NAs in USA

Native Americans in the United States 1
Native Americans in the United States

Native Americans
Native Americans of the United States (from top left):

Joseph Brant · Sequoyah · Pushmataha
Tecumseh · Touch the Clouds · Sitting Bull
Chief Joseph · Charles Eastman · Holmes Colbert
Billy Bowlegs III · Jim Thorpe · John Herrington
Total population
American Indian and Alaska Native

[1]
One race: 2.5 million are registered
[2]
In combination with one or more other races: 1.6 million are registered
1.37% of the U.S. population
Regions with significant populations
Predominantly in the Western United States
Languages
American English, Native American languages
Religion
Native American Church

Protestant
Roman Catholic
Russian Orthodox
Traditional Ceremonial Ways
(Unique to Specific Tribe or Band)
Related ethnic groups
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the
present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of
numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as intact political communities. The terms
used to refer to Native Americans are controversial; according to a 1995 US Census Bureau set of home interviews,
most of the respondents with an expressed preference refer to themselves as American Indians or Indians.
In the last 500 years, Afro-Eurasian migration to the Americas has led to centuries of conflict and adjustment
between Old and New World societies. Most of the written historical record about Native Americans was made by
Europeans after their immigration to the Americas.[3] Many Native Americans lived as hunter-gatherer societies,
although in many groups, women carried out sophisticated cultivation of a variety of staples: maize, beans and
squash. Their cultures were quite different from those of the agrarian, proto-industrial immigrants from western
Eurasia. The differences in culture between the established native Americans and immigrant Europeans, as well as
shifting alliances among different nations of each culture, caused a great deal of political tension and ethnic violence.
Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of what today constitutes the U.S. vary significantly, ranging from 1
million to 18 million.[4] [5]
After the colonies revolted against Great Britain and established the United States of America, President George
Washington and Henry Knox conceived of the idea of "civilizing" Native Americans in preparation for United States
citizenship.[6] [7] [8] [9] [10] Assimilation (whether voluntary as with the Choctaw,[11] [12] or forced) became a
consistent policy through American administrations. During the 19th century, the ideology of Manifest destiny
became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations after the
American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands, warfare between the groups, and
rising tensions. In 1830, the U.S. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, authorizing the government to relocate
most Native Americans of the Deep South east of the Mississippi River from their homelands to accommodate
European-American expansion from the United States. Government officials thought that by decreasing the conflict
between the groups, they could also help the Indians survive. Remnant groups have descendants living throughout
the South. They have organized and been recognized as tribes since the late 20th century by several states and, in
some cases, by the federal government.
The first European Americans encountered western tribes as fur traders. As United States expansion reached into the
American West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Plains tribes. These were
complex nomadic cultures based on using horses and traveling seasonally to hunt bison. They carried out strong
resistance to American incursions in the decades after the American Civil War, in a series of "Indian Wars", which
were frequent up until the 1890s. The coming of the transcontinental railroad increased pressures on the western
tribes. Over time, the U.S. forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, and established reservations for
them in many western states. U.S. agents encouraged Native Americans to adopt European-style farming and similar
pursuits, but the lands were often too poor to support such uses.
Contemporary Native Americans today have a unique relationship with the United States because they may be
members of nations, tribes, or bands of Native Americans who have sovereignty or independence from the
government of the United States. Their societies and cultures flourish within a larger population of descendants of
immigrants (both voluntary and slave): African, Asian, Middle Eastern, and European peoples. Native Americans
who were not already U.S. citizens were granted citizenship in 1924 by the Congress of the United States.
History
Pre-Columbian
According to the still-debated Settlement of
the Americas, a migration of humans from
Eurasia to the Americas took place via
Beringia, a land bridge which formerly
connected the two continents across what is
now the Bering Strait.[13] Falling sea levels
created the Bering land bridge that joined
Siberia to Alaska, which began about 60,000
– 25,000 years ago.[13] [14] The minimum
time depth by which this migration had
taken place is confirmed at 12,000 years
ago, with the upper bound (or earliest
period) remaining a matter of some
unresolved contention.[15] [16] These early
Paleoamericans soon spread throughout the
Americas, diversifying into many hundreds Map showing the approximate location of the ice-free corridor and specific
[17] Paleoindian sites (Clovis theory).
of culturally distinct nations and tribes.
The North American climate finally
stabilized by 8000 BCE; climatic conditions were very similar to today's.[18] This led to widespread migration,
cultivation of crops, and subsequently a dramatic rise in population all over the Americas.
The big-game hunting culture labeled as the Clovis culture is primarily identified with its production of fluted
projectile points. The culture received its name from artifacts found near Clovis, New Mexico; the first evidence of
this tool complex was excavated in 1932. The Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared
in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched
flute, by which it was inserted into a shaft. Dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and
by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating
methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B.P. (roughly 9100 to 8850 BC).
Numerous Paleoindian cultures occupied North America, with some restricted to the Great Plains and Great Lakes of
the modern United States of America and Canada, as well as adjacent areas to the west and southwest. According to
the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living there since their genesis,
described by a wide range of traditional creation accounts.[19] The Folsom Tradition was characterized by use of
Folsom points as projectile tips, and activities known from kill sites where slaughter and butchering of bison took
place. Folsom tools were left behind between 9000 BCE and 8000 BCE.[20]
The Na-Dené people entered North America starting around 8000 BC, reaching
the Pacific Northwest by 5000 BCE,[21] and from there migrating along the
Pacific Coast and into the interior. Linguists, anthropologists and archeologists
believe their ancestors comprised a separate migration into North America, later
than the first Paleo-Indians. They settled first around present-day Queen
Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, from where they migrated into Alaska and
northern Canada, south along the Pacific Coast, and into the interior. They were
the earliest ancestors of the Athabascan- speaking peoples, including the
present-day and historical Navajo and Apache. Their villages were constructed
with large multi-family dwellings, used seasonally. People did not live there
year round, but for the summer to hunt and fish, and to gather food supplies for
the winter.[22] The Oshara Tradition people lived from 5500 BCE to 600 CE.
The Southwestern Archaic Tradition was centered in north-central New Mexico,
the San Juan Basin, the Rio Grande Valley, southern Colorado, and southeastern
Utah.
A Folsom point for a spear. Poverty Point culture is an archaeological culture whose people inhabited the
area of the lower Mississippi Valley and surrounding Gulf Coast. The culture
thrived from 2200 BC- 700 BC, during the late Archaic period.[23] Evidence of this culture has been found at more
than 100 sites, from Poverty Point, Louisiana across a 100-mile range to the Jaketown Site near Belzoni, Mississippi.
The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures refers to the time period from roughly 1000 BC to
1000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The term "Woodland" was coined in the 1930s and refers to
prehistoric sites dated between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures. The Hopewell tradition is the term
used to describe common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the northeastern and
midwestern United States from 200 BC to 500 CE.[24]
The Hopewell tradition was not a single

culture or society, but a widely dispersed set
of related populations, who were connected
by a common network of trade routes,[25]
known as the Hopewell Exchange System.
At its greatest extent, the Hopewell
exchange system ran from the Southeastern
United States into the southeastern Canadian
shores of Lake Ontario. Within this area,
societies participated in a high degree of
exchange with the highest amount of
activity along the waterways serving as their
major transportation routes. The Hopewell
exchange system traded materials from all
over the United States.
Coles Creek culture is an archaeological

culture from the Lower Mississippi valley in
the southern present-day United States. The
period marked a significant change in the
cultural history of the area. Population
increased dramatically. There is strong
Cultural areas of pre-Columbian North America, according to Alfred Kroeber.
evidence of a growing cultural and political
complexity, especially by the end of the
Coles Creek sequence. Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies were not yet manifested, by 1000
CE the formation of simple elite polities had begun. Coles Creek sites are found in Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma,
Mississippi, and Texas. It is considered ancestral to the Plaquemine culture.
Hohokam is one of the four major prehistoric archaeological traditions of the present-day American Southwest.[26]
Living as simple farmers, they raised corn and beans. The early Hohokam founded a series of small villages along
the middle Gila River. The communities were located near good arable land, with dry farming common in the earlier
years of this period.[26] Wells, usually less than 10 feet (3 m) deep, were dug for domestic water supplies by 300 CE
to 500 CE.[26] Early Hohokam homes were constructed of branches bent in a semi-circular fashion and then covered
with twigs, reeds and heavily applied mud and other materials at hand.[26]
Although not as technologically advanced as the Mesoamerican civilizations further south, sophisticated
pre-Columbian sedentary societies evolved in North America. The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex is the name
archeologists have given to the regional stylistic similarity of artifacts, iconography, ceremonies and mythology of
the Mississippian culture, which coincided with the people's adoption of maize agriculture and chiefdom-level
complex social organization from 1200 CE to 1650 CE.[27] [28] Contrary to popular belief, this development appears
to have no direct links to Mesoamerica. It developed independently, with sophistication based on the accumulation
of maize surpluses, more dense population and specialization of skills. This Ceremonial Complex represents a major
component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples, and is one of the primary means by which their religion is
understood.[29]
The Mississippian culture created the largest earthworks in North America north of Mexico, most notably at
Cahokia, based on a tributary of the Mississippi River in present-day Illinois. Its 10-story Monks Mound has a larger
circumference than the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan or the Great Pyramid of Egypt. The six-square mile city
complex was based on the people's cosmology and had more than 100 mounds, oriented to their sophisticated
knowledge of astronomy. It included a Woodhenge, whose sacred cedar poles were placed to mark the summer and
winter solstices and fall and spring equinoxes. Its peak population in 1250 AD of 30,000–40,000 people was not
equalled by any city in the present-day United States until after 1800. In addition, Cahokia was a major regional
chiefdom, with trade and tributary chiefdoms ranging from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.
The Iroquois League of Nations or "People of the Long House" had a confederacy model that was claimed to
contributed to political thinking during the later development of the democratic United States government. Their
system of affiliation was a kind of federation, a departure from the strong monarchies from which the Europeans
came.[30] [31] Leadership was restricted to a group of 50 sachem chiefs, each representing one clan within a tribe; the
Oneidas and Mohawk people had nine seats each, the Onondagas held fourteen, the Cayugas had ten and the Senecas
had eight. Representation was not based on population numbers, as the Seneca tribe greatly outnumbered the others,
possibly even combined. When a sachem chief died, his successor was chosen by the senior woman of his tribe in
consultation with other female members of the clan, with descent occurring matrilineally. Decisions were not made
through voting but through consensus decision making, with each sachem chief holding theoretical veto power. The
Onondagas were the "firekeepers", responsible for raising topics to be discussed, and occupied one side of a
three-sided fire (the Mohawks and Senecas sat on one side of the fire, the Oneidas and Cayugas on the other).[32]
Elizabeth Tooker, anthropologist at Temple University, commented that it was unlikely the system of government
was copied by the founding fathers as it bears little resemblance to the ultimate system of governance adopted in the
United States and includes inherited rather than elected leadership selected by female members of the tribes,
unanimous decision making irrespective of population size and only a single group capable of bringing matters
before the legislative body.[32]
Long-distance trading did not prevent warfare among the indigenous peoples. For instance, archaeology and the
tribes' oral histories have contributed to an understanding that the Iroquois' conducted invasions and warfare about
1200 CE against tribes in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky. Finally they drove many to migrate west to
their historically traditional lands west of the Mississippi River. Tribes originating in the Ohio Valley who moved
west included the Osage, Kaw, Ponca and Omaha people. By the mid-17th century, they had resettled in their
historical lands in present-day Kansas, Nebraska, Arkansas and Oklahoma. The Osage warred with native
Caddo-speaking Native Americans, displacing them in turn by the mid-18th century and dominating their new
historical territories.[33]
European exploration and colonization

After 1492 European exploration of the Americas revolutionized how
the Old and New Worlds perceived themselves. One of the first major
contacts, in what would be called the American Deep South, occurred
when conquistador Juan Ponce de León landed in La Florida in April
of 1513. Ponce de León was later followed by other Spanish explorers,
such as Pánfilo de Narváez in 1528 and Hernando de Soto in 1539. The
subsequent European colonialists in North America often rationalized
the spread of empire with the presumption that they were saving a
Discovery of the Mississippi by William Henry
barbaric and pagan world by spreading Christian civilization.[34] In the
Powell (1823–1879) is a Romantic depiction of
de Soto's seeing the Mississippi River for the first Spanish colonization of the Americas the policy of Indian Reductions
time. It hangs in the United States Capitol resulted in forced conversions of the indigenous people in northern
rotunda. Nuevo España from their long practiced spiritual and religious
traditions and theological beliefs.
Impact on Native populations

From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Native Americans declined in the following ways:
epidemic diseases brought from Europe; genocide and warfare [35] at the hands of European explorers and colonists,
as well as between tribes; displacement from their lands; internal warfare,[36] enslavement; and a high rate of
intermarriage.[37] [38] Most mainstream scholars believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic
disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives because of their lack of
immunity to new diseases brought from Europe.[39] [40] [41] With the rapid declines of some populations and
continuing rivalries among their own nations, Native Americans sometimes re-organized to form new cultural
groups, such as the Seminoles of Florida and Mission Indians of Alta California.
The lack of hard evidence or written records has made estimating the number of Native Americans living in what is
today the United States of America before the arrival of the European explorers and settlers the subject of much
debate. A low estimate arriving at around 1 million was first posited by anthropologist James Mooney in the 1890s,
computing population density of each culture area based on its carrying capacity.
In 1965, American anthropologist Henry Dobyns published studies estimating the original population at 10 to 12
million. By 1983, however, he increased his estimates to 18 million.[42] He took into account the mortality rates
caused by infectious diseases of European explorers and settlers, against which Native Americans had no natural
immunity. Dobyns combined the known mortality rates of these diseases among native people with reliable
population records of the 19th century, to calculate the probable size of the original populations.[4] [5]
Chicken pox and measles, although by this time endemic and rarely fatal among Europeans (long after being
introduced from Asia), often proved deadly to Native Americans. Smallpox proved particularly fatal to Native
American populations.[43] Epidemics often immediately followed European exploration and sometimes destroyed
entire village populations. While precise figures are difficult to determine, some historians estimate that up to 80% of
some Native populations died after first contact due to Eurasian infectious diseases.[44] One theory of Columbian
exchange suggests explorers from the Christopher Columbus expedition contracted syphilis from indigenous peoples
and carried it back to Europe, where it spread widely.[45] Other researchers believe that the disease existed in Europe
and Asia before Columbus and his men returned from exposure to indigenous peoples of the Americas, but that they
brought back a more virulent form. (See Syphilis.)
In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans.[46] Historians believe many
Mohawk Native Americans in present-day New York were infected after contact with children of Dutch traders in
Albany in 1634. The disease swept through Mohawk villages, reaching Native Americans at Lake Ontario by 1636,
and the lands of the western Iroquois by 1679, as it was carried by Mohawk and other Native Americans who
traveled the trading routes.[47] The high rate of fatalities caused breakdowns in Native American societies and
disrupted generational exchanges of culture.
Between 1754 and 1763 many Native American tribes were involved
in the French and Indian War/Seven Years War with French forces
against British colonial militias. Native Americans fought on both
sides of the conflict. The greater number of tribes fought with the
French in the hopes of checking European expansion. The British had
made fewer allies, but had some tribes that wanted to prove
assimilation and loyalty in support of treaties. They were often
disappointed when these were later overturned. In addition, the tribes
had their own purposes, using their alliances with the European powers Conference between the French and Indian
to battle traditional Native enemies. leaders around a ceremonial fire.
After European explorers reached the West Coast in the

1770s, smallpox rapidly killed at least 30% of
Northwest Coast Native Americans. For the next 80 to
100 years, smallpox and other diseases devastated
native populations in the region.[48] Puget Sound area
populations, once estimated as high as 37,000 people,
were reduced to only 9,000 survivors by the time
settlers arrived en masse in the mid-19th century.[49]
Although the Spanish missions in California did not
significantly affect the Population of Native American
Californians, their number saw a rapid decrease after
California ceased to be a Spanish colony, specially
during the second half of the 19th century and the
beginning of the 20th (see chart on the right).
Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838

Native California Population, according to Cook 1978.
brought devastation and drastic depopulation among
the Plains Indians.[50] [51] By 1832, the federal
government established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832).
It was the first federal program created to address a health problem of Native Americans.[52] [53]
Animal introductions
With the meeting of two worlds, animals, insects, and plants were exchanged between the two. Sheep, pigs, and
cattle were all Old World animals that were introduced to contemporary Native Americans who never knew such
animals.
In the 16th century, Spaniards and other Europeans brought horses to the Americas. The early American horse had
been game for the earliest humans on the continent. It was hunted to extinction about 7000 BC, just after the end of
the last glacial period. Native Americans benefited by reintroduction of horses. As they adopted use of the animals,
they began to change their cultures in substantial ways, especially by extending their ranges. Some of the horses
escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild.
The reintroduction of the horse to North America had a profound impact on Native American culture of the Great
Plains. The tribes trained and used horses to ride and to carry packs or pull travois. The people fully incorporated the
use of horses into their societies and expanded their territories. They used horses to carry goods for exchange with
neighboring tribes, to hunt game, especially bison, and to conduct wars and horse raids.
Foundations for freedom

Some Europeans considered Native American societies to be

representative of a golden age known to them only in folk history.[54]
The political theorist Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote that the idea of
freedom and democratic ideals was born in the Americas because "it
was only in America" that Europeans from 1500 to 1776 knew of
societies that were "truly free."[54]
Treaty of Penn with Indians by Benjamin West

painted in 1827
“
Natural freedom is the only object of the policy of the [Native Americans]; with this freedom do nature and climate rule alone amongst them
... [Native Americans] maintain their freedom and find abundant nourishment... [and are] people who live without laws, without police,
without religion. ”
[54]
—Jean Jacques Rousseau, Jesuit and Savage in New France
The Iroquois nations' political confederacy and democratic government have been credited as influences on the
Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.[55] [56] Historians debate how much the colonists
borrowed from existing Native American governmental models. Several founding fathers had contact with Native
American leaders and had learned about their styles of government. Prominent figures such as Thomas Jefferson and
Benjamin Franklin were more involved with leaders of the Iroquois Confederacy, based in New York. John Rutledge
of South Carolina in particular is said to have read lengthy tracts of Iroquoian law to the other framers, beginning
with the words, "We, the people, to form a union, to establish peace, equity, and order..."[57]
“
"As powerful, dense [Mound Builder] populations were reduced to weakened, scattered remnants, political readjustments were necessary.
New confederacies were formed. One such was to become a pattern called up by Benjamin Franklin when the thirteen colonies struggled to
confederate: 'If the Iroquois can do it so can we,' he said in substance." ”
[58]
—Bob Ferguson, Choctaw Government to 1830
In October 1988, the U.S. Congress passed Concurrent Resolution 331 to recognize the influence of the Iroquois
Constitution upon the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights.[59] Those who argue against Iroquoian influence point to
lack of evidence in U.S. constitutional debate records, and democratic U.S. institutions having ample antecedents in
European ideas.[60]
Colonials revolt
During the American Revolution, the newly proclaimed
United States competed with the British for the
allegiance of Native American nations east of the
Mississippi River. Most Native Americans who joined
the struggle sided with the British, hoping to use the
American Revolutionary War to halt further colonial
expansion onto Native American land. Many native
communities were divided over which side to support
in the war. The first native community to sign a treaty
with the new United States Government was the
Lenape. For the Iroquois Confederacy, the American
Revolution resulted in civil war. The only Iroquois
tribes to ally with the colonials were the Oneida and Yamacraw Creek Native Americans meet with the Trustee of the
Tuscarora. colony of Georgia in England, July 1734. The painting shows a
Native American boy (in a blue coat) and woman (in a red dress) in
Frontier warfare during the American Revolution was European clothing.
particularly brutal, and numerous atrocities were
committed by settlers and native tribes alike. Noncombatants suffered greatly during the war. Military expeditions on
each side destroyed villages and food supplies to reduce the ability of people to fight, as in frequent raids in the
Mohawk Valley and western New York.[61] The largest of these expeditions was the Sullivan Expedition of 1779, in
which American colonial troops destroyed more than 40 Iroquois villages to neutralize Iroquois raids in upstate New
York. The expedition failed to have the desired effect: Native American activity became even more determined.
American Indians have played a central role in shaping the history of the nation, and they are deeply woven
into the social fabric of much of American life.... During the last three decades of the twentieth century,
scholars of ethnohistory, of the "new Indian history," and of Native American studies forcefully demonstrated
that to understand American history and the American experience, one must include American Indians.
—Robbie Ethridge, Creek Country.[62]
The British made peace with the Americans in the Treaty of Paris (1783), through
which they ceded vast Native American territories to the United States without
informing the Native Americans, leading immediately to the Northwest Indian
War. The United States initially treated the Native Americans who had fought with
the British as a conquered people who had lost their lands. Although many of the
Iroquois tribes went to Canada with the Loyalists, others tried to stay in New York
and western territories and tried to maintain their lands. Nonetheless, the state of
New York made a separate treaty with Iroquois and put up for sale 5000000 acres
(20000 km2) of land that had previously been their territory. The state established a
reservation near Syracuse for the Onondagas who had been allies of the colonists. Bronze medals struck at behest of
Virginia governor Thomas
Jefferson and carried by Joseph
Martin to give to Cherokee allies
of colonial forces. Notice peace
pipe atop the medal
“
The Indians presented a reverse image of European civilization which helped America establish a national identity that was neither savage
nor civilized.
”
[58]
—Charles Sanford, The Quest for Paradise
The United States was eager to expand, to develop farming and settlements in new areas, and to satisfy land hunger
of settlers from New England and new immigrants. The national government initially sought to purchase Native
American land by treaties. The states and settlers were frequently at odds with this policy.[63]
Transmuted Native America

European nations sent Native Americans (sometimes against their will) to the
Old World as objects of curiosity. They often entertained royalty and were
sometimes prey to commercial purposes. Christianization of Native Americans
was a charted purpose for some European colonies.
George Washington advocated the

advancement of Native American
society and he "harbored some
measure of goodwill towards the
[64]
Indians."
“
Whereas it hath at this time become peculiarly necessary to warn the citizens of the United States against a violation of the treaties.... I do by
these presents require, all officers of the United States, as well civil as military, and all other citizens and inhabitants thereof, to govern
themselves according to the treaties and act aforesaid, as they will answer the contrary at their peril. ”
[65]
—-George Washington, Proclamation Regarding Treaties, 1790.
United States policy toward Native Americans had continued to evolve after the American Revolution. George
Washington and Henry Knox believed that Native Americans were equals but that their society was inferior.
Washington formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing" process.[7] Washington had a six-point plan for
civilization which included,
1. impartial justice toward Native Americans
2. regulated buying of Native American lands
3. promotion of commerce
4. promotion of experiments to civilize or improve Native American society
5. presidential authority to give presents
6. punishing those who violated Native American rights.[9]
Robert Remini, a historian, wrote that "once the Indians

adopted the practice of private property, built homes,
farmed, educated their children, and embraced
Christianity, these Native Americans would win
acceptance from white Americans."[8] The United
States appointed agents, like Benjamin Hawkins, to live
among the Native Americans and to teach them how to
live like whites.[6]
Benjamin Hawkins, seen here on his plantation, teaches Creek Native

Americans how to use European technology. Painted in 1805.
“
How different would be the sensation of a philosophic mind to reflect that instead of exterminating a part of the human race by our modes of
population that we had persevered through all difficulties and at last had imparted our Knowledge of cultivating and the arts, to the
”
Aboriginals of the Country by which the source of future life and happiness had been preserved and extended. But it has been conceived to be
impracticable to civilize the Indians of North America — This opinion is probably more convenient than just.
[64]
—-Henry Knox to George Washington, 1790s.
Assimilation
In the late 18th century, reformers starting with

Washington and Knox,[66] supported educating
native children, in efforts to "civilize" or
otherwise assimilate Native Americans to the
larger society (as opposed to relegating them to
reservations). The Civilization Fund Act of 1819
promoted this civilization policy by providing
funding to societies (mostly religious) who
worked on Native American improvement.
Portrait of Native Americans from the Cherokee, Cheyenne, Choctaw,

Comanche, Iroquois, and Muscogee tribes in American attire. Photos date
from 1868 to 1924.
“
I rejoice, brothers, to hear you propose to become cultivators of the earth for the maintenance of your families. Be assured you will support
them better and with less labor, by raising stock and bread, and by spinning and weaving clothes, than by hunting. A little land cultivated, and
a little labor, will procure more provisions than the most successful hunt; and a woman will clothe more by spinning and weaving, than a man
by hunting. Compared with you, we are but as of yesterday in this land. Yet see how much more we have multiplied by industry, and the
exercise of that reason which you possess in common with us. Follow then our example, brethren, and we will aid you with great pleasure.... ”
[67]
—President Thomas Jefferson, Brothers of the Choctaw Nation, December 17, 1803
After the American Civil War and Indian wars in the late 19th century, Native American boarding schools were
established, which were often run primarily by or affiliated with Christian missionaries.[68] At this time American
society thought that Native American children needed to be acculturated to the general society. The boarding school
experience often proved traumatic to Native American children, who were forbidden to speak their native languages,
taught Christianity and denied the right to practice their native religions, and in numerous other ways forced to
abandon their Native American identities[69] and adopt European-American culture. There were documented cases of
sexual, physical and mental abuse occurring at these schools.[70] [71]
Native Americans as American citizens

In 1857, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney expressed that since Native Americans were "free and independent people"
that they could become U.S. citizens.[72] Taney asserted that Native Americans could be naturalized and join the
"political community" of the United States.[72]
“
[Native Americans], without doubt, like the subjects of any other foreign Government, be naturalized by the authority of Congress, and
become citizens of a State, and of the United States; and if an individual should leave his nation or tribe, and take up his abode among the
white population, he would be entitled to all the rights and privileges which would belong to an emigrant from any other foreign people. ”
—Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, 1857, What was Taney thinking? American Indian Citizenship in the era of Dred Scott, Frederick e. Hoxie, April
[72]
2007.
U.S. citizenship
On June 2, 1924 U.S. Republican President Calvin Coolidge signed the Indian Citizenship Act making all Native
Americans, who were not already citizens, born in the United States and its territories citizens of the United States.
Prior to the passage of the act, nearly two-thirds of Native Americans were already U.S. citizens.[73] The earliest
recorded date of Native Americans' becoming U.S. citizens was in 1831 when the Mississippi Choctaw became
citizens after the United States Legislature ratified the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek.[12] [74] [75] [76] Article 22
sought to put a Choctaw representative in the U.S. House of Representatives.[12] Under article XIV of that treaty, any
Choctaw who elected not to move with the Choctaw Nation could become an American citizen when he registered
and if he stayed on designated lands for five years after treaty ratification. Through the years, Native Americans
became U.S. citizens by:
1. Treaty provision (as with the Mississippi Choctaw)
2. Registration and land allotment under the Dawes Act of February 8, 1887
3. Issuance of Patent in Fee Simple
4. Adopting Habits of Civilized Life
5. Minor Children
6. Citizenship by Birth
7. Becoming Soldiers and Sailors in the U.S. Armed Forces
8. Marriage to a U.S. citizen
9. Special Act of Congress.
“
The Choctaws would ultimately form a territory by themselves, which should be taken under the care of the general government; or that they
should become citizens of the State of Mississippi, and thus citizens of the United States.
”
[77]
—-Cherokee Phoenix, and Indians' Advocate, Vol. II, No. 37., 1829.
American Indians today in the U.S. have all the rights guaranteed in the U.S. Constitution, can vote in elections, and
run for political office. There has been controversy over how much the federal government has jurisdiction over
tribal affairs, sovereinty, and cultural practices.[78]
“
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That all noncitizen Native
Americans born within the territorial limits of the United States be, and they are hereby, declared to be citizens of the United States: Provided,
That the granting of such citizenship shall not in any manner impair or otherwise affect the right of any Native American to tribal or other
property. ”
—Indian Citizenship Act of 1924
American expansion justification

In July 1845, the New York newspaper editor John L. O’Sullivan
coined the phrase “Manifest Destiny,” to explain how the "design of
Providence" supported the territorial expansion of the United States.[79]
Manifest Destiny had serious consequences for Native Americans
since continental expansion implicitly meant the occupation of Native
American land. Manifest Destiny was an explanation or justification
for expansion and westward movement, or, in some interpretations, an
ideology or doctrine which helped to promote the process of
civilization. Advocates of Manifest Destiny believed that expansion
was not only good, but that it was obvious and certain. The term was Native Americans flee from the allegorical
representation of Manifest Destiny, Columbia,
first used primarily by Jacksonian Democrats in the 1840s to promote
painted in 1872 by John Gast
the annexation of much of what is now the Western United States (the
Oregon Territory, the Texas Annexation, and the Mexican Cession).
“
What a prodigious growth this English race, especially the American branch of it, is having! How soon will it subdue and occupy all the wild
parts of this continent and of the islands adjacent. No prophecy, however seemingly extravagant, as to future achievements in this way [is]
likely to equal the reality. ”
[80]
—Rutherford Birchard Hayes, U.S. President, January 1, 1857, Personal Diary.
The age of Manifest Destiny, which came to be known as "Indian Removal", gained ground. Although some
humanitarian advocates of removal believed that Native Americans would be better off moving away from whites,
an increasing number of Americans regarded the natives as nothing more than "savages" who stood in the way of
American expansion. Thomas Jefferson believed that while Native Americans were the intellectual equals of whites,
they had to live like the whites or inevitably be pushed aside by them. Jefferson's belief, rooted in Enlightenment
thinking, that whites and Native Americans would merge to create a single nation did not last, and he began to
believe that the natives should emigrate across the Mississippi River and maintain a separate society.
Indian Appropriations Act of 1871

In 1871 Congress added a rider to the Indian Appropriations Act ending United States recognition of additional
Native American tribes or independent nations, and prohibiting additional treaties.
“
That hereafter no Indian nation or tribe within the territory of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation,
tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty: Provided, further, that nothing herein contained shall be construed to
invalidate or impair the obligation of any treaty heretofore lawfully made and ratified with any such Indian nation or tribe. ”
[81]
—Indian Appropriations Act of 1871
Resistance
U.S. government authorities entered into numerous treaties during this period but
later violated many for various reasons. Other treaties were considered "living"
documents whose terms could be altered. Major conflicts east of the Mississippi
River include the Pequot War, Creek War, and Seminole Wars. Notably, a
multi-tribal army led by Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, fought a number of
engagements during the period 1811–12, known as Tecumseh's War. In the latter
stages, Tecumseh's group allied with the British forces in the War of 1812 and
was instrumental in the conquest of Detroit. St. Clair's Defeat (1791) was the
worst U.S. Army defeat by Native Americans in U.S. history.
Native American Nations west of the Mississippi were numerous and were the
last to submit to U.S. authority. Conflicts generally known as "Indian Wars" broke
Tecumseh was the Shawnee leader
out between American government and Native American societies. The Battle of
of Tecumseh's War who attempted
Little Bighorn (1876) was one of the greatest Native American victories. Defeats to organize an alliance of Native
included the Sioux Uprising of 1862, the Sand Creek Massacre (1864) and American tribes throughout North
[82]
Wounded Knee in 1890.[83] These conflicts were catalysts to the decline of America.
dominant Native American culture. By 1872, the U.S. Army pursued a policy to
exterminate all Native Americans unless or until they agreed to surrender and live on reservations "where they could
be taught Christianity and agriculture."[84]
“
The Indian [was thought] as less than human and worthy only of extermination. We did shoot down defenseless men, and women and children
”
at places like Camp Grant, Sand Creek, and Wounded Knee. We did feed strychnine to red warriors. We did set whole villages of people out
naked to freeze in the iron cold of Montana winters. And we did confine thousands in what amounted to concentration camps.
[85]
—The Indian Wars of the West, 1934
Removals and reservations

In the 19th century, the incessant westward expansion of the United States incrementally compelled large numbers of
Native Americans to resettle further west, often by force, almost always reluctantly. Native Americans believed this
forced relocation illegal, given the Hopewell Treaty of 1785. Under President Andrew Jackson, United States
Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the President to conduct treaties to exchange
Native American land east of the Mississippi River for lands west of the river. As many as 100,000 Native
Americans relocated to the West as a result of this Indian Removal policy. In theory, relocation was supposed to be
voluntary and many Native Americans did remain in the East. In practice, great pressure was put on Native
American leaders to sign removal treaties.
The most egregious violation of the stated intention of the removal policy took place under the Treaty of New
Echota, which was signed by a dissident faction of Cherokees but not the elected leadership. President Jackson
rigidly enforced the treaty, which resulted in the deaths of an estimated 4,000 Cherokees on the Trail of Tears. About
17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 enslaved blacks held by Cherokees, were removed from their
homes.[86]
Tribes were generally located to reservations where they could more easily be separated from traditional life and
pushed into European-American society. Some southern states additionally enacted laws in the 19th century
forbidding non-Native American settlement on Native American lands, with the intention to prevent sympathetic
white missionaries from aiding the scattered Native American resistance.[87]
Native American slavery
Traditions of Native American slavery

The majority of Native American tribes did practice some form of slavery before the European introduction of
African slavery into North America, but none exploited slave labor on a large scale. In addition, Native Americans
did not buy and sell captives in the pre-colonial era, although they sometimes exchanged enslaved individuals with
other tribes in peace gestures or in exchange for their own members. "Slave" may not be an accurate term for their
system of using captives.[88]
The conditions of enslaved Native Americans varied among the tribes. In many cases, young enslaved captives were
adopted into the tribes to replace warriors killed during warfare or by disease. Other tribes practiced debt slavery or
imposed slavery on tribal members who had committed crimes; but, this status was only temporary as the enslaved
worked off their obligations to the tribal society.[88]
Among some Pacific Northwest tribes, about a quarter of the population were slaves.[89] Other slave-owning tribes
of North America were, for example, Comanche of Texas, Creek of Georgia, the Pawnee, and Klamath.[90]
European enslavement
When Europeans arrived as colonists in North America, Native Americans changed their practice of slavery
dramatically. They found that British settlers, especially those in the southern colonies, purchased or captured Native
Americans to use as forced labor in cultivating tobacco, rice, and indigo. Native Americans began selling war
captives to whites rather than integrating them into their own societies. As the demand for labor in the West Indies
grew with the cultivation of sugar cane, Europeans enslaved Native Americans for export to the "sugar islands."
Accurate records of the numbers enslaved do not exist. Scholars estimate tens of thousands of Native Americans
may have been enslaved by the Europeans.[88]
As slavery became a racial caste, the Virginia General Assembly defined some terms in 1705:
"All servants imported and brought into the Country... who were not Christians in their native Country...
shall be accounted and be slaves. All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion.... shall be
held to be real estate. If any slave resists his master... correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed
in such correction... the master shall be free of all punishment... as if such accident never happened." –
Virginia General Assembly declaration, 1705.[91]
The slave trade of Native Americans lasted only until around 1730, and it gave rise to a series of devastating wars
among the tribes, including the Yamasee War. The Indian wars of the early 18th century, combined with the
increasing importation of African slaves, effectively ended the Native American slave trade by 1750. Colonists
found it too easy for Native American slaves to escape, and the wars took the lives of numerous colonial slave
traders. The remaining Native American groups banded together to face the Europeans from a position of strength.
Many surviving Native American peoples of the southeast joined confederacies such as the Choctaw, the Creek, and
the Catawba for protection.[88]
Native American women were at risk for rape whether they were enslaved or not; many southern communities had a
disproportionate number of men in the early colonial years and they turned to Native women for sexual
relationships.[92] Both Native American and African enslaved women suffered rape and sexual harassment by male
slaveholders and other white men.[92]
Native American adoption of African slavery

Native Americans resisted Anglo-American encroachment on their lands and maintained cultural ways. Native
Americans interacted with enslaved Africans and African Americans on many levels. Over time all the cultures
interracted. Native Americans began slowly to adopt white culture.[93] Native Americans shared some experiences
with Africans, especially during the period when both were enslaved.[94]
The five civilized tribes tried to gain power by owning slaves, as they assimilated some other European-American
ways. Among the slave-owning families of the Cherokee, 78 percent claimed some white ancestry. The nature of the
interactions among the peoples depended upon the historical character of the Native American groups, the enslaved
people, and the European slaveholders. Native Americans often assisted runaway slaves. They also sold Africans to
whites, trading them like so many blankets or horses.[88]
While Native Americans might treat enslaved people as brutally as Europeans did, most Native American masters
rejected the worst features of southern white bondage (Chattel Slavery).[95] Though less than 3% of Native
Americans owned slaves, bondage created destructive cleavages among Native Americans. Mixed-race slaveholders
were part of a class hierarchy that seemed related to European ancestry, but their advantage was based on the transfer
of social capital from their fathers.[95] Proposals for Indian Removal heightened tensions of cultural changes due to
the increase in the number of mixed-race Native Americans in the South. Full bloods sometimes tried harder to
maintain traditional ways, including control of land. The more traditional members who did not hold slaves often
resented the sale of lands to Anglo-Americans.[88]
Wars
King Philip's War

King Philip's War sometimes called Metacom's War or Metacom's Rebellion, was an armed conflict between Native
American inhabitants of present-day southern New England and English colonists and their Native American allies
from 1675–1676. It continued in northern New England (primarily on the Maine frontier) even after King Philip was
killed, until a treaty was signed at Casco Bay in April 1678. According to a combined estimate of loss of life in
Schultz and Tougias' "King Philip's War, The History and Legacy of America's Forgotten Conflict" (based on
sources from the Department of Defense, the Bureau of Census, and the work of Colonial historian Francis
Jennings), 800 out of 52,000 English colonists of New England (1 out of every 65) and 3,000 out of 20,000 natives
(3 out of every 20) lost their lives due to the war, which makes it proportionately one of the bloodiest and costliest in
the history of America. More than half of New England's ninety towns were assaulted by Native American warriors.
One in ten soldiers on both sides were wounded or killed.[96]
The war is named after the main leader of the Native American side, Metacomet, Metacom, or Pometacom, known
to the English as "King Philip." He was the last Massasoit (Great Leader) of the Pokanoket Tribe/Pokanoket
Federation & Wampanoag Nation. Upon their loss to the Colonists and the attempted genocide of the Pokanoket
Tribe and Royal Line, many managed to flee to the North to continue their fight against the British (Massachusetts
Bay Colony) by joining with the Abanaki Tribes and Wabanaki Federation.
Civil War
Many Native Americans served in the military during the Civil War.,[98] the vast majority
of whom siding with the Union. By fighting with the whites, Native Americans hoped to
gain favor with the prevailing government by supporting the war effort.[98] [99] They also
believed war service might mean an end to discrimination and relocation from ancestral
lands to western territories.[98] While the war raged and African Americans were
proclaimed free, the U.S. government continued its policies of assimilation, submission,
removal, or extermination of Native Americans.[98]
Ely S. Parker was a

Union Civil War General
who wrote the terms of
surrender between the
United States and the
Confederate States of
[97]
America. Parker was
one of two Native
Americans to reach the
rank of Brigadier General
during the Civil War.
General Ely S. Parker, a member of the

Seneca tribe, created the articles of
surrender which General Robert E. Lee
signed at Appomattox Court House on
April 9, 1865. Gen. Parker, who served
as Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's military
secretary and was a trained attorney,
was once rejected for Union military
service because of his race. At
Appomattox, Lee is said to have
remarked to Parker, "I am glad to see
one real American here," to which
Cherokee confederates reunion in New Orleans, 1903. Parker replied, "We are all
[98]
Americans."
Spanish–American War
The Spanish–American War was an armed military conflict between Spain and the United States that took place
between April and August 1898, over the issues of the Occupation of Cuba, Philippines and Puerto Rico. Theodore
Roosevelt actively encouraged intervention in Cuba. Roosevelt worked with Leonard Wood in convincing the Army
to raise an all-volunteer regiment, the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry. The "Rough Riders" was the name bestowed on
the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry and the only regiment to see action. Recruiters gathered a diverse bunch of
men consisting of cowboys, gold or mining prospectors, hunters, gamblers, and Native Americans. There were sixty
Native Americans who served as "Rough Riders."[100]
World War II
Some 44,000 Native Americans served in the United States military
during World War II.[101] Described as the first large-scale exodus of
indigenous peoples from the reservations since the removals of the
19th century, the international conflict was a turning point in Native
American history. Men of native descent were drafted into the military
like other American males. Their fellow soldiers often held them in
high esteem, in part since the legend of the tough Native American
warrior had become a part of the fabric of American historical legend.
White servicemen sometimes showed a lighthearted respect toward
Native American comrades by calling them "chief."
The resulting increase in contact with the world outside of the

General Douglas MacArthur meeting Navajo,
reservation system brought profound changes to Native American Pima, Pawnee and other Native American troops.
culture. "The war," said the U.S. Indian commissioner in 1945, "caused
the greatest disruption of Native life since the beginning of the
reservation era", affecting the habits, views, and economic well-being of tribal members.[102] The most significant of
these changes was the opportunity—as a result of wartime labor shortages—to find well-paying work. Yet there
were losses to contend with as well. Altogether, 1,200 Pueblo people served in World War II; only about half came
home alive. In addition many more Navajo served as code talkers for the military in the Pacific. The code they made,
although cryptologically very simple, was never cracked by the Japanese.
Native Americans today

In 1975 the Indian Self-Determination and
Education Assistance Act was passed, marking
the culmination of 15 years of policy changes.
Related to Indian activism, the Civil Rights
Movement and community development
aspects of social programs of the 1960s, the Act
recognized the need of Native Americans for
self-determination. It marked the U.S.
government's turn away from the policy of
termination; the U.S. government encouraged
Native Americans' efforts at self government
and determining their futures.
There are 562 federally recognized tribal

governments in the United States. These tribes
possess the right to form their own government,
to enforce laws (both civil and criminal), to tax,
to establish requirements for membership, to
license and regulate activities, to zone and to
exclude persons from tribal territories.
Limitations on tribal powers of self-government
include the same limitations applicable to
states; for example, neither tribes nor states
Portrait of Native Americans from various bands, tribes, and nations from have the power to make war, engage in foreign
across "Indian country." relations, or coin money (this includes paper
currency).[103]
Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights point out that the U.S. Federal government's claim
to recognize the "sovereignty" of Native American peoples falls short, given that the U.S. still wishes to govern
Native American peoples and treat them as subject to U.S. law. True respect for Native American sovereignty,
according to such advocates, would require the United States federal government to deal with Native American
peoples in the same manner as any other sovereign nation, handling matters related to relations with Native
Americans through the Secretary of State, rather than the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Bureau of Indian Affairs
reports on its website that its "responsibility is the administration and management of 55700000 acres ( km2) of land
held in trust by the United States for American Indians, Indian tribes, and Alaska Natives."[104] Many Native
Americans and advocates of Native American rights believe that it is condescending for such lands to be considered
"held in trust" and regulated in any fashion by a foreign power, whether the U.S. Federal Government, Canada, or
any other non-Native American authority.
“
Forced termination is wrong, in my judgment, for a number of reasons. First, the premises on which it rests are wrong ... The second reason
for rejecting forced termination is that the practical results have been clearly harmful in the few instances in which termination actually has
been tried.... The third argument I would make against forced termination concerns the effect it has had upon the overwhelming majority of
”
tribes which still enjoy a special relationship with the Federal government ... The recommendations of this administration represent an historic
step forward in Indian policy. We are proposing to break sharply with past approaches to Indian problems.
[105]
—President Richard Nixon, Special Message on Indian Affairs, July 8, 1970.
According to 2003 United States Census Bureau estimates, a little over one third
of the 2,786,652 Native Americans in the United States live in three states:
California at 413,382, Arizona at 294,137 and Oklahoma at 279,559.[106]
As of 2000, the largest tribes in the U.S. by population were Navajo, Cherokee,
Choctaw, Sioux, Chippewa, Apache, Blackfeet, Iroquois, and Pueblo. In 2000,
eight of ten Americans with Native American ancestry were of mixed blood. It is
estimated that by 2100 that figure will rise to nine out of ten.[107] In addition,
there are a number of tribes that are recognized by individual states, but not by
the federal government. The rights and benefits associated with state recognition
vary from state to state.
Some tribal nations have been unable to establish their heritage and obtain
federal recognition. The Muwekma Ohlone of the San Francisco bay area are
pursuing litigation in the federal court system to establish recognition.[108] Many Poldine Carlo, Koyukon author from
of the smaller eastern tribes have been trying to gain official recognition of their Alaska
tribal status. The recognition confers some benefits, including the right to label
arts and crafts as Native American and permission to apply for grants that are specifically reserved for Native
Americans. But gaining recognition as a tribe is extremely difficult; to be established as a tribal group, members
have to submit extensive genealogical proof of tribal descent.
Native American struggles amid poverty to maintain life on the

reservation or in larger society have resulted in a variety of health
issues, some related to nutrition and health practices. The community
suffers a disproportionately high rate of alcoholism.[109] Agencies
working with Native American communities are trying better to respect
their traditions and integrate benefits of Western medicine within their
own cultural practices.
"It has long been recognized that Native Americans are dying of
Concerns which Native peoples struggle to diabetes, alcoholism, tuberculosis, suicide, and other health
resolve include the presence of Abandoned conditions at shocking rates. Beyond disturbingly high mortality
Uranium Mines on or near their lands. rates, Native Americans also suffer a significantly lower health
status and disproportionate rates of disease compared with all
other Americans."
— The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, September 2004 [110]
In July 2000 the Washington Republican

Party adopted a resolution recommending
that the federal and legislative branches of
the U.S. government terminate tribal
governments .[111] In 2007 a group of
Democratic Party congressmen and
congresswomen introduced a bill in the U.S.
House of Representatives to "terminate" the
Cherokee Nation.[112] As of 2004, various
Native Americans are wary of attempts by
others to gain control of their reservation
lands for natural resources, such as coal and
uranium in the West.[113] [114] [115]
In the state of Virginia, Native Americans This Census Bureau map depicts the locations of Native Americans in the United
face a unique problem. Virginia has no States as of 2000.
federally recognized tribes. Some analysts
attribute this to work by Walter Ashby Plecker, who as registrar of the state's Bureau of Vital Statistics vigorously
applied his own interpretation of the one-drop rule. He served from 1912–1946. In 1920 the state's General
Assembly passed a law recognizing only two races: "white" and "colored". Plecker believed that the state's Native
Americans had been "mongrelized" by intermarriage with African Americans and, further, that some people with
partial black heritage were trying to pass as Native Americans. To Plecker, anyone with any African heritage had to
be classified as colored, regardless of appearance and cultural identification. Plecker pressured local governments
into reclassifying all Native Americans in the state as "colored", and gave them lists of family surnames to examine
for reclassification based on his interpretation of data and the law. This led to the state's destruction of accurate
records related to Native American communities and families. Sometimes different members of the same family
were split by classification as "white" or "colored". There was no place for primary identification as Native
American.[116] However, in 2009, the Senate Indian Affairs Committee endorsed a bill that would grant federal
recognition to tribes in Virginia.[117]
To achieve federal recognition and its benefits, tribes must prove their continuous existence since 1900. The federal
government has maintained this requirement, in part because through participation on councils and committees,
federally recognized tribes have been adamant about groups' satisfying the same requirements as they did.[116]
In the early 21st century, Native American communities remain an enduring fixture on the United States landscape,
in the American economy, and in the lives of Native Americans. Communities have consistently formed
governments that administer services like firefighting, natural resource management, and law enforcement. Most
Native American communities have established court systems to adjudicate matters related to local ordinances, and
most also look to various forms of moral and social authority vested in traditional affiliations within the community.
To address the housing needs of Native Americans, Congress passed the Native American Housing and Self
Determination Act (NAHASDA) in 1996. This legislation replaced public housing, and other 1937 Housing Act
programs directed towards Indian Housing Authorities, with a block grant program directed towards Tribes.
Societal discrimination, racism and conflicts

Perhaps because the most well-known
Native Americans live on reservations
relatively isolated from major population
centers, universities have conducted
relatively little public opinion research on
attitudes toward them among the general
public. In 2007 the non-partisan Public
Agenda organization conducted a focus
group study. Most non-Native Americans
admitted they rarely encountered Native
Americans in their daily lives. While
sympathetic toward Native Americans and
expressing regret over the past, most people
had only a vague understanding of the
A discriminatory sign posted above a bar. Birney, Montana, 1941. problems facing Native Americans today.
For their part, Native Americans told
researchers that they believed they continued to face prejudice and mistreatment in the broader society.[118]
“
He is ignoble—base and treacherous, and hateful in every way. Not even imminent death can startle him into a spasm of virtue. The ruling
trait of all savages is a greedy and consuming selfishness, and in our Noble Red Man it is found in its amplest development. His heart is a
cesspool of falsehood, of treachery, and of low and devilish instincts ... The scum of the earth! ”
[119]
—Mark Twain, 1870, The Noble Red Man (a satire on James Fenimore Cooper's portrayals)
Conflicts between the federal government and Native Americans occasionally erupt into violence. Perhaps the more
notable late 20th century event was the Wounded Knee incident in small town South Dakota. During the period of
expanding civil rights protests, about 200 activist members of the American Indian Movement (AIM) took control of
Wounded Knee on February 27, 1973. They were protesting issues related to Native American rights and the nearby
Pine Ridge Reservation. Federal law enforcement officials and the United States military surrounded the town. In the
ensuing gunfights, two members of AIM were killed and one United States Marshal was wounded and
paralyzed.[120] In June 1975, two FBI agents seeking to effect an armed robbery arrest at Pine Ridge Reservation
were wounded in a firefight, then killed by shots fired at point-blank range. AIM activist Leonard Peltier was
sentenced to two consecutive terms of life in prison in the FBI deaths.[121]
LeCompte also endured taunting on the battlefield. "They ridiculed him and called him a 'drunken Indian.'
They said, 'Hey, dude, you look just like a haji—you'd better run.' They call the Arabs 'haji.' I mean, it's one
thing to worry for your life, but then to have to worry about friendly fire because you don't know who in the
hell will shoot you?
—Tammie LeCompte, May 25, 2007, "Soldier highlights problems in U.S. Army"[122]
In 2004, Senator Sam Brownback (Republican of Kansas) introduced a joint resolution (Senate Joint Resolution 37)
to “offer an apology to all Native Peoples on behalf of the United States” for past “ill-conceived policies” by the
United States Government regarding Indian Tribes.[123] Buried in the 2010 defense appropriations bill, President
Barack Obama signed the legislation into law in 2009.[124]
In 2007, AIM activist John Graham was extradited from Canada to the U.S. to stand trial for killing N.S. Mimaq in
1975. The Native American woman activist was killed years after the Wounded Knee standoff, allegedly for having
been an FBI informant at the time.[125] [126]
In a 2010 dispute over cigarette taxes between the Seneca Nation and New York City's Mayor Bloomberg, the
Seneca Nation called for the mayor's resignation. The dispute over the tax, set to go into effect Sept. 1, drew
attention after Bloomberg said on a radio show that Governor Paterson needs to grab a "cowboy hat and a shotgun"
and demand the money himself.[127]
Native Americans UN Human Rights Exclusion

On September 13, 2007 the UN General Assembly adopted the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Peoples after nearly 25 years of discussion. Indigenous representatives played a key role in the
development of this Declaration. With an overwhelming majority of 143 votes in favour, only 4 negative votes cast
(Canada, Australia, New Zealand, United States). The four states that voted against – all with historically oppressed
and disenfranchised small indigenous populations far outnumbered by settler populations[128] – continued to express
serious reservations about the final text of the Declaration as placed before the General Assembly. Two of the four
opposing countries, Australia and New Zealand, have since then changed their vote in favour of the Declaration.
Speaking for the United States mission to the UN, spokesman Benjamin Chang, who was staff under Richard
Grenell, said, "What was done today is not clear. The way it stands now is subject to multiple interpretations and
doesn't establish a clear universal principle."[129] The U.S. mission also issued a floor document, "Observations of
the United States with respect to the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples", setting out its objections to
the Declaration. Most of these are based on the same points as the three other countries' rejections but, in addition,
the United States drew attention to the Declaration's failure to provide a clear definition of exactly whom the term
"indigenous peoples" is intended to cover.[130]
Native American mascots in sports
The use of Native American mascots in sports has become a contentious issue in
the United States and Canada. Americans have had a history of "playing Indian"
that dates back to at least the 18th century.[131] Many individuals admire the
heroism and romanticism evoked by the classic Native American warrior image,
but numerous Native Americans think use of items associated with them as
mascots is both offensive and demeaning. While many universities (for example,
North Dakota Fighting Sioux of University of North Dakota) and professional
sports teams (for example, Chief Wahoo of Cleveland Indians) no longer use
such images without consultation with Native American nations, some lower
level schools,such as Vallejo High School in Vallejo, CA and John Swett High
School in Crockett, CA and other lower level sports teams continue to do so. In
the Bay Area of California a number of High Schools such as Tomales Bay High A student acting as Chief Osceola,
and Sequoia High have retired their Mascots. the Florida State University mascot
“
(Trudie Lamb Richmond doesn't) know what to say when kids argue, 'I don't care what you say, we are honoring you. We are keeping our
Indian.' ... What if it were 'our black' or 'our Hispanic'?
”
[132]
—-Amy D'orio quoting Trudie Lamb Richmond, March 1996, "Indian Chief Is Mascot No More"
In August 2005, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) banned the use of "hostile and abusive"
Native American mascots in postseason tournaments.[133] An exception was made to allow the use of tribal names as
long as approved by that tribe (such as the Seminole Tribe of Florida's approving use of their name for the team of
Florida State University.)[134] [135] The use of Native American-themed team names in U.S. professional sports is
widespread. Examples are mascot Chief Wahoo and teams such as the Cleveland Indians and Washington Redskins,
considered controversial by some.

"Could you imagine people mocking African Americans in black face at a game?" he said. "Yet go to a game
where there is a team with an Indian name and you will see fans with war paint on their faces. Is this not the
equivalent to black face?"
—"Native American Mascots Big Issue in College Sports",Teaching Tolerance, May 9, 2001[136]
Depictions by Europeans and Americans

Native Americans have been depicted by American
artists in various ways at different historical periods.
During the 16th century, the artist John White made
watercolors and engravings of the people native to the
southeastern states. John White’s images were, for the
most part, faithful likenesses of the people he observed.
Later the artist Theodore de Bry used White’s original

watercolors to make a book of engravings entitled, A
briefe and true report of the new found land of
Virginia. In his book, de Bry often altered the poses
and features of White’s figures to make them appear
more European. During the period when White and de
Sketch by John White of Roanoke Indians
Bry were working, when Europeans were first coming
into contact with native Americans, Europeans were
greatly interested in native American cultures. Their
curiosity created demand for a book like de Bry’s.
A number of 19th and 20th century American and

Canadian painters, often motivated by a desire to
document and preserve Native culture, specialized in
Native American subjects. Among the most prominent
of these were Elbridge Ayer Burbank, George Catlin, American Indian on five-dollar Silver Certificate, 1899
Seth and Mary Eastman, Paul Kane, W. Langdon Kihn,
Charles Bird King, Joseph Henry Sharp, and John Mix Stanley.
During the construction of the Capitol building in the early 19th century, the U.S. government commissioned a series
of four relief panels to crown the doorway of the Rotunda. The reliefs encapsulate a vision of European—Native
American relations that had assumed mythic historical proportions by the 19th century. The four panels depict: The
Preservation of Captain Smith by Pocahontas (1825) by Antonio Capellano, The Landing of the Pilgrims (1825) and
The Conflict of Daniel Boone and the Indians (1826–27) by Enrico Causici, and William Penn’s Treaty with the
Indians (1827) by Nicholas Gevelot. The reliefs present
idealized versions of the Europeans and the native

Americans, in which the Europeans appear refined and
the natives appear ferocious. The Whig representative of
Virginia, Henry A. Wise, voiced a particularly astute
summary of how Native Americans would read the
messages contained in all four reliefs: “We give you corn,
you cheat us of our lands: we save your life, you take
ours.” While many 19th-century images of native
Americans conveyed similarly negative messages, artists
such as Charles Bird King sought to express a more
balanced image of Native Americans.
During this time there were writers of fiction who were

informed about Native American culture and wrote about
it with sympathy. One such writer was Marah Ellis Ryan.
In the 20th century, early portrayals of Native Americans
in movies and television roles were first depicted by
European-Americans dressed in mock traditional attire.
Examples included The Last of the Mohicans (1920),
Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans (1957), and F
1892 sculpture by Alexander Milne Calder, installed on the
Troop (1965–67). In later decades, Native American Philadelphia City Hall.
actors such as Jay Silverheels in The Lone Ranger
television series (1949–57) came to prominence. Roles of Native Americans were limited and not reflective of
Native American culture. In the 1970s some Native Americans roles were improved in movies: Little Big Man
(1970), Billy Jack (1971), and The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976) depicted Native Americans in minor supporting roles.
In addition to overtly negative depictions, Native people on U.S. television have also been relegated to secondary,
subordinate roles. During the years of the series Bonanza (1959–1973), no major or secondary Native characters
appeared on a consistent basis. The series The Lone Ranger (1949–1957), Cheyenne (1957–1963), and Law of the
Plainsman (1959–1963) had Native characters who were essentially aides to the central White characters. This
characterization was also a feature of later television pilots and shows such as How the West Was Won. These
programs resembled the “sympathetic” yet contradictory film Dances With Wolves of 1990, in which, according to
Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, the narrative choice was to relate the Lakotas story as told through a Euro-American
voice, for wide impact among a general audience.[137] Like the 1992 remake of The Last of the Mohicans and
Geronimo: An American Legend (1993), Dances with Wolves employed a number of Native American actors, and
made some effort to portray Indigenous languages.
In 2004, Co-Producer Guy Perrotta presented the film Mystic Voices: The Story of the Pequot War (2004), a
television documentary on the first major war between colonists and Native peoples in the Americas. Perrotta and
Charles Clemmons intended to increase public understanding of the significance of this early event. They believed it
had significance not only for northeastern Native Peoples and descendants of English and Dutch colonists, but for all
Americans today. The producers wanted to make the documentary as historically accurate and as unbiased as
possible. They invited a broadly based Advisory Board, and used scholars, Native Americans, and descendants of the
colonists to help tell the story. They elicited personal and often passionate viewpoints from contemporary
Americans. The production portrayed the conflict as a struggle between different value systems that included not
only the Pequots, but a number of Native American tribes, most of which allied with the English. It not only presents
facts, but also seeks to help the viewer better understand the people who fought the War.
In 2009, We Shall Remain (2009), a television documentary by Ric Burns and part of the American Experience
series, presented a five-episode series "from a Native American perspective": it represented "an unprecedented
collaboration between Native and non-Native filmmakers and involves Native advisors and scholars at all levels of
the project."[138] The five episodes explore the impact of King Philip's War on the northeastern tribes, the "Native
American confederacy" involved in Tecumseh's War, the forced relocation known as Trail of Tears, the pursuit and
capture of Geronimo and the Apache Wars, and concludes with the American Indian Movement's involvement at the
Wounded Knee incident and the resurgence in modern Native cultures afterward.
Terminology differences
Common usage in the United States

Native Americans are more commonly known as Indians or American Indians, and have been known as Aboriginal
Americans, Amerindians, Amerinds, Colored,[98] [139] First Americans, Native Indians, Indigenous, Original
Americans, Red Indians, Redskins or Red Men. The term Native American was originally introduced in the United
States by academics in preference to the older term Indian to distinguish the indigenous peoples of the Americas
from the people of India, and to avoid negative stereotypes supposedly associated with the term Indian. Because of
the acceptance of this newer term in academic circles, some academics believe that Indians should be considered as
outdated or offensive. Many actual indigenous Americans, however, prefer American Indian. Also, some people
point out that anyone born in the United States is, technically, native to America, and that the academic who first
promoted Native American confused the term native with indigenous. People from India (and their descendants) who
are citizens of the United States are called Indian Americans or Asian Indians.
Criticism of the neologism Native American, however, comes from diverse
sources. Many American Indians have misgivings about the term Native
American. Russell Means, an American Indian activist, opposes the term Native
American because he believes it was imposed by the government without the
consent of American Indians. He has also argued that this use of the word Indian
derives not from a confusion with India but from a Spanish expression En Dio,
meaning "in God".[140] Furthermore, some American Indians question the term
Native American because, they argue, it serves to ease the conscience of "white
America" with regard to past injustices done to American Indians by effectively
eliminating "Indians" from the present.[141] Still others (both Indians and
non-Indians) argue that Native American is problematic because "native of"
Martha Gradolf, Hochunk weaver
literally means "born in," so any person born in the Americas could be
from Indiana considered "native". However, very often the compound "Native American" will
be capitalized in order to differentiate this intended meaning from others.
Likewise, "native" (small 'n') can be further qualified by formulations such as "native-born" when the intended
meaning is only to indicate place of birth or origin.
A 1995 U.S. Census Bureau survey found that more Native Americans in the United States preferred American
Indian to Native American.[142] Nonetheless, most American Indians are comfortable with Indian, American Indian,
and Native American, and the terms are often used interchangeably.[143] The traditional term is reflected in the name
chosen for the National Museum of the American Indian, which opened in 2004 on the Mall in Washington, D.C..
Recently, the U.S. Census Bureau has introduced the "Asian-Indian" category to avoid ambiguity.
Gambling industry
Gambling has become a leading industry. Casinos operated by many
Native American governments in the United States are creating a
stream of gambling revenue that some communities are beginning to
use as leverage to build diversified economies. Native American
communities have waged and prevailed in legal battles to assure
recognition of rights to self-determination and to use of natural
resources. Some of those rights, known as treaty rights, are enumerated
in early treaties signed with the young United States government.
Tribal sovereignty has become a cornerstone of American
Sandia Casino, owned by the Sandia Pueblo of
jurisprudence, and at least on the surface, in national legislative
New Mexico
policies. Although many Native American tribes have casinos, the
Impact of Native American gambling is widely debated. Some tribes,
such as the Winnemem Wintu of Redding, California, feel that casinos and their proceeds destroy culture from the
inside out. These tribes refuse to participate in the gambling industry.
Society, language, and culture
Ethno-linguistic classification
Far from forming a single ethnic group, Native Americans were divided into several hundred ethno-linguistic groups,
most of them grouped into the Na-Dené (Athabaskan), Algic (including Algonquian), Uto-Aztecan, Iroquoian,
Siouan-Catawban, Yok-Utian, Salishan and Yuman-Cochimí phyla, besides many smaller groups and several
language isolates. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity
present in North America.
The indigenous peoples of North America can be classified as belonging to a number of large cultural areas:
• Alaska Natives
• Arctic: Eskimo-Aleut
• Subarctic: Northern Athabaskan
• Western United States
• Californian tribes (Northern):
Yok-Utian, Pacific Coast
Athabaskan, Coast Miwok,
Yurok, Palaihnihan, Chumashan,
Uto-Aztecan
• Plateau tribes: Interior Salish,
Plateau Penutian
• Great Basin tribes: Uto-Aztecan
• Pacific Northwest Coast: Pacific
Early Indian languages in the US
Coast Athabaskan, Coast Salish
• Southwestern tribes: Uto-Aztecan, Yuman, Southern Athabaskan
• Central United States
• Plains Indians: Siouan, Plains Algonquian, Southern Athabaskan
• Eastern United States
• Northeastern Woodlands tribes: Iroquoian, Central Algonquian, Eastern Algonquian
• Southeastern tribes: Muskogean, Siouan, Catawban, Iroquoian

Of the surviving languages, Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are
considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl); Nadene comes in second with approximately 180,200
speakers (148,500 of these are speakers of Navajo). Na-Dené and Algic have the widest geographic distributions:
Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to
later migrations of the Kickapoo) with two outliers in California (Yurok and Wiyot); Na-Dené spans from Alaska
and western Canada through Washington, Oregon, and California to the U.S. Southwest and northern Mexico (with
one outlier in the Plains). Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the Southeast; however, many
of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from the
historical record.
Cultural aspects
Though cultural features, language, clothing, and customs vary
enormously from one tribe to another, there are certain elements
which are encountered frequently and shared by many tribes. '
Early hunter-gatherer tribes made stone weapons from around
10,000 years ago; as the age of metallurgy dawned, newer
technologies were used and more efficient weapons produced.
Prior to contact with Europeans, most tribes used similar
weaponry. The most common implements were the bow and
arrow, the war club, and the spear. Quality, material, and design
varied widely. Native American use of fire both helped provide
and prepare for food and altered the landscape of the continent to Hopi woman dressing hair of unmarried girl from
help the human population flourish. 1900.
Large mammals like mammoths and mastodons were largely

extinct by around 8000 BC. Native Americans switched to hunting
other large game, such as bison. The Great Plains tribes were still
hunting the bison when they first encountered the Europeans. The
Spanish reintroduction of the horse to North America in the 17th
century and Native Americans' learning to use them greatly altered
the natives' culture, including changing the way in which they
hunted large game. (Evidence of pre-historic horses prior to the
arrival of the Spanish has been found in the La Brea Tar Pits in
Los Angeles, CA.[144] [145] ) In addition, horses became such a Sheep remain an important aspect in Navajo Tradition
valuable, central element of Native lives that they were counted as and Culture.
a measure of wealth.
Organization
Gens structure
Early European American scholars described the Native Americans as having a

society dominated by clans or gentes (in the Roman model) before tribes were
formed. There were some common characteristics:
• The right to elect its sachem and chiefs.
• The right to depose its sachem and chiefs.
• The obligation not to marry in the gens.
• Mutual rights of inheritance of the property of deceased members.
• Reciprocal obligations of help, defense, and redress of injuries.
• The right to bestow names on its members.
• The right to adopt strangers into the gens.
• Common religious rights, query.
• A common burial place.
• A council of the gens.[146]
Zuni girl with pottery jar on her head
in 1909
Tribal structure
Subdivision and differentiation took place between various groups. Upwards of forty stock languages developed in
North America, with each independent tribe speaking a dialect of one of those languages. Some functions and
attributes of tribes are:
• The possession of the gentes.
• The right to depose these sachems and chiefs.
• The possession of a religious faith and worship.
• A supreme government consisting of a council of chiefs.
• A head-chief of the tribe in some instances.[146]
Society and art

The Iroquois, living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used
strings or belts called wampum that served a dual function: the knots and beaded
designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as
a medium of exchange and a unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were
seen as tribal dignitaries.[147]
Pueblo peoples crafted impressive items associated with their religious
ceremonies. Kachina dancers wore elaborately painted and decorated masks as Shonto Begay, Diné painter from
they ritually impersonated various ancestral spirits. Sculpture was not highly Arizona
developed, but carved stone and wood fetishes were made for religious use.
Superior weaving, embroidered decorations, and rich dyes characterized the textile arts. Both turquoise and shell
jewelry were created, as were high-quality pottery and formalized pictorial arts.
Navajo spirituality focused on the maintenance of a harmonious relationship with the spirit world, often achieved by
ceremonial acts, usually incorporating sandpainting. The colors—made from sand, charcoal, cornmeal, and
pollen—depicted specific spirits. These vivid, intricate, and colorful sand creations were erased at the end of the
ceremony.
Agriculture
An early crop the Native Americans grew was squash. Others early crops
included cotton, sunflower, pumpkins, tobacco, goosefoot, knotgrass, and sump
weed.
Agriculture in the southwest started around 4,000 years ago when traders brought
cultigens from Mexico. Due to the varying climate, some ingenuity was needed
for agriculture to be successful. The climate in the southwest ranged from cool,
moist mountains regions, to dry, sandy soil in the desert. Some innovations of the
time included irrigation to bring water into the dry regions and the selection of
seed based on the traits of the growing plants that bore them. In the southwest,
they grew beans that were self-supported, much like the way they are grown
today.
In the east, however, they were planted right by corn in order for the vines to be
able to "climb" the cornstalks. The most important crop the Native Americans Maize grown by Native Americans
raised was maize. It was first started in Mesoamerica and spread north. About
2,000 years ago it reached eastern America. This crop was important to the
Native Americans because it was part of their everyday diet; it could be stored in
underground pits during the winter, and no part of it was wasted. The husk was
made into art crafts, and the cob was used as fuel for fires. By 800 AD the Native
Americans had established three main crops — beans, squash, and corn — called
the three sisters.
The agriculture gender roles of the Native Americans varied from region to
region. In the southwest area, men prepared the soil with hoes. The women were
in charge of planting, weeding, and harvesting the crops. In most other regions,
the women were in charge of doing everything, including clearing the land.
Clearing the land was an immense chore since the Native Americans rotated
fields frequently. There is a tradition that Squanto showed the Pilgrims in New
England how to put fish in fields to act like a fertilizer, but the truth of this story
is debated. Native Americans did plant beans next to corn; the beans would Chippewa baby waits on a
cradleboard while parents tend rice
replace the nitrogen which the corn took from the ground, as well as using corn
crops (Minnesota, 1940).
stalks for support for climbing. Native Americans used controlled fires to burn
weeds and clear fields; this would put nutrients back into the ground. If this did
not work, they would simply abandon the field to let it be fallow, and find a new spot for cultivation.
Europeans in the eastern part of the continent observed that Natives cleared large areas for cropland. Their fields in
New England sometimes covered hundreds of acres. Colonists in Virginia noted thousands of acres under cultivation
by Native Americans.[148]
Native Americans commonly used tools such as the hoe, maul, and dibber. The hoe was the main tool used to till the
land and prepare it for planting; then it was used for weeding. The first versions were made out of wood and stone.
When the settlers brought iron, Native Americans switched to iron hoes and hatchets. The dibber was a digging stick,
used to plant the seed. Once the plants were harvested, women prepared the produce for eating. They used the maul
to grind the corn into mash. It was cooked and eaten that way or baked as corn bread.[149]
Religion
Traditional Native American
ceremonies are still practiced by many
tribes and bands, and the older
theological belief systems are still held
by many of the "traditional" people.
These spiritualities may accompany
adherence to another faith, or can
represent a person's primary religious
identity. While much Native American
spiritualism exists in a tribal-cultural
continuum, and as such cannot be easily
separated from tribal identity itself,
certain other more clearly defined
movements have arisen among Baptism of Pocahontas was painted in 1840. John Gadsby Chapman depicts Pocahontas,
"traditional" Native American wearing white, being baptized Rebecca by Anglican minister Alexander Whiteaker in
practitioners, these being identifiable as Jamestown, Virginia; this event is believed to have taken place in 1613 or 1614.
"religions" in the clinical sense.

Traditional practices of some tribes include the use of sacred herbs such as tobacco, sweetgrass or sage. Many Plains
tribes have sweatlodge ceremonies, though the specifics of the ceremony vary among tribes. Fasting, singing and
prayer in the ancient languages of their people, and sometimes drumming are also common.
The Midewiwin Lodge is a traditional medicine society inspired by the oral traditions and prophesies of the Ojibwa
(Chippewa) and related tribes.
Another significant religious body among Native peoples is known as the Native American Church. It is a
syncretistic church incorporating elements of Native spiritual practice from a number of different tribes as well as
symbolic elements from Christianity. Its main rite is the peyote ceremony. Prior to 1890, traditional religious beliefs
included Wakan Tanka. In the American Southwest, especially New Mexico, a syncretism between the Catholicism
brought by Spanish missionaries and the native religion is common; the religious drums, chants, and dances of the
Pueblo people are regularly part of Masses at Santa Fe's Saint Francis Cathedral.[150] Native American-Catholic
syncretism is also found elsewhere in the United States. (e.g., the National Kateri Tekakwitha Shrine in Fonda, New
York and the National Shrine of the North American Martyrs in Auriesville, New York).
The eagle feather law (Title 50 Part 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations) stipulates that only individuals of
certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle
feathers for religious or spiritual use. The law does not allow Native Americans to give eagle feathers to non-Native
Americans.
Gender roles
Most Native American tribes had traditional gender roles. In some tribes, such as
the Iroquois nation, social and clan relationships were matrilineal and/or
matriarchal, although several different systems were in use. One example is the
Cherokee custom of wives owning the family property. Men hunted, traded and
made war, while women gathered plants, cared for the young and the elderly,
fashioned clothing and instruments and cured meat. The cradleboard was used by
mothers to carry their baby while working or traveling.[151] In some (but not all)
tribes, two-spirit individuals served mixed or third gender gender roles.
At least several dozen tribes allowed polygyny to sisters, with procedural and
economic limits.[146]
Apart from making home, women had many tasks that were essential for the
Dr. Susan La Flesche Picotte was the survival of the tribes. They made weapons and tools, took care of the roofs of
first Native American woman to
their homes and often helped their men hunt bison.[152] In some of the Plains
become a physician in the United
States.
Indian tribes there reportedly were medicine women who gathered herbs and
cured the ill.[153]
In some of these tribes such as the Sioux girls were also encouraged to learn to ride, hunt and fight.[154] Though
fighting was mostly left to the boys and men, there had been cases of women fighting alongside them, especially
when the existence of the tribe was threatened.[155]
Sports
Native American leisure time led to competitive individual and team sports. Jim Thorpe, Notah Begay III, Jacoby
Ellsbury, and Billy Mills are well known professional athletes.
Team based
Native American ball sports, sometimes referred to as lacrosse,

stickball, or baggataway, was often used to settle disputes rather than
going to war which was a civil way to settle potential conflict. The
Choctaw called it ISITOBOLI ("Little Brother of War");[156] the
Onondaga name was DEHUNTSHIGWA'ES ("men hit a rounded
object"). There are three basic versions classifed as Great Lakes,
Iroquoian, and Southern.[157] The game is played with one or two
rackets/sticks and one ball. The object of the game is to land the ball on
the opposing team's goal (either a single post or net) to score and
Ball players from the Choctaw and Lakota tribe
prevent the opposing team from scoring on your goal. The game
as painted by George Catlin in the 1830s
involves as few as twenty or as many as 300 players with no height or
weight restrictions and no protective gear. The goals could be from a
few hundred feet apart to a few miles; in Lacrosse the field is 110 yards. A Jesuit priest referenced stickball in 1729,
and George Catlin painted the subject.
Individual based
Chunkey was a game that consisted of a stone shaped disk that was about 1–2 inches in diameter. The disk was
thrown down a 200-foot (61 m) corridor so that it could roll past the players at great speed. The disk would roll down
the corridor, and players would throw wooden shafts at the moving disk. The object of the game was to strike the
disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it.
U.S. Olympics
Jim Thorpe, a Sauk and Fox Native American, was an all-round athlete
playing football and baseball in the early 20th century. Future
President Dwight Eisenhower injured his knee while trying to tackle
the young Thorpe. In a 1961 speech, Eisenhower recalled Thorpe:
"Here and there, there are some people who are supremely endowed.
My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life,
and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever
saw."[158]
In the 1912 Olympics, Thorpe could run the 100-yard dash in 10

seconds flat, the 220 in 21.8 seconds, the 440 in 51.8 seconds, the 880
in 1:57, the mile in 4:35, the 120-yard high hurdles in 15 seconds, and Jim Thorpe was called the "greatest athlete in the
world" by king Gustaf V of Sweden
the 220-yard low hurdles in 24 seconds.[159] He could long jump 23 ft
6 in and high-jump 6 ft 5 in.[159] He could pole vault 11 feet, put the
shot 47 ft 9 in, throw the javelin 163 feet, and throw the discus
136 feet.[159] Thorpe entered the U.S. Olympic trials for both the
pentathlon and the decathlon.
Billy Mills, a Lakota and USMC officer, won the gold medal in the
10,000 meter run at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. He was the only
American ever to win the Olympic gold in this event. An unknown
prior to the Olympics, Mills finished second in the U.S. Olympic trials.
Billy Kidd, part Abenaki from Vermont, became the first American
male to medal in alpine skiing in the Olympics, taking silver at age 20
Billy Mills crosses the finish line for the 10,000
in the slalom in the 1964 Winter Olympics at Innsbruck, Austria. meter race at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics
Six years later at the 1970 World Championships, Kidd won the gold
medal in the combined event and took the bronze medal in the slalom.
Music and art

Traditional Native American music is almost entirely monophonic, but there are
notable exceptions. Native American music often includes drumming and/or the
playing of rattles or other percussion instruments but little other instrumentation.
Flutes and whistles made of wood, cane, or bone are also played, generally by
individuals, but in former times also by large ensembles (as noted by Spanish
conquistador de Soto). The tuning of these flutes is not precise and depends on
the length of the wood used and the hand span of the intended player, but the
finger holes are most often around a whole step apart and, at least in Northern
California, a flute was not used if it turned out to have an interval close to a half
step.
Performers with Native American parentage have occasionally appeared in

American popular music, such as Robbie Robertson (The Band), Rita Coolidge,
Wayne Newton, Gene Clark, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Blackfoot, Tori Amos,
Redbone, and CocoRosie. Some, such as John Trudell, have used music to
Jake Fragua, Jemez Pueblo from
comment on life in Native America, and others, such as R. Carlos Nakai integrate New Mexico
traditional sounds with modern sounds in instrumental recordings. A variety of
small and medium-sized recording companies offer an abundance of recent music by Native American performers
young and old, ranging from pow-wow drum music to hard-driving rock-and-roll and rap.
The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans in the United States is that of the
pow-wow. At pow-wows, such as the annual Gathering of Nations in Albuquerque, New Mexico, members of drum
groups sit in a circle around a large drum. Drum groups play in unison while they sing in a native language and
dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups in the center. Familiar pow-wow songs include
honor songs, intertribal songs, crow-hops, sneak-up songs, grass-dances, two-steps, welcome songs, going-home
songs, and war songs. Most indigenous communities in the United States also maintain traditional songs and
ceremonies, some of which are shared and practiced exclusively within the community.[160]
Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection. Native American contributions include
pottery(Native American pottery), paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry, and carvings. Franklin Gritts,
was a Cherokee artist, who taught students from many tribes at Haskell Institute (now Haskell Indian Nations
University) in the 1940s, the Golden Age of Native American painters.
The integrity of certain Native American artworks is now protected by an act of Congress that prohibits
representation of art as Native American when it is not the product of an enrolled Native American artist.
Economy
The Inuit, or Eskimo, prepared and buried large amounts of dried meat and fish. Pacific Northwest tribes crafted
seafaring dugouts 40–50 feet long for fishing. Farmers in the Eastern Woodlands tended fields of maize with hoes
and digging sticks, while their neighbors in the Southeast grew tobacco as well as food crops. On the Plains, some
tribes engaged in agriculture but also planned buffalo hunts in which herds were driven over bluffs. Dwellers of the
Southwest deserts hunted small animals and gathered acorns to grind into flour with which they baked wafer-thin
bread on top of heated stones. Some groups on the region's mesas developed irrigation techniques, and filled
storehouses with grain as protection against the area's frequent droughts.
In the early years, as these native peoples encountered European explorers and settlers and engaged in trade, they
exchanged food, crafts, and furs for blankets, iron and steel implements, horses, trinkets, firearms, and alcoholic
beverages.
Barriers to economic development
Today, other than tribes successfully running casinos, many tribes

struggle. There are an estimated 2.1 million Native Americans, and
they are the most impoverished of all ethnic groups. According to the
2000 Census, an estimated 400,000 Native Americans reside on
reservation land. While some tribes have had success with gaming,
only 40% of the 562 federally recognized tribes operate casinos.[161]
According to a 2007 survey by the U.S. Small Business
Administration, only 1 percent of Native Americans own and operate a
business.[162] Native Americans rank at the bottom of nearly every
social statistic: highest teen suicide rate of all minorities at 18.5 per "The King of the Seas in the Hands of the
100,000, highest rate of teen pregnancy, highest high school drop out Makahs," photograph taken in 1910 of Makah
Native Americans
rate at 54%, lowest per capita income, and unemployment rates
between 50% to 90%.
The barriers to economic development on Native American reservations often cited by others and two experts Joseph
Kalt[163] and Stephen Cornell[164] of the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development at Harvard
University, in their classic report: What Can Tribes Do? Strategies and Institutions in American Indian Economic
Development,[165] are as follows (incomplete list, see full Kalt & Cornell report):
• Lack of access to capital.
• Lack of human capital (education, skills, technical expertise) and the means to develop it.
• Reservations lack effective planning.
• Reservations are poor in natural resources.
• Reservations have natural resources, but lack sufficient control over them.
• Reservations are disadvantaged by their distance from markets and the high costs of transportation.
• Tribes cannot persuade investors to locate on reservations because of intense competition from non-Native
American communities.
• The Bureau of Indian Affairs is inept, corrupt, and/or uninterested in reservation development.
• Tribal politicians and bureaucrats are inept or corrupt.
• On-reservation factionalism destroys stability in tribal decisions.
• The instability of tribal government keeps outsiders from investing.
• Entrepreneurial skills and experience are scarce.
• Tribal cultures get in the way.
One of the major barriers for overcoming the economic strife is the lack of entrepreneurial knowledge and
experience across Indian reservations. “A general lack of education and experience about business is a significant
challenge to prospective entrepreneurs,” also says another report on Native American entrepreneurship by the
Northwest Area Foundation in 2004. “Native American communities that lack entrepreneurial traditions and recent
experiences typically do not provide the support that entrepreneurs need to thrive. Consequently, experiential
entrepreneurship education needs to be embedded into school curricula and after-school and other community
activities. This would allow students to learn the essential elements of entrepreneurship from a young age and
encourage them to apply these elements throughout life.”.[166] One publication devoted to addressing these issues is
Rez Biz magazine.
Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans

Interracial relations between Native Americans, Europeans, and
Africans is a complex issue that has been mostly neglected with
"few in-depth studies on interracial relationships".[167] [168] Some
of the first documented cases of European/Native American
intermarriage and contact were recorded in Post-Columbian
Mexico. One case is that of Gonzalo Guerrero, a European from
Spain, who was shipwrecked along the Yucatan Peninsula, and
fathered three Mestizo children with a Mayan noblewoman.
Another is the case of (Hernán Cortés) and his mistress La
Malinche, who gave birth to another of the first multi-racial people
in the Americas.[169]
Native Americans and assimilation acceptance with Europeans
European impact was immediate, widespread, and

profound—more than any other race that had contact with Native
Americans during the early years of colonization and nationhood.
Lillian Gross, described as a "Mixed Blood" by the
Europeans living among Native Americans were often called
Smithsonian source, was of Native American and
"white indians". They "lived in native communities for years, European/American heritage. She identified with her
learned native languages fluently, attended native councils, and Cherokee culture.
often fought alongside their native companions."[170]
Early contact was often charged with tension and

emotion, but also had moments of friendship,
cooperation, and intimacy.[171] Marriages took
place in English, Spanish, and French colonies
between European men and Native women. In
1528, Isabel de Moctezuma, an heir of
Moctezuma II, was married to Alonso de Grado, a
Spanish Conquistador, and later after his death to
Juan Cano de Saavedra. Together they had five
children. Much later, on April 5, 1614,
The 1725 return of an Osage bride from a trip to Paris, France. The Osage Pocahontas married Englishman John Rolfe, and
woman was married to a French soldier. they had a child called Thomas Rolfe. Also, many
heirs of Emperor Moctezuma II were
acknowledged by the Spanish crown, who granted them many titles including Duke of Moctezuma de Tultengo.
Intimate relations among Native American and Europeans were widespread, beginning with the French and Spanish
explorers and trappers. For instance, in the early 19th century, the Native American woman Sacagawea, who would
help translate for the Lewis and Clark Expedition, was married to French trapper Toussaint Charbonneau. They had a
son named Jean Baptiste Charbonneau. This was the most typical pattern among the traders and trappers.
Many settlers feared Native Americans because they

were different.[171] Their ways seemed savage to
whites, and they were suspicious of a culture they did
not understand.[171] A Native American author Andrew
J. Blackbird in 1897, found that white settlers
introduced some immoralities into Native American
tribes.[171]
He wrote in his book, History of the Ottawa and

Chippewa Indians of Michigan,
"The Ottawas and Chippewas were quite
virtuous in their primitive state, as there
were no illegitimate children reported in Five Indians and a Captive, painted by Carl Wimar, 1855
our old traditions. But very lately this evil

came to exist among the Ottawas-so lately that the second case among the Ottawas of Arbor Croche is
yet living in 1897. And from that time this evil came to be quite frequent, for immorality has been
introduced among these people by evil white persons who bring their vices into the tribes."[171]
The U. S. government had two purposes in mind when making land agreements with Native Americans. First, they
wanted to open it up more land for white settlement.[172] Second, they wanted to ease tensions between whites and
Native Americans by forcing Natives to use the land like whites did.[172] The government had a variety of strategies
to accomplish these aims; many treaties required Native Americans to become farmers in order to keep their
land.[172] Government officials often did not translate the documents Native Americans were forced to sign, and
native chiefs often had little or no idea what they were signing.[172]
For a Native American man to marry a white woman he had to get consent of the parents as long as "he can prove to
support her as a white woman in a good home".[173] In the early 19th century, Shawnee Native American Tecumseh
and blonde hair & blued eyed Rebbecca Galloway had a inter-racial affair. In the late 19th century, three
European-American middle-class female staff married Native American men met during the years when Hampton
Institute ran its Native American program.[174] Charles Eastman married his European-American wife Elaine
Goodale whom he had met in Dakota Territory when Goodale was social worker and the superintendent of Native
American education for the reservations. They had six children together.
Native American and African relations

African and Native Americans have interacted for centuries. The earliest record of African and Native American
contact occurred in April 1502, when the first Africans were brought to Hispaniola to serve as slaves.[175]
Sometimes Native Americans resented the presence of African Americans.[176] In one description the "Catawaba
tribe in 1752 showed great anger and bitter resentment when an African American came among them as a
trader."[176] The Cherokee had the strongest color prejudice of all Native Americans to gain favor with
Europeans.[177] The hostility has been attributed to European fears of a unified revolt of Native Americans and
African Americans: "Whites sought to convince Native Americans that African Americans worked against their best
interests." [178] In 1751, South Carolina law stated:
"The carrying of Negroes among the Indians has all along been thought detrimental, as an intimacy
ought to be avoided."[179]
Europeans considered both races inferior and made efforts to make both Native Americans and Africans enemies.[93]
Native Americans were rewarded if they returned escaped slaves, and African Americans were rewarded for fighting
in "Indian Wars".[93] [180] [181]
"Native Americans, during the transitional period of Africans becoming the

primary race enslaved, were enslaved at the same time and shared a common
experience of enslavement. They worked together, lived together in communal
quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and
legends, and in the end they intermarried."[94] Because of this many tribes
encouraged marriage between the two groups, to create stronger, healthier
children from the unions.[182] In the 18th century, many Native American women
did marry freed or runaway African men due to a large decrease in the population
of men in Native American villages.[93] In addition, records also show that many
Native American women actually bought African men, but unknown to European
Ras K'Dee, Pomo-Kenyan singer and sellers the women freed and married the men into their tribe.[93] It was also
editor from California beneficial for African men to marry or have children by a Native American
woman because children born to a mother who was not a slave were free.[93]
European colonists often requested the return of any runaway slaves in treaties. In 1726, the British Governor of
New York exacted a promise from the Iroquois to return all runaway slaves who had joined up with them.[183] In the
mid 1760s, Huron and Delaware Native Americans were also requested to return runaway slaves however no record
of slaves being returned occurred.[184] Ads were used to request the return of slaves.
Slave ownership was prevalent among a few Native American

tribes, especially in the southeast where the Cherokee, Choctaw,
and Creek lived. Though less than 3% of Native Americans owned
slaves, bondage practices created destructive divisions among
Native Americans.[95] Among the Cherokee, records show that
slave holders in the tribe were largely the children of European
men that had showed their children the economics of slavery.[180]
As European expansion increased more African and Native
American marriages became more prominent.[93]
A few historians suggest that most African Americans have Native

American heritage[186] Based on the work of geneticists, a PBS
series on African Americans explained that while most African
Americans are racially mixed, it is relatively rare that they have
Native American ancestry.[187] [188] According to the PBS series,
the most common "non-black" mix is English and Scots-Irish.[187]
[188]
However, the Y-chromosome and mtDNA (mitochondrial
DNA) testing processes for direct-line male and female ancestors
can fail to pick up the heritage of many ancestors. (Some critics L to R: Mrs. Amos Chapman, her daughter, sister (all
Cheyenne, and an unidentified African-American girl.
thought the PBS series did not sufficiently explain the limitations [185]
1886
of DNA testing for assessment of heritage.)[189] Another study
suggests that relatively few Native Americans have
African-American heritage.[190] A study reported in The American Journal of Human Genetics stated, "We analyzed
the European genetic contribution to 10 populations of African descent in the United States (Maywood, Illinois;
Detroit; New York; Philadelphia; Pittsburgh; Baltimore; Charleston, South Carolina; New Orleans; and Houston) ...
mtDNA haplogroups analysis shows no evidence of a significant maternal Amerindian contribution to any of the 10
populations."[191]
Researchers caution that genetic ancestry DNA testing has limitations and should not be depended on by individuals
to answer all their questions about heritage.[189] [192] Testing cannot distinguish among separate Native American
tribes. Nor can it be used alone to assert membership in a tribe.[193]
Blood Quantum
Intertribal mixing was common among Native American tribes, so individuals could be said to be descended from
more than one tribe.[37] [38] Bands or entire tribes occasionally split or merged to form more viable groups in reaction
to the pressures of climate, disease and warfare.[194] A number of tribes traditionally adopted captives into their
group to replace members who had been captured or killed in battle. These captives came from rival tribes and later
from European settlers. Some tribes also sheltered or adopted white traders and runaway slaves and Native
American-owned slaves. Tribes with long trading histories with Europeans show a higher rate of European
admixture, reflecting years of intermarriage between European men and Native American women.[194] A number of
paths to genetic diversity among Native Americans thus existed.
While in recent years some commentators have
suggested high rates of admixture between Native
Americans and African Americans, genetic
genealogists have found lesser frequency. Literary
critic and author Henry Louis Gates, Jr. cites experts
who argue that only 5 percent of African Americans
have at least 12.5 percent Native American ancestry
(equivalent to one great-grandparent). Of course this
means that a greater percentage could have a very small
percentage of ancestry, but it also suggests that past
estimates of admixture may have been too high.[196] As
some genetic tests assess only direct male or female
ancestors, individuals may not discover Native
American ancestry from other ancestors. Among an Members of the Creek (Muscogee) Nation in Oklahoma around
1877, including those with some European and African
individual's 64 4xgreat-grandparents, direct testing [195]
ancestry.
yields DNA evidence of only two.[189] [192] [197]
In addition to limitations if only direct male and female lines are tested, DNA testing cannot be used for determining
tribal membership because it can not distinguish among Native American groups. Native American identity has
historically been based on culture, not just biology. The Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism (IPCB) notes
that:
"Native American markers" are not found solely among Native Americans. While they occur more
frequently among Native Americans they are also found in people in other parts of the world.[197]
Geneticists also state:
Not all Native Americans have been tested especially with the large number of deaths due to disease
such as small pox, it is unlikely that Native Americans only have the genetic markers they have
identified, even when their maternal or paternal bloodline does not include a non-Native American.[189]
[192]
To receive tribal services, a Native American must belong to, and be certified by, a recognized tribal organization.
Each tribal government makes its own rules for citizens or tribal members. The federal government has standards
related to services available to certified Native Americans. For instance, federal scholarships for Native Americans
require the student to be enrolled in a federally recognized tribe and have at least one-quarter Native American
descent (equivalent to one grandparent), attested to by a Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood card. Among tribes,
qualification may be based upon a required percentage of Native American "blood", or the "blood quantum" of an
individual seeking recognition.
To attain certainty, some tribes have begun requiring genealogical DNA testing, but this is usually related to proving
parentage or direct descent from a certified member.[198] Requirements for tribal membership vary widely by tribe.
The Cherokee require documented genealogical descent from a Native American listed on the early 1906 Dawes
Rolls. Tribal rules regarding recognition of members who have heritage from multiple tribes are equally diverse and
complex.
Tribal membership conflicts have led to a number of legal disputes, court cases, and the formation of activist groups.
One example of this are the Cherokee Freedmen. Today, they include descendants of African Americans once
enslaved by the Cherokees, who were granted, by federal treaty, citizenship in the historic Cherokee Nation as freed
men after the Civil War. The modern Cherokee Nation, in the early 1980s, excluded them from citizenship —unless
individuals can prove descent from a Cherokee Native American (not just freedmen) listed on the Dawes Rolls.
In the 20th century, an increasing number of Caucasian-Americans have seemed more interested in claiming descent
from Native Americans. Many people have claimed descent from the Cherokee.[199]
Population
In 2006, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that about 0.8 percent of the U.S.
population was of American Indian or Alaska Native descent. This population is
unevenly distributed across the country.[202] Below, all 50 states, as well as the
District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, are listed by the proportion of residents
citing American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry, based on 2006 estimates:
Alaska – 13.1% 101,352
New Mexico – 9.7% 165,944
South Dakota – 8.6% 60,358 Kateri Tekakwitha, the patron of
Oklahoma – 6.8% 262,581 ecologists, exiles, and orphans, was
beatified by the Roman Catholic
Montana – 6.3% 57,225 Church.
North Dakota – 5.2% 30,552
Arizona – 4.5% 261,168
Wyoming – 2.2% 10,867
Oregon – 1.8% 45,633
Washington – 1.5% 104,819
Nevada – 1.2%
Idaho – 1.1%
North Carolina – 1.1%
Utah – 1.1%
Minnesota – 1.0%
Colorado – 0.9%
Mishikinakwa ("Little Turtle")'s
Kansas – 0.9% forces defeated an American force of
nearly 1000 U.S Army soldiers and
Nebraska – 0.9%
other casualties at the Battle of the
Wisconsin – 0.9% Wabash in 1791.
Arkansas – 0.8%
California – 0.7%
Louisiana – 0.6%
Maine – 0.5%
Michigan – 0.5%
Texas – 0.5%
Alabama – 0.4%
Mississippi – 0.4%
Missouri – 0.4%
Rhode Island – 0.4%
Vermont – 0.4%
Florida – 0.3%
Delaware – 0.3% Charles Eastman was one of the first
Native Americans to become a
Hawaii – 0.3% [200] [201]
Western Medical Doctor.
Iowa – 0.3%
New York – 0.3%
South Carolina – 0.3%
Tennessee – 0.3%
Georgia – 0.2%
Virginia – 0.2%
Connecticut – 0.2%
Illinois – 0.2%
Indiana – 0.2%
Kentucky – 0.2%
Maryland – 0.2%
Massachusetts – 0.2%
New Hampshire – 0.2%
New Jersey – 0.2%
Ohio – 0.2%
West Virginia – 0.2%
Pennsylvania – 0.1%
District of Columbia – 0.3%
Puerto Rico – 0.2%
In 2006, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that about less than 1.0 percent of the U.S. population was of Native
Hawaiian or Pacific Islander descent. This population is unevenly distributed across 26 states.[202] Below, are the 26
states that had at least 0.1%. They are listed by the proportion of residents citing Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
ancestry, based on 2006 estimates:
Hawaii – 8.7
Utah – 0.7
Alaska – 0.6
California – 0.4
Nevada – 0.4
Washington – 0.4
Arizona – 0.2
Oregon – 0.2
Alabama – 0.1
Arkansas – 0.1
Colorado – 0.1
Florida – 0.1
Idaho – 0.1
Kentucky – 0.1
Maryland – 0.1
Massachusetts – 0.1
Missouri – 0.1
Montana – 0.1
New Mexico – 0.1
North Carolina – 0.1
Oklahoma – 0.1
South Carolina – 0.1
Texas – 0.1
Virginia – 0.1
West Virginia – 0.1
Wyoming – 0.1
Population distribution
by Selected Tribal Grouping:2000[203]
Tribal grouping American and American and American Indian and American Indian and American Indian and Alaska
Alaska Native Alaska Native Alaska Native in Alaska Native in Native tribal grouping alone
alone alone combination with one or combination with one or or in any combination1
more races more races
Tribal grouping One tribal More than one One tribal grouping More than one tribal
grouping tribal grouping reported grouping reported1
reported reported1
Total 2,423,531 52,425 1,585,396 57,949 4,119,301
Apache 57,060 7,917 24,947 6,909 96,833
Blackfeet 27,104 4,358 41,389 12,899 85,750
Cherokee 281,069 18,793 390,902 38,769 729,533
Cheyenne 11,191 1,365 4,655 993 18,204
Chickasaw 20,887 3,014 12,025 2,425 38,351
Chippewa 105,907 2,730 38,635 2,397 149,669
Choctaw 87,349 9,552 50,123 11,750 158,774
Colville 7,833 193 1,308 59 9,393
Comanche 10,120 1,568 6,120 1,568 19,376

Cree 2,488 724 3,577 945 7,734
Creek 40,223 5,495 21,652 3,940 71,310
Crow 9,117 574 2,812 891 13,394
Delaware 8,304 602 6,866 569 16,341
Houma 6,798 79 1,794 42 8,713
Iroquois 45,212 2,318 29,763 3,529 80,822
Kiowa 8,559 1,130 2,119 434 12,242
Latin American Indian 104,354 1,850 73,042 1,694 180,940
Lumbee 51,913 642 4,934 379 57,868
Menominee 7,883 258 1,551 148 9,840
Navajo 269,202 6,789 19,491 2,715 298,197
Osage 7,658 1,354 5,491 1,394 15,897
Ottawa 6,432 623 3,174 448 10,677
Paiute 9,705 1,163 2,315 349 13,532
Pima 8,519 999 1,741 234 11,493
Potawatomi 15,817 592 8,602 584 25,595
Pueblo 59,533 3,527 9,943 1,082 74,085
Puget Sound Salish 11,034 226 3,212 159 14,631
Seminole 12,431 2,982 9,505 2,513 27,431
Shoshone 7,739 714 3,039 534 12,026
Sioux 108,272 4,794 35,179 5,115 153,360
Tohono O’odham 17,466 714 1,748 159 20,087
Ute 7,309 715 1,944 417 10,385
Yakama 8,481 561 1,619 190 10,851
Yaqui 15,224 1,245 5,184 759 22,412
Yuman 7,295 526 1,051 104 8,976
Other specified 240,521 9,468 100,346 7,323 357,658

American Indian tribes
American Indian tribe, 109,644 57 86,173 28 195,902

not specified2
Alaska Athabascan 14,520 815 3,218 285 18,838
Aleut 11,941 832 3,850 355 16,978
Eskimo 45,919 1,418 6,919 505 54,761
Tlingit-Haida 14,825 1,059 6,047 434 22,365
Other specified Alaska 2,552 435 841 145 3,973

Native tribes
Alaska Native ribe, not 6,161 370 2,053 118 8,702

specified2
American Indian or 511,960 (X) 544,497 (X) 1,056,457

Alaska Native tribes,
not specified3
Genetics
Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the
Americas primarily focus on Human
Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups and
Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups.
"Y-DNA" is passed solely along the
patrilineal line, from father to son, while
"mtDNA" is passed down the matrilineal
line, from mother to offspring of both sexes.
Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and
mtDNA change only by chance mutation at
each generation with no intermixture
between parents' genetic material.[204]
A genetic tree of 18 world human groups by a neighbour-joining autosomal Autosomal "atDNA" markers are also used,
relationships.
but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that
they overlap significantly.[205] AtDNA is
generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the entire human genome and
related isolated populations.[205]
The genetic pattern indicates Indigenous Americans experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the
initial-peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas.[15] [206] [207] The former
is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages, zygosity mutations and founding haplotypes present in
today's Indigenous Amerindian populations.[206]
Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial 15, 000 to
20,000-year layover on Beringia for the small founding population.[15] [208] [209] The micro-satellite diversity and
distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been
isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[210] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations
exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians with various
mtDNA and atDNA mutations.[211] [212] [213] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of
North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.[214] [215]
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External links
• Native American Historical Records (http://www.archives.gov/research/arc/topics/native-americans/)
available in the Archival Research Catalog (http://www.archives.gov/research/arc/) of the National Archives
and Records Administration
• Precolumbian Native American History, Art & Culture @ LostWorlds.org (http://www.LostWorlds.org)
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collections/bonneville.html) at University of South Carolina Library's Digital Collections Page
• Houghton Mifflin Encyclopedia of North American Indians (http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/
naind/html/na_000107_entries.htm)
• Native American Treaties and Information (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/native.htm) from
UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Native American History (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/browse/ListSome.php?category=Native American
History) from the Library of Congress American Memory project
• Native Americans in the United States (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Ethnicity/The_Americas/Indigenous/
Native_Americans/) at the Open Directory Project
• First Nations Seeker (http://www.firstnationsseeker.ca) Visit Native American communities across North
America and discover their history.
Article Sources and Contributors 55
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 56
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Joseph Brant by Gilbert Stuart 1786.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Joseph_Brant_by_Gilbert_Stuart_1786.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
Nonenmac, Scewing
Image:Sequoyah.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sequoyah.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Author of the reproduction unknown. Painter: Henry Inman
(1801-20-28 - 1846-01-17); copy after a painting by Charles Bird King (1785 - 1862) which was lost in a fire in the Smithsonian in 1865.
Image:Pushmataha high resolution.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pushmataha_high_resolution.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: David Schwein, Homo
lupus, Origamiemensch, PKM, Robfergusonjr, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Tecumseh02.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tecumseh02.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Benson John Lossings
Image:Touch the Clouds 1877a.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Touch_the_Clouds_1877a.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Ephriam3, JGHowes, Skier
Dude, 4 anonymous edits
Image:Sitting Bull.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sitting_Bull.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anetode, Ezeu, G.dallorto, Mahanga, Poroubalous, 3
anonymous edits
Image:ChiefJoseph.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChiefJoseph.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Hephaestos at en.wikipedia
File:Charles eastman smithsonian gn 03462a-cropped.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles_eastman_smithsonian_gn_03462a-cropped.jpg License: Public
Domain Contributors: Sawyer, Wells Moses Artist
Image:Colbert.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colbert.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Book authors: Jesse Burt and Bob Ferguson. Photographer
unknown.
File:Billy Bowlegs III.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Billy_Bowlegs_III.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Damiens.rf, FlickreviewR, Frank C. Müller,
Howcheng
Image:Jim Thorpe football.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jim_Thorpe_football.png License: Public Domain Contributors: AaronY, Bigukfan22, Conscious,
Davepape, Editor at Large, GeorgHH, Herbythyme, Himasaram, Margoz, UserB, 11 anonymous edits
Image:JohnBHarrington.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JohnBHarrington.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JohnBHarrington.jpg
Image:Poblamiento de America - Teoría P Tardío.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Poblamiento_de_America_-_Teoría_P_Tardío.png License: GNU Free
Documentation License Contributors: User:Roblespepe
File:Folsom point.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Folsom_point.png License: unknown Contributors: US depatament of the Interior, Bureau of Land Magement
File:Nordamerikanische Kulturareale en.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nordamerikanische_Kulturareale_en.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:Nikater
File:Discovery of the Mississippi.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Discovery_of_the_Mississippi.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: William H. Powell
(photograph courtesy Architect of the Capitol)
File:Conference Between the French and Indian Leaders Around a Ceremonial Fire by Vernier.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Conference_Between_the_French_and_Indian_Leaders_Around_a_Ceremonial_Fire_by_Vernier.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Emile
Louis Vernier (1829-1887)
Image:Native California population graph.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Native_California_population_graph.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License
Contributors: RhymeNotStutter
Image:Treaty of Penn with Indians by Benjamin West.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg License: Public
Domain Contributors: Frank C. Müller, Goldfritha, Man vyi, Nonenmac, Origamiemensch, Presidentman, Rlbberlin, Shakko, Thuresson, Wmpearl, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Tomo-chi-chi and other Yamacraws Native Americans.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tomo-chi-chi_and_other_Yamacraws_Native_Americans.jpg
License: Public Domain Contributors: William Verelst
File:Rebellion to Tyrants colonial medal Virginia.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rebellion_to_Tyrants_colonial_medal_Virginia.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: State of Virginia (Robert Scot)
Image:Portrait of George Washington.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Portrait_of_George_Washington.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Captain Jones,
Cobalty, D-Kuru, HenkvD, Howcheng, Jastrow, Kaldari, Mattes, Rlbberlin, Scewing, Takabeg, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Benjamin Hawkins and the Creek Indians.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benjamin_Hawkins_and_the_Creek_Indians.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Downtowngal, Origamiemensch, Robfergusonjr
Image:Assmilation of Native Americans.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Assmilation_of_Native_Americans.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Antonio(n)
Zeno Shindler, De Lancey W. Gill, and Albert E. Sweeney
Image:American progress.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:American_progress.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: AThing, EDUCA33E, Elijahjarman,
Giro720, Goldfritha, Infrogmation, Jeff G., Kersti Nebelsiek, Kevin Myers, Myself488, Pitke, Siebrand, Str4nd, Warpflyght, WhisperToMe, Wst, 27 anonymous edits
Image:Ely S. Parker.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ely_S._Parker.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Mathew Brady (uploaded by Hlj)
Image:Cherokee Confederates Reunion.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cherokee_Confederates_Reunion.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown
Image:General douglas macarthur meets american indian troops wwii military pacific navajo pima island hopping.JPG Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:General_douglas_macarthur_meets_american_indian_troops_wwii_military_pacific_navajo_pima_island_hopping.JPG License: Public Domain
Contributors: user:cramyourspam edited retouch of old US Govt photo
Image:NativeAmericansToday.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NativeAmericansToday.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
User:Robfergusonjr
File:Poldine carlo koyukon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Poldine_carlo_koyukon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Uyvsdi
Image:Abandoned Mines Shiprock 2009.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Abandoned_Mines_Shiprock_2009.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0 Contributors: User:Workerbee 84534
Image:Americanindiansmapcensusbureau.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Americanindiansmapcensusbureau.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Juiced
lemon, Matthias Blume, Napa, Origamiemensch, Red devil 666, Smallman12q, 2 anonymous edits
Image:No beer sold to indians.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:No_beer_sold_to_indians.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Marion Post Wolcott,
photographer.
Image:Chief Osceola on Renegade FSU.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chief_Osceola_on_Renegade_FSU.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
Contributors: cholder68
File:Roanoke.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roanoke.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: AnonMoos, Bukk, Joonasl, Man vyi, Mattes, Origamiemensch, 2
anonymous edits
File:UsaP340-5Dollars-1899-altered f.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UsaP340-5Dollars-1899-altered_f.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US government
File:IndianFigureCityHallTowerc.1892.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IndianFigureCityHallTowerc.1892.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown
photographer
File:Martha gradolf hochunk.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Martha_gradolf_hochunk.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Uyvsdi
File:Sandia Casino, detail.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sandia_Casino,_detail.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Cathy
from USA
Image:Early Localization Native Americans USA.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Localization_Native_Americans_USA.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: USGS
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 57
Image:Hopi woman dressing hair of unmarried girl.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hopi_woman_dressing_hair_of_unmarried_girl.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Henry Peabody
Image:Navajo Sheep.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Navajo_Sheep.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Workerbee
84534
Image:Zuni-girl-with-jar2.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zuni-girl-with-jar2.png License: unknown Contributors: Denniss, DieBuche, Fito hg, Makthorpe, Man
vyi, Martin H., Origamiemensch, Wst, 2 anonymous edits
File:Shonto begay.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shonto_begay.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Uyvsdi
Image:Zea mays.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zea_mays.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Conscious, Dbenbenn, DieBuche, Joadl, Lemmikkipuu
Image:1940 govt photo minnesota farming scene chippewa baby teething on magazine indians at work.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1940_govt_photo_minnesota_farming_scene_chippewa_baby_teething_on_magazine_indians_at_work.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
(US DOI) Office of Indian Affairs staff
Image:Baptism of Pocahontas.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baptism_of_Pocahontas.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: John Gadsby Chapman
(photograph courtesy Architect of the Capitol)
Image:Doctor.susan.la.flesche.picotte.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Doctor.susan.la.flesche.picotte.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: CDA, Denniss,
Frank C. Müller, Infrogmation, Lipothymia, Ranveig, Themightyquill, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Ball players.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ball_players.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Heironymous Rowe, Lamiot, Origamiemensch,
Robfergusonjr, Uyvsdi, Winterkind, Yarnalgo
Image:Jim Thorpe at desk.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jim_Thorpe_at_desk.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jim.henderson, Robfergusonjr, Uyvsdi
Image:BillyMills Crossing Finish Line 1964Olympics.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BillyMills_Crossing_Finish_Line_1964Olympics.jpg License: Public
Domain Contributors: Official Marine Corps Photo # A411758
File:Jake fragua jemez pueblo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jake_fragua_jemez_pueblo.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Uyvsdi
Image:The King of the Seas in the Hands of the Makahs - 1910.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_King_of_the_Seas_in_the_Hands_of_the_Makahs_-_1910.jpg
License: Public Domain Contributors: Photo by Asahel Curtis.
Image:Portrait (Front) of Lillian Gross, Niece of Susan Sanders (Mixed Blood) 1906.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Portrait_(Front)_of_Lillian_Gross,_Niece_of_Susan_Sanders_(Mixed_Blood)_1906.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Martin H.,
Robfergusonjr, Uyvsdi
Image:Fort-orleans-return.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fort-orleans-return.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Americasroof
Image:Five Indians and a Captive.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Five_Indians_and_a_Captive.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: w:Karl Ferdinand
WimarKarl Ferdinand Wimar
File:Ras k dee pomo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ras_k_dee_pomo.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Uyvsdi
File:Two Black Indians.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Two_Black_Indians.jpg License: unknown Contributors: User:Mcelite
Image:Creeks in Oklahoma.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Creeks_in_Oklahoma.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Smithsonian Institution
Image:Tekakwitha.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tekakwitha.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Duesentrieb, Himasaram, Nicke L, Origamiemensch,
Walden69
Image:Little Turtle.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Little_Turtle.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kevin Myers, Nyttend, Origamiemensch, Robfergusonjr,
Themightyquill, Wst
Image:Charles eastman smithsonian gn 03462a.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles_eastman_smithsonian_gn_03462a.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Sawyer, Wells Moses Artist Original uploader was CDA at en.wikipedia
File:Neighbor-joining Tree.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Neighbor-joining_Tree.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:JasonSpatola, User:asdfgf
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NAs in USA

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Native Americans in the United States 1

Native Americans in the United States

Native Americans of the United States (from top left):

American Indian and Alaska Native

Regions with significant populations

Predominantly in the Western United States

American English, Native American languages

Native American Church

Related ethnic groups

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The Hopewell tradition was not a single

Coles Creek culture is an archaeological

European exploration and colonization

Impact on Native populations

After European explorers reached the West Coast in the

Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838

Foundations for freedom

Some Europeans considered Native American societies to be

Treaty of Penn with Indians by Benjamin West

Transmuted Native America

George Washington advocated the

Robert Remini, a historian, wrote that "once the Indians

Benjamin Hawkins, seen here on his plantation, teaches Creek Native

In the late 18th century, reformers starting with

Portrait of Native Americans from the Cherokee, Cheyenne, Choctaw,

Native Americans as American citizens

American expansion justification

Indian Appropriations Act of 1871

Removals and reservations

Native American slavery

Traditions of Native American slavery

Native American adoption of African slavery

King Philip's War

Ely S. Parker was a

General Ely S. Parker, a member of the

The resulting increase in contact with the world outside of the

Native Americans today

There are 562 federally recognized tribal

Native American struggles amid poverty to maintain life on the

In July 2000 the Washington Republican

Societal discrimination, racism and conflicts

Native Americans UN Human Rights Exclusion

Native American mascots in sports

considered controversial by some.

Depictions by Europeans and Americans

Later the artist Theodore de Bry used White’s original

A number of 19th and 20th century American and

idealized versions of the Europeans and the native

During this time there were writers of fiction who were

Common usage in the United States

Society, language, and culture

• Southeastern tribes: Muskogean, Siouan, Catawban, Iroquoian

Large mammals like mammoths and mastodons were largely

Early European American scholars described the Native Americans as having a

Society and art

"religions" in the clinical sense.

Native American ball sports, sometimes referred to as lacrosse,

In the 1912 Olympics, Thorpe could run the 100-yard dash in 10

Music and art

Performers with Native American parentage have occasionally appeared in

Barriers to economic development

Today, other than tribes successfully running casinos, many tribes

Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans