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Summary
Times of fall of spheres of different sizes and materials under free fall in a
viscous liquid (water and glycerol) were measured across a fixed distance of 0.40
m. Settling velocity, drag coefficient and Reynolds number were calculated. A
logarithmic graph of drag coefficient against Reynolds number was plotted and
compared with established theory. The graph drawn did not follow the expected
trend, indicating that the data obtained during the experiment was inaccurate.
The main source of error may be in measured times of fall which were mostly
less than 1 second.
Aim
The aim of the experiment is to study the variation of the forces acting on a
sphere under freefall in a viscous liquid and to calculate its settling velocity.
Introduction
Many factors affect the flow of the solid particles in the viscous liquid: the
density and viscosity of the liquid as well as the size and velocity of the solid
particles among others. The solid moving relative to a fluid experiences a
resistive force, called the drag force, which acts opposite to its direction of
motion. It is discussed in terms of the drag coefficient which is a dimensionless
group. There are three types of flow regimes - laminar, transitional and turbulent
– which are indicated by another dimensionless number known as the Reynolds
number. These two groups are co-related.
Theory
∆ρ is the difference between the densities of the liquid and the sphere
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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids
When the sphere has a constant velocity (or settling velocity), the upward force
is exactly balanced by the downward force. Thus,
FD=43πR3∆ρg (2)
u=dt (3)
CD=2FDρ0u2Ap
(4)
The Reynolds number, Re, described by Spurk (1997) as a “suitable measure for
the action of viscosity”, is defined as
Re=ρuDμ (5)
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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids
1000-3*105 0.44
Turbulent : Newton’s Law
Greater then 3*105 0.1 (Massey 2007)
Experimental methods
Description of apparatus
A cylinder containing pure water was provided. Two marks had been placed on
the walls of the cylinder, one just below the level of the liquid and the other at a
distance of 0.40 m. A digital stop watch measuring to 0.01 s and a digital vernier
calliper measuring to 0.01mm and a sieve and bucket were also furnished.
A second cylinder containing 50% by volume of glycerol was given, with one
mark at the level of the fluid and a second o.40 m vertically below the first.
Procedure
1. The diameter was measured twice with the same sphere, rotating it to
check for uniformity and using another sphere the third time with the
digital vernier calliper.
2. This was done for spheres of different sizes and materials.
1. The sphere was dipped in the fluid to avoid formation of air bubbles and
dropped from rest at the centre of the cylinder containing water (to
minimise friction with the walls of the cylinder).
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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids
2. Time taken by the sphere to fall between the marks on the cylinder was
measured using the digital stopwatch.
3. Steps 1 and 2 were performed five times for spheres of the same size and
material.
4. The procedure above was repeated for other sphere sizes of the same
material.
5. The contents of the cylinder were emptied into the sieve. The balls were
retrieved; the water collected in the bucket was poured back into the
cylinder.
6. Steps 1 to 5 were repeated for spheres of different materials.
7. Steps 1-3 were repeated using the cylinder containing glycerol.
8. As glycerol cannot be emptied, measurement of times of fall for spheres of
different sizes and materials was made as detailed above (steps 1-3).
Experimental results
Plastic
(Nylon) large 9.48 9.48 9.48 9.48 4.74
medium 4.73 4.73 4.73 4.73 2.37
small 2.36 2.36 2.36 2.36 1.18
Stainless
steel large 9.51 9.50 9.51 9.51 4.75
medium 4.74 7.75 4.75 5.75 2.87
small 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 1.19
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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids
SPHERE
SIZE OF
MATERIAL SPHERE t1/s t2/s t3/s t4/s t5/s average t/s
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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids
medium glycerol;
Data given in the CPE 101 CPE110 Teaching Laboratory Manual 2008-2009
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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids
FD=43π*(2.37*10-3)3*140*9.81=7.61*10-5
TYPE OF
SPHERE SIZE u/ms-1 ∆ρ/kgm-3 FD/N CD Re
1.11E+
Teflon large 1.17 04
Density of Teflon is not given
3.90E+
medium 0.82 03
small No data
1.25E- 1.73E+
Ceramic large 0.18 2800 02 1.07E+01 03
1.56E- 6.17E+
medium 0.13 2800 03 1.04E+01 02
small 0.07 2800 1.91E- 1.64E+01 1.72E+
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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids
04 02
7.50E- 7.15E+
Glass large 0.75 1700 03 3.74E-01 03
9.34E- 2.48E+
medium 0.52 1700 04 3.87E-01 03
1.16E- 8.01E+
small 0.34 1700 04 4.62E-01 02
2.98E- 1.61E+
Steel large 1.69 6750 02 2.92E-01 04
6.58E- 6.49E+
medium 1.13 6750 03 3.97E-01 03
4.62E- 1.63E+
small 0.69 6750 04 4.40E-01 03
Since density of water is 1000 kgm-3 and that of glycerol is 1261.1 kgm-3, density
of a solution containing 50% by volume of glycerol is
1000+1261.12=1130.55 kgm-3
Also, viscosity of water is 10-3 Nsm-2 and viscosity of glycerol is 1.5 Nsm-2.
TYPE OF
SPHERE SIZE u/ms-1 ∆ρ/kgm-3 FD/N CD Re
9.26E-
Teflon large 01 13.26
Density of Teflon is not given
6.19E-
medium 01 4.44
small No data
Plastic (Nylon) large
medium No data
small
4.98E- 1.19E-
Ceramic large 01 2669 02 1.19 7.15
2.39E- 1.49E-
medium 01 2669 03 2.58 1.72
1.10E- 1.82E-
small 01 2669 04 6.05 0.39
6.60E- 6.93E-
Glass large 01 1569 03 0.40 9.45
medium 3.09E- 1569 8.62E- 0.90 2.21
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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids
01 04
1.34E- 1.07E-
small 01 1569 04 2.39 0.48
1.14E+ 2.92E-
Steel large 00 6619 02 0.56 16.27
9.22E- 6.45E-
medium 01 6619 03 0.52 7.98
5.09E- 4.53E-
small 01 6619 04 0.70 1.82
Figure 3 is very dissimilar to the Figure 1 given on page 39 in the CPE 101
CPE110 Teaching Laboratory Manual 2008-2009.
• Logarithmic values of drag coefficient are much lower than expected for
logarithmic values of Reynolds numbers between 0.1 and 1. Theory
suggests that drag coefficient would lie between 10 and 10 000. Also, the
graph was expected to be almost linear for this range of Reynolds number
because flow is laminar.
• For Reynolds number between 1 and 100, values of drag coefficient were
expected lie between 1 and 10, the graph being a smooth curve sloping
downwards.
• In theory, for even higher Reynolds number, drag coefficient is
independent of Reynolds number and has a value of about 0.44. The
graph would then show a plateau in this range. Instead, figure 3 shows
three maximum and three minimum points for Reynolds number between
100 and 10 000.
• At Reynolds number greater than 3x105, the drag coefficient is expected
to plummet to below 0.1 but this is not observed on Figure 3 above.
• Overall, it seems that for lower values of Reynolds numbers, drag
coefficients calculated were too small and for higher values, they were too
high.
Clearly, the data collected during the experiment is inaccurate as the graph
drawn using the experimental data does not conform to theory.
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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids
Suggested improvements:
Density of Teflon
Rearranging equation 4,
FD=CDρ0u2Ap2
43πR3∆ρg=CDρ0u2Ap2
83πR3(ρ-ρ0)g=CDρ0u2πR2
ρteflon=3CDu2+8Rgρo8Rg (7
)
From theory, for Reynolds number between 103 and 104, drag coefficient is 0.44
and for Reynolds number less than 20, it takes the value of 24/Re.
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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids
The range of values of density of Teflon is too big. These values are incorrect
also because the density of Teflon should lie between the densities of water and
glycerol (as Teflon spheres sink in water but float on glycerol).
Reynolds number=1000*40*5*10-210-3=2*106
Dimples on golf balls cause the flow to be turbulent at lower Reynolds number
(that is at an earlier point during the flight of the golf ball). As the ball spins in
air, it experiences a lift. The turbulence increases the lift, which is greater than
the increase in drag caused by the dimples on golf balls, enabling the golf ball to
go further. (Davies, Journal of Applied Physics, 1949)
Conclusions
• There was poor agreement between Figure 2 and the theoretical graph,
indicating that the experimental data obtained was unreliable.
• Drag coefficients calculated appeared to be inconsistent with the theory
relating drag coefficient to Reynolds number for a sphere falling under
gravity in a fluid.
• There were many sources of error in the measurement of times of fall, the
major contributor being human reaction time. Also, values of density and
viscosity of fluids used in the calculations may be inaccurate.
• The errors can be considerably reduced by using an electronic method of
timing and measuring the fluid properties (density and viscosity) using the
appropriate pieces of apparatus (hydrometer and viscometer).
• The value determined for density of Teflon is too high; it should lie
between the densities of water and glycerol. This is again due to
inaccurate time of fall.
• Reynolds number for the golf ball with a diameter of 5 cm and travelling at
40 ms-1 is 2*106, indicating that the flow regime is turbulent. The dimpled
surface allows the golf ball to travel longer distances.
References
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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids
Davies J.M. (1949, May 23) The Aerodynamics of Golf Balls, Journal of Applied
Science, Availabe:
http://scitation.aip.org.eresources.shef.ac.uk/getpdf/servlet/GetPDFServlet?
filetype=pdf&id=JAPIAU000020000009000821000001&idtype=cvips
Massey B. (2007) Mechanics of fluids, 8th Edition, Taylor and Francis, 332
Wilkes J.O. (1999) Fluid mechanics for chemical engineers, Prentice Hall, 3
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