HYDRO TURBINES

TYPES OF HYDRO-TURBINES :
A) Reaction Turbines
1.Francis
2. Kaplan
3. Propeller
4. Bulb
B) Impulse Turbines1. Pelton

Head Range
2m
to
70 m Kaplan
30m to
450 m Francis
300m to
1700 m Pelton

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF TURBINE:


1.Draft Tube/Draft Tube Cone

POWER HOUSE BUILDING CONSISTS OF THREE MAIN AREAS NAMELY


1. Machine Hall/Unit Bay
2. Erection/Service Bay
3. ControlRoom/Auxiliary Bay
2. Spiral Case
3. Stay Ring/Vanes
4. Distributor
• Guide Vanes/Nozzles(Deflectors)
• Top Cover/Head Cover
• Lower Ring/Pivot/Bottom Ring
5.Runner and Labyrinths
6. Turbine shaft
7.Turbine pit liner (Upper & Lower)
8.Turbine guide bearing
• Housing
• TGB Pads
9. Servomotors
10. Regulating ring/Regulating Mechanism
11. Shaft seal
12. Governor & OPU system
Specific speed of a turbine: The specific speed (m-KW system)of a turbine is the
speed of a geometrically similar turbine that would develop one kW power under a
head of one meter.
Specific Speed in M-KW System
Francis
60to 400
Kaplan
300
to 1100
Pelton
4
to 60

VALVES:
There are two types of valves:
1.Spherical valve: It is used where the head is high, i.e. to sustain high pressure.
(For Heads above 200m)
1.
2.Butterfly valve: It is used where the inlet pressure of water is comparatively
lower.
(For Heads above 200m)

PROCEDURE FOR DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE


• Head Calculation.
• Selection of specific speed and synchronous speed of turbine.
• Fixing the turbine setting
• Calculation of discharge diameter.
• Calculation of spiral case dimensions
• Calculation of draft tube dimensions
• Calculation of Generator dimensions.
• Finalization of overalldimensions of the power house.

HEAD CALCULATION
• Avg. Gross Head = MDDL + 2/3(FRL - MDDL) -TWL(4 UnitsRunning)
= 203 + 2/3(208 - 203) -184.24
= 22.09 m.
• Rated/Net Head = Avg. Gross Head - Head Loss
= 22.09 - 0.75
= 21.34 m.
• Max. Gross Head = FRL - min TWL= 208.00 - 181.78= 26.22 m
• Max. Net Head
= Max. Gross Head-Head Loss
= 26.22-0.75
= 25.47 m
• Min. Gross Head = MDDL - TWL(4 Units Running)
= 203.00 - 184.24
= 18.76m
• Min. Net Head
= Min. Gross Head - Head Loss
=18.76 - 0.75
=18.01 m.
SELECTION OF MACHINE SPEED
• Fromeconomical point of view, the turbine and generator should have the highest
practicable speed to develop given hydropower for given design head.However,
final speed may be selected considering the following parameters:
• Variation of head,
• Silt content,
• Cavitation,
• Vibrations,
• Drop in peak efficiency etc.
• From the available formulae, the specific speed for a specific head is calculated.
Then for even number of poles of generator, rated speed is obtained. On the basis
of this rated speed, corrected specific speed is calculated.
CALCULATION OF SPEED:
• Specific speed w.r.t. Head
– Kaplan Turbine, Ns = 2570 * H-0.5
….HARZA
= 2334 * H-0.5
….USBR
– Francis Turbine, Ns = 3470 * H-0.625
….HARZA
• Rated Speed
–N = Ns * H5/4 * P-1/2
• Synchronous speed (N=120f/p) nearest to Rated speed obtained from above
formulae is selected.
•Corrected Specific speed, Ns = N * P1/2/H5/4
HYDRO GENERATORS
Hydro Generators are low speed salient pole type machines.
Rotor is characterized by large diameter and short axial length.
Capacity of such generator varies from 500 KW to 500 MW.
Power factor are usually 0.90 to 0.95 lagging.
Available head is a limitation in the choice of speed of hydro generator.
Standard generation voltage in our country is 3.3KV, 6.6KV, 11 KV ,13.8 KV, &
16KV at 50 Hz.
Short Circuit Ratio varies from 1 to 1.4.
CLASSIFICATIONS
Classification of Hydro Generators can be done with respectto the position of rotor
( i) Horizontal
(ii) Vertical (two types)
a) Suspension Type
b) Umbrella Type
GENERATOR BARREL
Di (Air gap diameter, select from fig. 8 on page no. 25 of BHEL curve)
Da (outer core diameter)
Df (Stator frame diameter)
Db ( Inner diameter of generator barrel)
UMBRELLA TYPE GENERATOR
COMBINED LOWER THRUST & GUIDE BEARING
SELECTION OF NO. OF POLES
 Nsyn (Sync. Speed) = 120 F
P
 Synchronous Speed Of The Generator Depends Upon The Specific Speed Of The
Turbine
 Nsyn = Ns X Hn1.25 / Pt0.5
EXCITATION SYSTEM – COMPONENTS
EXCITATION SYSTEM – COMPONENTS
1.EXCITATION TRANSFORMER (DRY TYPE )
2. RECTIFIER SYSTEM
3.AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR
4.FIELD FLASHING UNITS
5.FIELD CIRCUIT BREAKER
6. DISCHARGE RESISTOR
AIR COOLING SYSTEM
 Generator is provided with a closed, recirculating air cooling system
 The cooling pressure is created by fanning action of rotor spider
 The air circulates through radial ducts provided in the rotor rim which allows a
cooling air flow to be distributed radially and uniformly all along the machine axis
 The air circulation path is
spider-> rim -> inter-pole areas-> stator winding-> stator core radial duct-> air
coolers-> lower and upper floors-> lower and upper air baffles-> spider
BRAKING AND JACKING SYSTEM
 The hydro generators are provided with mechanical friction braking system which
helps to stop the generator’s rotation after unit is stopped / tripped off-line
 The brakes are normally applied when the unit speed is slowed down to less than
25% of the rated speed to avoid wearing of thrust bearing pads
 Brake shoes situated on the lower bracket are pressed against the brake tracks on
the rotor to bring the machine to the rest
 Brake shoes are also used as jacks for lifting of the rotor for which the oil under
pressure (about 100 kg/cm2) is fed from high pressure pump unit.After jacking the
rotor can be maintained in lifted position by turning the locking nut and releasing oil
pressure.
 In modern hydro electric generators specially Pelton wheels, electrical dynamicbraking is used
in addition to mechanical braking system which will reduce wear onthe mechanical brakes
 The dynamic braking is initiated at around 50% of rated speed and maintaineduntil mechanical
friction brakes are applied which are normally applied at 10 -15% inconjunction with dynamic
braking
Fig 22. T.G. Set Section
DESIGN STUDY
OUTPUT COEFFICIENT
(derived from output equation of AC machines) (Pg-456,AK Sawhney)
Output Equation:Q = C0 * D2 * L * Ns
Where, output coefficient, C0 = 11 * Bav * ac * Kw * 10^(-3)
Q = kVA rating of machine
Bav = specific magnetic loading
ac = specific electrical loading
Kw = winding factor
From these equations we can infer that the volume of active parts is inversely
proportional to the value of output coefficient C0. Thus an increase in value of
Results in reduction in size and cost of machine and so looking from the economics
point of view the value of output coefficientshould be as high as possible.
Now we see that output coefficient is proportional to specific magnetic and
electricloading.Therefore the size and cost of the machine decreases if we use increasedvalues
of specific magnetic and electric loading. Hence economically these valuesshould be as high as
possible. their limit is decided by analyzing the effect ofincreased loadings on performance
characteristics of machine. Too high values mayhave adverse effects on temperature
rise,efficiency,power factor(in case of inductionmotors) and commutation conditions (in case of dc
machines).Therefore optimumvalues are selected.
We can calculate the output coefficient from a graph (Large AC Machines, JH Walker, Figure
1-1 page 4.) if we know the number of poles of the machine. The graph is obtained by
analyzing the published data of 40 generators in manufacture in USA, Canada, UK,
Japan a Europe
MACHINE PARAMETERS
Bore Diameter : It is the inner diameter of the stator core.
Flywheel Effect:
(or Mechanical Inertia is defined in terms of the start up time
of the unit)
(Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering
by Thomas C. Elliott, Kao Chen, Robert Swanekamp)
Tm = (WR2 * n2) / [(1.6 * 10^6)P]
Where n = rotational speed of unit in rounds/min
P = full gate turbine capacity in H.P.
WR2 = Product of revolving parts of unit and square of radius of gyration
(turbine runner, shaft and generator rotor), lb-ft2
For preliminary design studies in which the unit WR2 is not known, its value may
be
estimated from the following U.S. Bureau of Reclamation formulas:
Turbine WR2 = 23,800 [P / n^(3/2)]^(5/4)
Generator WR2 = 356,000 [kVA / n^(3/2)]^(5/4)
The heavy pole pieces produce a flywheel effect on a slow speed rotor. This helps to
keep the angular speed constant and reduce variations in voltage and frequency of
the generator output.
In our design we have used the formula:
Flywheel effect (GD2) is computed as follows:
Generator WR2= 15000 x (KVA/ N3/2)5/4
Where KVA = Unit rating in KVA
N= Unit speed in RPM
Page no. 1.51. Power Engineer’s Handbook by TNEB Engineer’s
Association, Chennai
GD2 = 4 x WR2
Number of poles :
Can be calculated as P=120f/N
Number of poles :
Can be calculated as P=120f/N
Where f =frequency of output
N=speed of the rotor
Air gap Diameter calculation (same as bore diameter)
a.Di Obtained from BHEL graph (Air Gap diameter)
b.Di= (60 * Vr) / (pi * N)
pi=22/7
Where Vr = Max. Peripheral velocity.
It can be obtained from Fig. 1-2 Page 5, Large AC Machines by J.H.
Walker
The bigger of the above two diameters is selected.
Stator Core and frame length calculation:
Stator core length is the gross length of the stator. It can be calculated using
the formula for output coefficient.The output coefficient can be obtained from
graph and air gap diameter calculated above. Once these two are known
stator length can be calculated using the formula:
Stator core length,Lt = W/ (Ko* Di2 * N)
Where W = Rated KVA of machine
Ko = Output coefficient obtained from curve
(Fig 1-1, Page 4, LargeAC Machines by J.H. Walker.)
N= Rated RPM of the machine

Where f =frequency of output


N=speed of the rotor
Air gap Diameter calculation (same as bore diameter)
a.Di Obtained from BHEL graph (Air Gap diameter)
b.Di= (60 * Vr) / (pi * N)
pi=22/7
Where Vr = Max. Peripheral velocity.
It can be obtained from Fig. 1-2 Page 5, Large AC Machines by J.H.
Walker
The bigger of the above two diameters is selected.
Stator Core and frame length calculation:
Stator core length is the gross length of the stator. It can be calculated using
the formula for output coefficient.The output coefficient can be obtained from
graph and air gap diameter calculated above. Once these two are known
stator length can be calculated using the formula:
Stator core length,Lt = W/ (Ko* Di2 * N)
Where W = Rated KVA of machine
Ko = Output coefficient obtained from curve
(Fig 1-1, Page 4, LargeAC Machines by J.H. Walker.)
N= Rated RPM of the machine
Radial and Axial Ventilation
The ventilating systems can be classified into three types depending upon how the
air passes over the heated machine parts ,as :-
(a)Radial,
(b)Axial.
Radial Ventilating System :This system is most commonly employed because the
movement of rotor induces a natural centrifugal movement of air, which may be
augmented by provisions of fans if required .
The advantages of radial system are :
(1)minimum energy losses for ventilation
(2)sufficiently uniform temperature rise of machine in the axial direction
The disadvantages are :
(1) It makes the machine lengths larger as space for ducts has to be provided
along the core length .
(2) The ventilating system sometimes becomes unstable in respect to quantity of
cooling air flowing.
STATOR DESIGNING
Pole pitch is defined as the peripheral distance between two consecutive poles. It
may be expressed as number of slots, degrees .(electrical or mechanical)
Calculated as :
ψ= pi x Di/P
Where Pi (constant) =22/7
Di =Air gap diameter in meters
P=No. of poles
Pole Arc= Pole pitch * 0.7
Gross area of air gap/pole = Stator core length x pole pitch
n a typical hydro generator wound for 11-16kV experience shows that to
obtain flux densities in the stator and rotor which are satisfactory both as to
magnetizing ampere-turns and core loss and to obtain acceptable values of the
transient reactances , a mean flux density (Bm) of 0.6-0.7 Wb/m^2 should be
assumed.
Flux per pole (φ) =Mean flux density * Pole pitch (ψ)* Length of core * 0.01
Assuming a suitable value of Bm, the flux per pole can be calculated.
In the preliminary stage, tentative value of number of turns per phase can be
calculated as
Tph
= (k1k2 Vph)/4.44fφ
We can assume the value ofk1k2 as 1.1
Calculation of number of parallel paths .
Total current in a slot should not exceed 5000 A. (Current in Slot should lie between
3000 to 5000A as per CEA)
If I be the rated current per phase and there be p parallel paths then current per
conductor is I/p , and current per slot is 2*I/p
This should not exceed the limit of 5000 A.
5000 > 2 * I / p
this gives a minimum value of p , the value of p greater than or equal to this value
which
satisfies other designing constraints are chosen as the appropriate number of
parallel paths.
After the calculation of turns per phase we can calculate the approximate no. of
stator slots.
No. of slots is given by,
Ns = (no. of phases) *Tph * (no. of parallel paths) / (turns per
coil)
Note: Turns per coil = 1 for bar winding
Number of conductor per slots = 2 ( for bar winding)
Number of conductors in series per phase = Nc= Z x S/ (Parallel path x 3)
Where
Z = No. of conductors per slot and
S = Total no of slots
Stator slot pitch = Pi x Di/ total no of slots
Slot angle (Mechanical) = 2*Pi / S
(P = no of poles S = Total no of slots) in
radians
Slot angle (Electrical) =P * (Mechanical Slot Angle) /2
MODIFIED CALCULATION
Turns per phase as calculated from slot selection = No of slots / (3 x No of
parallel paths)
New Flux per pole=k1 x k2 x rated generator voltage/(4.44 x Turns per phase
x f)
f = 50 Hz
k1 x k2 = 1.1
Modified Flux density = Flux per pole / (Stator core length x pole pitch)
Where, Stator core length and pole pitch are expressed in meters
Maximum Flux density (Bg) = Modified flux density / Form Factor
RADIAL LENGTH OF AIR GAP
In the absence of specified values of Xd (direct axis synchronous reactance in p.u.)
and Xl( leakage reactance in p.u.) on a 0.9 pf machine a value of unity may be
assumed for the former and 0.15 p.u. for the latter.
The value of armature reaction (Ma) may be calculated as
Ma = (2.12* Iph *Tph* ka)/(Np *k1*k2)(ampere-turn /pole)
WhereI ph =current per phase
Tph = turns per phase
Ka=Amplitude factor obtained from the graph
(given on page 79 ,fig 5-1,Large AC machines by
J.H.Walker)
k1*k2=1.1
Then ,
Air gap Ampere Turn (open circuit)Mg =Ma/(Xd-Xl)
(source :Page 79 equation 5-2 ,Large AC machines J.H.Walker)
where,
Xl = leakage reactance in p.u.
Xd = direct axis synchronous reactance p.u.
The value of φ we used earlier was based on an assumed value ofBm=0.675 Wb/m^2 and this
corresponds approximately to Bg =0.85Wb/m^2.Then
Ma=0.796*ge*Bg * 10^4
gap = 1.26 x Air gap Ampere –turn / (Max flux density)
(source page 79,81 Large AC Machines by J.H.Walker
SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO
The short ratio (SCR) of a synchronous machine is defined as the ratio of field
current required to produce rated voltage under open circuit conditions to the field
current required to circulate rated current at short circuit.
Short circuit ratio is the reciprocal of synchronous reactance Xd ,if Xd is
defined in per unit value for rated voltage and rated current. The value of Xd for a
given load is affected by saturation conditions then exist, while SCR is specific and
univalued for a given machine as it is defined at the rated voltage.
For salient pole hydro electric generators SCR varies from 1.0 to 1.1.
EFFECT OF SCR ON MACHINE PERFORMANCE
(a) Voltage Regulation
A low value of SCR means large synchronous reactance .Thus the machine has
greater changes in fluctuations of load. The inherent voltage regulation of the
machine is poor.
(b) Stability.
A low value of SCR has a lower stability limit as the maximum power output of the
machine is inversely proportional to Xd.
(c) Parallel Operation
Machines with a low value of SCR are also difficult operate in parallel because a
high value of Xd gives a small value of synchronizing power. This power is
responsible for keeping the machines in synchronism. Also the transmission line
impedance adds up to the machine impedances thus it further reduces the
synchronizing power as the machines are weakly held in synchronism. They become
more sensitive to torque and voltage disturbances.
(d) Short circuit current
A small SCR indicates a small value of short circuit current as Xd is high. But this is
not a problem as short circuit currents can be limited and the machines need not be
designs with low values of SCR.
(e) Self Excitation
Machines feeding long transmission lines should not be designed with a small SCR
(high Xd) as this would lead to large voltages on open circuit produced by self
excitation owing to large capacitive currents drawn by the transmission lines.
We have seen that a machine with low value of SCR has a lower stability limit
and a low value of inherent voltage regulation. On the other hand a higher value of
SCR means a high value of short circuit current. Also the machine designed with a
higher value of SCR has a long air gap which means that the mmf required by the
field is large. Hence a machine with higher SCR is costlier to build. Present trend is
to design the machine with a low value of SCR . This is due to the recent
advancement in the fast acting control and excitation systems.
CALCULATION OF MEAN LENGTH OF A TURN.
The MLT is assumed to be made up of the following portions: The length of coil inthe slot (Lc) ,the
length of the straight portion extending from the core to the angledportion of the end winding (Ac),
the angled portion (Y) and the portion at the endconsisting either of the evolutes (multi-turn-coil)
or clips (single turn bar) . The MLTis then given by
MLT =2*Lc +4(Ac+Bd)+4Y,(Lc is in cms)
Where

Ac + Bd is obtained from fig 3-9 ,Large AC Machines J.H.Walker.

And Y =Pdsecθ3/2

Pd = [pi *(100Dg + 2ds)/Np]*[percentage coil pitch/100]


Ds=depth of slot
And sin θ3 =Xc/λs1
λs1 = pi*(Dg100 +2ds)/Ns
Xc = coil pitch at end winding
= width of insulated coil + clearance (w)
NUMBER OF RADIAL VENTILATING DUCTS.
nd = 0.26(Lc100 -12.5)
for duct width = 6.6mm
(page 68, 69 Large AC Machines J.H.Walker)
Le (effective length of core) = (Lc – nd*wr*.01)
Where
nd=number of radial ventilating ducts
wr=width of duct beam in cm
(Page 70,Large AC Machines by J.H. Walker.)
Active length of stator core = Stacking factor x Length of core duct
Where, stacking factor = 0.93(Page 89,Large AC Machines by J.H. Walker.)
ARMATURE WINDINGS, COILS AND THEIR INSULATIONS
There are two types of coils :
1.Single turn bar
2.Multi turn bar
Single turn coil :A single turn bar winding is used in machines when the
armature current per circuit exceeds 1500 A.
As the current is quite large so the cross-section of the conductors used is very
large and so bars used are subdivided into many parts to reduce the eddy
current losses in them.
Basic structure of the conductors used:
There are two conductors in a slot if the bar winding is used. EEach conductor
consists of two vertical stacks of copper laminations insulated by either asbestos

or glass rovings.

The advantage of using glassis that it gives a high space factor.

The two vertical stacks used are also insulated from each other.

The dimensions of individual strand is determined partly by electrical


considerations so as to reduce the eddy current losses to less than 1/5 the of
I^2R losses and partly by the manufacturer considerations.

Further the eddy current loss in the top coil side is more than that in the lower
one so there is a difference in the rise of temp of the two.
This temp rise difference is reduced by increasing the no of strands in the top coil
sidethere by reducing the thickness of the strands in the top coil side.
To reduce the circulating current losses it is essential to use some form of
transposition of conductor laminations in the slots.
In the transposition each conductor lamination is arranged to move continuouslythrough all
positions in depth of coil side so that the leakage reactanceof all theconductor laminations is
equalized so that no circulating current flows. Roebeltransposition is widely used for this purpose

Bitumen mica folium applied to the slot portion of the bar while mica tape onthe overhang portion
was most commonly used insulating materials earlier.The mica tape 0.13 mm thick and 20 mm
wide is wrapped by hand up to 20half layers. So this process is both time consuming and
expensive.
2.Epoxy Novalak mica paper insulation system:
The rows of conductor stacks are bound with epoxy based resins. This is
done by usingtwo highly loaded epoxy glass separators. The stack is then
pressed at 160 degree Celsius to form a rigid mass. This type of construction
does not require the filling of external voids.
The over hang insulation is in the form of a no of layers offlexible isopthalatevarnished polyester
backed mica flake tapes. The insulation of the slot portionconsists of a no of half lap layers of
epoxy novalak bonded glass backed micapaper tape.
This system permits the machine to be operated at a higher temp rise due to
its greater thermal conductivity.
Multi turn coil:In this type of coils an additional insulation between between
individual turns has to be provided. The interturn insulation mustbe designed to
withstand surges of magnitude 1.5 times of the line voltages.
The inter turn insulation used is mica tape half overlap and asbestos. The thickness
of the mica tape is 0.13 mm and that of asbestos 0.38 mm.
Multi turn coils epoxy novalak mica paper system : The epoxy novalak mica paperinsulation used
is different for the slot portion of the conductor and the over hang.Novalak mica paper tapes are
used for the slot portion while isopthalate varnishedmica flake tapes are used for the over hang.
(source: Pg-744, A.K.
Sawhney)
WINDINGS
TWO TYPES:
1.Concentrated windings:these the mainly used in design of field windings
for salient pole machine
2.Distributed windings: are used in stator and rotor of all the ac machines
ARMATURE WINDINGS:
1. Closed windings: are used for dc machines and ac commutator
machines .
2.Open windings : are used only for ac machines like synchronous
machines and induction machines.
Related Terms:
1. Pole pitch
:
peripheral distance between adjacent
poles.
2. Coil span
:
peripheral distance between two coil sides.
3.Full pitch coil
:
coil span = pole pitch
4. Chorded coil
:
coil span < pole pitch
CLOSED WINDINGS :
Two types:
1. Lap windings
: a=P
2.Wave windings:a = 2
Where,a = no of parallel paths
P = no of poles
Lap Windings :
yb= 2C / P +/-K
yw= yb– yf= 2
yc= 1
Where,C = no of coils
P=no of poles
yc= commutator pitch
yb= back pitch
yw= winding pitch
K=Fraction or integer such thatyb is an odd integer.
Wave windings :
yc=(C + 1) / (P/2)
yw= 2 yc
y w= y b + y f
Where,C = no of coils
P=no of poles
yc = commutator pitch
yb = back pitch
yw= winding pitch
Note: Above relations are given only for progressive windings
as
retrogressive windings are rarely being used.

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