Contents

• Introduction
1 Terminology
1.1 Types of powertrain
1.2 Types by degree of hybridization
1.3 Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs)
2 History
2.1 Early days
2.2 Predecessors of current technology
2.3 Modern hybrids
2.4 Latest developments
3 Sales and rankings
3.1 U.S. market
3.2 Japanese market
4 Technology
4.1 Engines and fuel sources
4.1.1 Fossil fuels
4.1.2 Biofuels
4.2 Electric machines
4.3 Design considerations
4.4 Conversion kits
5 Environmental impact
5.1 Fuel consumption
5.2 Noise
5.3 Pollution
6 Vehicle types
6.1 Motorcycles
6.2 Automobiles and light trucks
6.3 Taxis
6.4 Buses
6.5 Trucks
6.6 Military vehicles
6.7 Locomotives
6.8 Marine and other aquatic
6.9 Aircraft
7 Hybrid Premium and Showroom Cost Parity
8 Raw materials shortage
9 Legislation and incentives
9.1 Canada
9.2 Israel
9.3 Japan
9.4 Jordan
9.5 Netherlands
9.6 New Zealand
9.7 Republic of Ireland
9.8 Sweden
9.9 United Kingdom
9.10 United States
9.10.1 Federal
9.10.2 States and local
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
13.1 News
INTRODUCTION:-
With the hike in the fuel prices and growing concern over the environmental impa
ct and global warming more and more people are searching for the alternative use
of the energy sources. The petrol/diesel consumption vehicles are the major env
ironmental polluters in the world today. The most significant step to reduce thi
s consumption is the purchase of Hybrid vehicles, which uses the gas electric te
chnology. Hybrid vehicles are the one that combines the internal combustion gaso
line engine with the electric motor of an electric powered vehicle. Hybrid vehic
les have developed very rapidly in the last few years. The Hybrid cars are the n
ext big thing in the automotive world. Honda motors and Toyota motors are the bi
ggest manufactures of the hybrid vehicle in the market.
The hybrid vehicles reduces pollution, saves oil and slash costs at the gas pump
. The concept of hybrid vehicles is as old as the concept of the automobiles on
earth. And since the invention of the automobiles, automobile engineers have bee
n devising various vehicles to save the fuel. The hybrid vehicles aims at increa
sing the efficiency of the automobiles. In 1899 Dr Ferdinand Porsche built the f
irst Hybrid vehicle called Porsche. Today number of hybrid vehicle models are av
ailable in the market.
There are many advantages that could be derived from the hybrid vehicles. And th
e foremost among them is that the Hybrid vehicles helps in decreasing the enviro
nmental pollution as they transmit less harmful gases into the atmosphere. In an
other words Hybrid Vehicles produce one half the emissions of the conventional v
ehicles. Hybrid vehicles consume less fuel as compare to the non hybrid vehicles
. They have the battery power electric motor that take off the vehicle in speed.

Hybrid vehicles have greater operating efficiency as they use regenerative braki
ng, that helps in saving the energy, lost while stopping and slowing down the ve
hicle. The energy generated from braking or decreasing the speed of the vehicle
is used to charge the batteries. These vehicles can run on alternative fuels, th
erefore reducing our dependency on the fossil fuels.
Hybrid vehicles can be more efficiently operated than the conventional vehicles.
Engine of these vehicles can be sized to accommodate average load,not peak load
, which reduces the engines load. Another benefit of driving the hybrid vehicle
is that it saves energy by shutting the engine immediately as soon as the car st
ops. If you want to save the planet earth and want to make the environment pollu
tion free than think about purchasing the hybrid cars. Although the hybrid vehic
les are bit expensive but think about the long term benefits that you will gain.

1.Hybrid electric vehicle

The Toyota Prius is the world's top selling hybrid car, with cumulative global s
ales of 2.0 million units by September 2010.[1]
• A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle
which combines a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsionsyste
m with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is
intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle, or
better performance. A variety of types of HEV exist, and the degree to which the
y function as EVs varies as well. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid elec
tric car, although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors) and buses also
exist.
• Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative b
raking, which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into battery-replenishing el
ectric energy, rather than wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do.
Some varieties of HEVs use their internal combustion engine to generate electric
ity by spinning an electrical generator (this combination is known as a motor-ge
nerator), to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric d
rive motors. Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle an
d restarting it when needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-elec
tric produces less emissions from its ICE than a comparably-sized gasoline car,
since an HEV's gasoline engine is usually smaller than a comparably-sized pure g
asoline-burning vehicle (natural gas and propane fuels produce lower emissions)
and if not used to directly drive the car, can be geared to run at maximum effic
iency, further improving fuel economy.
• Ferdinand Porsche in 1900 developed the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, the first g
asoline-electric hybrid automobile in the world.[2] The hybrid-electric vehicle
did not become widely available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan i
n 1997, followed by the Honda Insight in 1999. While initially perceived as unne
cessary due to the low cost of gasoline, worldwide increases in the price of pet
roleum caused many automakers to release hybrids in the late 2000s; they are now
perceived as a core segment of the automotive market of the future. Worldwide s
ales of hybrid vehicles produced by Toyota, the market leader, reached 1.0 milli
on vehicles by May 31, 2007; the 2.0 million mark was reached by August 31, 2009
; and 2.68 million units by July 2010, with hybrids sold in 80 countries and reg
ions. Worldwide sales are led by the Prius, with cumulative sales of 2.0 million
by September 2010, and sold in 70 countries and regions.The global market leade
r is the United States with 1.6 million hybrids registered by December 2009, of
which 814,173 are Toyota Prius, and California is the biggest American market.

1.1 Hybrid electric vehicles can be classified according to the way in which pow
er is supplied to the drivetrain:
• In parallel hybrids, the ICE and the electric motor are both connected to the me
chanical transmission and can simultaneously transmit power to drive the wheels,
usually through a conventional transmission. Honda's Integrated Motor Assist (I
MA) system as found in the Insight, Civic, Accord, as well as the GM Belted Alte
rnator/Starter (BAS Hybrid) system found in the Chevrolet Malibu hybrids are exa
mples of production parallel hybrids. Current, commercialized parallel hybrids u
se a single, small (<20 kW) electric motor and small battery pack as the electri
c motor is not designed to be the sole source of motive power from launch. Paral
lel hybrids are also capable of regenerative braking and the internal combustion
engine can also act a generator for supplemental recharging. Parallel hybrids a
re more efficient than comparable non-hybrid vehicles especially during urban st
op-and-go conditions and at times during highway operation where the electric mo
tor is permitted to contribute.
• In series hybrids, only the electric motor drives the drivetrain, and the ICE wo
rks as a generator to power the electric motor or to recharge the batteries. The
battery pack can be recharged through regenerative braking or by the ICE. Serie
s hybrids usually have a smaller combustion engine but a larger battery pack as
compared to parallel hybrids, which makes them more expensive than parallels. Th
is configuration makes series hybrids more efficient in city driving. The Chevro
let Volt is a series plug-in hybrid, although GM prefers to describe the Volt as
an electric vehicle equipped with a "range extending" gasoline powered ICE as a
generator and therefore dubbed an "Extended Range Electric Vehicle" or E REW.
• Power-split hybrids have the benefits of a combination of series and parallel ch
aracteristics. As a result, they are more efficient overall, because series hybr
ids tend to be more efficient at lower speeds and parallel tend to be more effic
ient at high speeds; however, the power-split hybrid is higher than a pure paral
lel.Examples of power-split (referred to by some as "series-parallel") hybrid po
wertrains include current models of Ford, General Motors, Lexus,Nissan, and Toyo
ta.

1.2Types by degree of hybridization

• Full hybrid, sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is a vehicle that can run on
just the engine, just the batteries, or a combination of both. Ford's hybrid sy
stem, Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive and General Motors/Chrysler's Two-Mode Hybri
d technologies are full hybrid systems.The Toyota Prius,Ford Escape Hybrid, and
Ford Fusion Hybrid are examples of full hybrids, as these cars can be moved forw
ard on battery power alone. A large, high-capacity battery pack is needed for ba
ttery-only operation. These vehicles have a split power path allowing greater fl
exibility in the drivetrain by interconverting mechanical and electrical power,
at some cost in complexity.
• Mild hybrid, is a vehicle that can not be driven solely on its electric motor, b
ecause the electric motor does not have enough power to propel the vehicle on it
s own.Mild hybrids only include some of the features found in hybrid technology,
and usually achieve limited fuel consumption savings, up to 15 percent in urban
driving and 8 to 10 percent overall cycle.A mild hybrid is essentially a conven
tional vehicle with oversize starter motor, allowing the engine to be turned off
whenever the car is coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly and clea
nly. The motor is often mounted between the engine and transmission, taking the
place of the torque converter, and is used to supply additional propulsion energ
y when accelerating. Accessories can continue to run on electrical power while t
he gasoline engine is off, and as in other hybrid designs, the motor is used for
regenerative braking to recapture energy. As compared to full hybrids, mild hyb
rids have smaller batteries and a smaller, weaker motor/generator, which allows
manufacturers to reduce cost and weight.
• Honda's early hybrids including the first generation Insight used this design le
veraging their reputation for design of small, efficient gasoline engines; their
system is dubbed Integrated Motor Assist (IMA). Starting with the 2006 Civic Hy
brid, the IMA system now can propel the vehicle solely on electric power during
medium speed cruising. Another example is the 2005-2007 Chevrolet Silverado Hybr
id, a full-size pickup truck.Chevrolet was able to get a 10% improvement on the
Silverado's fuel efficiency by shutting down and restarting the engine on demand
and using regenerative braking. General Motors has also used its mild BAS Hybri
d technology in other models such as the Saturn Vue Green Line, the Saturn Aura
Greenline and the Mailbu Hybrid
1.3 Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs)
o Main article: Plug-in hybrid
o
o
o The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid able to run in all-electric mode
up to 35 miles.
• A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a h
ybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full
charge by connecting a plug to an external electric powersource. A PHEV shares t
he characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle, having anelec
tric motor and an internal combustion engine; and of an all-electric vehicle, al
so having a plug to connect to the electrical grid. PHEVs have a much largerall-
electric range as compared to conventional gasoline-electric hybrids, and also e
liminate the "range anxiety" associated to all-electric vehicles, because the co
mbustion engine works as a backup when the batteries are depleted.[16][18][19]
• Chinese battery manufacturer and automaker BYD Auto released the F3DM PHEV-62 (P
HEV-100 km) hatchback to the Chinese fleet market on December 15, 2008, for 149,
800 yuan (US $22,000). General Motors launched the 2011 Chevrolet Volt series pl
ug-in in December 2010.[22][23] The Volt displaced the Toyota Prius as the most
fuel-efficient car sold in the United States.
2.History:-
 2.1Early day

The Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid was the first gasoline-electric hybrid automobil
e.
• In 1900, while employed at Lohner Coach Factory, Ferdinand Porsche developed the
Mixte, a 4WD series-hybrid version of "System Lohner-Porsche" electric carriage
previously appeared in 1900 Paris World Fair. The Mixte included a pair of gene
rators driven by 2.5-hp Daimler IC engines to extend operating range and it coul
d travel nearly 40 miles on battery alone and it was presented in the Paris Auto
Show in 1901.The Mixte broke several Austrian speed records, and also won the E
xelberg Rally in 1901 with Porsche himself driving. The Mixte used a gasoline en
gine powering a generator, which in turn powered electric hub motors, with a sma
ll battery pack for reliability. It had a top speed of 50 km/h and a power of 5.
22 kW during 20 minutes.
• George Fischer sold hybrid buses to England in 1901; Knight Neftal produced a ra
cing hybrid in 1902. In 1905, H. Piper filed a US patent application for a hybri
d vehicle.] The 1915 Dual Power, made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car ma
ker, had a four-cylinder ICE and an electric motor. Below 15 mph (24 km/h) the e
lectric motor alone drove the vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and ab
ove this speed the "main" engine cut in to take the car up to its 35 mph (56 km/
h) top speed. About 600 were made up to 1918.
• A Canadian company produced a hybrid car for sale in 1915. The first gasoline-el
ectric hybrid car was released by the Woods Motor Vehicle Company of Chicago in
1917. The hybrid was a commercial failure, proving to be too slow for its price,
and too difficult to service.
• In 1931 Erich Gaichen invented and drove from Altenburg to Berlin a 1/2 horsepow
er electric car containing features later incorporated into hybrid cars. Its max
imum speed was 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), but it was licensed by the Motor Tra
nsport Office, taxed by the German Revenue Department and patented by the German
Reichs-Patent Amt. The car battery was re-charged by the motor when the car wen
t downhill. Additional power to charge the battery was provided by a cylinder of
compressed air which was re-charged by small air pumps activated by vibrations
of the chassis and the brakes and by igniting oxyhydrogen gas. An account of the
car and his characterization as a "crank inventor" can be found in Arthur Koest
ler's autobiography, Arrow in the Blue, pages 269-271, which summarize a contemp
oraneous newspaper account written by Koestler. No production beyond the prototy
pe was reporte.
2.2 Predecessors of current technology
• A more recent working prototype of the HEV was built by Victor Wouk (one of the
scientists involved with the Henney Kilowatt, the first transistor-based electri
c car). Wouk's work with HEVs in the 1960s and 1970s earned him the title as the
"Godfather of the Hybrid". Wouk installed a prototype hybrid drivetrain (with a
16 kilowatts (21 hp) electric motor) into a 1972 Buick Skylark provided by GM f
or the 1970 Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, but the program was stopped by
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1976 while Eric Stork
, the head of the EPA at the time, was accused of a prejudicial coverup.
• The regenerative braking system, the core design concept of most production HEVs
, was developed by electrical engineer David Arthurs around 1978, using off-the
shelf components and an Opel GT. However the voltage controller to link the batt
eries, motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Arthurs'. The ve
hicle exhibited 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg-imp) fuel efficienc
y, and plans for it (as well as somewhat updated versions) are still available t
hrough the Mother Earth News web site. The Mother Earth News' own 1980 version c
laimed nearly 84 miles per US gallon (2.8 L/100 km; 101 mpg-imp).
• In 1989, Audi produced its first iteration of the Audi Duo (the Audi C3 100 Avan
t Duo) experimental vehicle, a plug-in parallel hybrid based on the Audi 100 Ava
nt quattro. This car had a 9.4 kilowatts(12.8 PS; 12.6 bhp) Siemens electric mot
or which drove the rear roadwheels. A trunk-mounted nickel-cadmium battery suppl
ied energy to the motor that drove the rear wheels. The vehicle's front roadwhee
ls were powered by a 2.3 litre five-cylinder petrol engine with an output of 100
kilowatts (136 PS; 134 bhp). The intent was to produce a vehicle which could op
erate on the engine in the country, and electric mode in the city. Mode of opera
tion could be selected by the driver. Just ten vehicles are believed to have bee
n made; one drawback was that due to the extra weight of the electric drive, the
vehicles were less efficient when running on their engines alone than standard
Audi 100s with the same engine.
• Two years later, Audi, unveiled the second duo generation, the Audi 100 Duo - li
kewise based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. Once again, this featured an electri
c motor, a 21.3 kilowatts (29.0 PS; 28.6 bhp) three-phase machine, driving the r
ear roadwheels. This time, however, the rear wheels were additionally powered vi
a the Torsen centre differential from the main engine compartment, which housed
a 2.0 litre four-cylinder engine.
• In 1992,Volvo ECC was developed by Volvo. The Volvo ECC was built on the Volvo 8
50 platform. In contrast to most production hybrids, which use a gasoline piston
engine to provide additional acceleration and to recharge the battery storage,
the Volvo ECC used a gas turbine engine to drive the generator for recharging.
• The Clinton administration initiated the Partnership for a New Generation of Veh
icles (PNGV) program on 29 September 1993, that involved Chrysler, Ford, General
Motors, USCAR, the DoE, and other various governmental agencies to engineer the
next efficient and clean vehicle. The United States National Research Council (
USNRC) cited automakers' moves to produce HEVs as evidence that technologies dev
eloped under PNGV were being rapidly adopted on production lines, as called for
under Goal 2. Based on information received from automakers, NRC reviewers quest
ioned whether the "Big Three" would be able to move from the concept phase to co
st effective, pre-production prototype vehicles by 2004, as set out in Goal 3. T
he program was replaced by the hydrogen-focusedFreedomCAR initiative by the Geor
ge W. Bush administration in 2001, an initiative to fund research too risky for
the private sector to engage in, with the long-term goal of developing effectiv
ely carbon emission- and petroleum-free vehicles.
• 1998 saw the Esparante GTR-Q9 became the first Petrol-Electric Hybrid to race at
Le Mans, although the car failed to qualify for the main event. The car managed
to finished second in class at Petit Le Mans the same year.
2.3 Modern hybrids
• Automotive hybrid technology became widespread beginning in the late 1990s. The
first mass-produced hybrid vehicle was the Toyota Prius, launched inJapan in 199
7, and followed by the Honda Insight, launched in 1999 in the United States and
Japan.[3] The Prius was launched in Europe, North America and the rest of the wo
rld in 2000.[38] The first generation Prius sedan has an estimated fuel economy
of 52 miles per US gallon (4.5 L/100 km; 62 mpg-imp) in the city and 45 miles pe
r US gallon (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg-imp) in highway driving. The two-door first ge
neration Insight was estimated at 61 miles per US gallon (3.9 L/100 km; 73 mpg-i
mp) miles per gallon in city driving and 68 miles per US gallon (3.5 L/100 km; 8
2 mpg-imp) on the highway.
• The Toyota Prius sold 300 units in 1997, 19,500 in 2000, and cumulative worldwid
e Prius sales reached the 1 million mark in April 2008.] By early 2010, the Priu
s global cumulative sales were estimated at 1.6 million units. Toyota launched a
second generation Prius in 2004 and a third in 2009. The 2010 Prius has an esti
mated U.S. Environmental Protection Agency combined fuel economy cycle of 50 mil
es per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp).
• The Audi Duo III was introduced in 1997, based on the Audi B5 A4 Avant, and was
the only Duo to ever make it into series production. The Duo III used the 1.9 li
tre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel engine, which was coupled with an
21 kilowatts (29 PS; 28 bhp) electric motor. Unfortunately due to low demand fo
r this hybrid because of its high price, only about sixty Audi Duos were produce
d. Until the release of the Audi Q7 Hybrid in 2008, the Duo was the only Europea
n hybrid ever put into production.
• The Honda Civic Hybrid was introduced in February 2002 as a 2003 model, based on
the seventh generation Civic. The 2003 Civic Hybrid appears identical to the no
n-hybrid version, but delivers 50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp)
, a 40 percent increase compared to a conventional Civic LX sedan. Along with th
e conventional Civic, it received styling update for 2004. The redesigned 2004 T
oyota Prius (second generation) improved passenger room, cargo area, and power o
utput, while increasing energy efficiency and reducing emissions. The Honda Insi
ght first generation stopped being produced after 2006 and has a devoted base of
owners. A second generation Insight was launched in 2010. In 2004, Honda also r
eleased a hybrid version of the Accordbut discontinued it in 2007 citing disappo
inting sales.
• The Ford Escape Hybrid, the first hybrid electric sport utility vehicle (SUV) wa
s released in 2005. Toyota and Ford entered into a licensing agreement in March
2004 allowing Ford to use 20 patents from Toyota related to hybrid technology, a
lthough Ford's engine was independently designed and built. In exchange for the
hybrid licenses, Ford licensed patents involving their European diesel engines t
o Toyota. Toyota announced calendar year 2005 hybrid electric versions of the To
yota Highlander Hybrid and Lexus RX 400h with 4WD-i, which uses a rear electric
motor to power the rear wheels negating the need for a transfer case.
• In 2006, General Motors Saturn Division began to market a mild parallel hybrids
in the form of the 2007 Saturn Vue Green Line which utilized GM's Belted Alterna
tor/Starter (BAS Hybrid) System combined with a 2.4 litre L4 engine and a FWD au
tomatic transmission. The same hybrid powertrain was also used to power the 2008
Saturn Aura Greenline and Mailbu Hybrid models. As of December 2009, only the B
AS equipped Malibu is still in (limited) production.
• In 2007, Lexus released a hybrid electric version of their GS sport sedan, the G
S 450h, with a power output of 335 bhp. The 2007 Camry Hybrid became available i
n Summer 2006 in the United States and Canada. Nissan launched the Altima Hybrid
with technology licensed by Toyota in 2007.
• Commencing in the fall of 2007 General Motors began to market their 2008 Two-Mod
e Hybrid models of their GMT900 based Chevrolet Tahoe and GMC Yukon SUVs, closel
y followed by the 2009 Cadillac Escalade Hybrid[ version. For the 2009 model yea
r, General Motors released the same technology in their half-ton pickup truck mo
dels, the 2009 Chevrolet Silverado and GMC Sierra Two-Mode Hybrid models.
• The Ford Fusion Hybrid officially debuted at the Greater Los Angeles Auto Show i
n November 2008, and was launched to the U.S. market in March 2009, together wit
h the second generation Honda Insight and the Mercury Milan Hybrid.

2.4 Latest developments

2009-2010
• The Hyundai Elantra LPI Hybrid was unveiled at the 2009 Seoul Motor Show, and sa
les began in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009. The Elantra LPI (Liq
uefied Petroleum Injected) is the world's first hybrid vehicle to be powered by
an internal combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas(LPG) as a
fuel. The Elantra PLI is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid to adopt advanced li
thium polymer (Li–Poly) batteries. The Elantra LPI Hybrid delivers a fuel economy
rating of 41.9 miles per US gallon (5.61 L/100 km; 50.3 mpg-imp) and CO2 emissio
ns of 99 g/km to qualify as a Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (SULEV). Hyundai
has scheduled the launch of the 2011 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid by the end of 2010 an
d the 2011 Kia Optima Hybrid is slated for 2011.]
• The Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHybrid was unveiled in the 2009 Chicago Auto Show, an
d sales began in the U.S. in October 2009. The S400 BlueHybrid is a mild hybrid
and the first hybrid car to adopt a lithium ion battery. The hybrid technology i
n the S400 was co-developed by Daimler AGand BMW.[17][60] The same hybrid techno
logy is being used in the BMW ActiveHybrid 7, expected to go on sales in the U.S
. and Europe by mid 2010. In December 2009 BMW began sales of its full hybrid BM
W ActiveHybrid X6, while Daimler launched the Mercedes-Benz ML450 Hybrid by leas
e only.
• Sales of the 2011 Honda CR-Z began in Japan in February 2010, followed by the U.
S. in August 2010, becoming Honda's third hybrid electric car in the market. The
CR-Z is scheduled to be launched in the European market also in 2010. Honda als
o launch in Japan the 2011 Honda Fit Hybrid in October 2010, and unveiled the Eu
ropean version, the Honda Jazz Hybrid, in the 2010 Paris Motor Show. The Jazz Hy
brid will go on sale in some European markets by early 2011.
• Mass production of the 2011 Toyota Auris Hybrid began in May 2010 at Toyota Manu
facturing UK (TMUK) Burnaston plant and became the first mass-produced hybrid ve
hicle to be built in Europe. Sales in the U.K. began in July 2010, at a price st
arting atGB£18,950 (US$27,450), GB£550 (US$800) less than the Toyota Prius. The 2011
Auris Hybrid shares the same powertrain as the Prius, and combined fuel economy
is 74.3 mpg-imp (3.80 L/100 km; 61.9 mpg-US).
• The 2011 Lincoln MKZ Hybrid was unveiled at the 2010 New York International Auto
Show[74] and sales began in the U.S. in September 2010. The MKZ Hybrid is the f
irst hybrid version ever to have the same price as the gasoline-engine version o
f the same car. The Porshe Cayenne Hybrid was launched in the U.S in

2011-2012
• Volkswagen announced at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show the launch of the 2012 Touare
g Hybrid, scheduled for 2011. VW also announced plans to introduce diesel-electr
ic hybrid versions of its most popular models in 2012, beginning with the new Je
tta, followed by the Golf Hybrid in 2013 together with hybrid versions of the Pa
ssat. The Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4 will be launched in the European market in early
2011 and is expected to become the world's first production diesel-electric hybr
id. According to Peugeot the new hybrid
• delivers a fuel economy of up to 62 miles per US gallon (3.8 L/100 km; 74 mpg-im
p) and CO2 emissions of 99g/km on the European test cycle. The Toyota Prius V, t
he first spinoff from the Prius family, was unveiled at the January 2011 North A
merican International Auto Show and is scheduled to be released to the U.S. mark
et by mid 2011. Other gasoline-electric hybrids already scheduled for commercial
sales in 2011 are the Lexus CT 200h,[54]the Infiniti M35 Hybrid, the Hyundai So
nata Hybrid and its siblling the Kia Optima Hybrid.
3.Sales and rankings
The Toyota hybrids combined with Lexus reached 1 million hybrids sold in the U.S
. by February 2009,] and worldwide sales of hybrids by both brands totaled over
2 million vehicles by August 2009. As the top selling hybrid in both the U.S. an
d Japanese markets, the Toyota Prius reached global cumulative sales of 2.0 mill
ion Prius as of September 30, 2010. Worldwide, Toyota Motor Company is the leade
r with more than 2.68 million hybrids sold by July 2010, followed by Honda Motor
Co., Ltd. with more than 300 thousand hybrids sold by January 2009, and Ford Mo
tor Corporation with more than 100 thousand hybrids sold by December 2009.

The Toyota Prius is the top selling hybrid in the U.S. and Japan.

The Honda Civic Hybrid is the second most sold hybrid in the U.S.

The Ford Escape Hybrid is the top selling hybrid in the U.S. by an American carm
aker.
• More than 3 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold around the world by
July 2010, led by the United States with almost 1.8 million units,[9] followed b
yJapan with more than 1 million units[6][89] and Europe with more than 200 thous
and.[8][87] By December 2009, the top seller in the U.S. was the Toyota Prius, w
ith cumulative sales of 814,173 units, followed by the Honda Civic Hybrid, with
197,177 vehicles, and the Toyota Camry Hybrid, with 154,977 units. The top selli
ng hybrid in the U.S. by an American manufacturer is the Ford Escape Hybrid, wit
h cumulative sales of 95,285 vehicles by December 2009, followed by the Fusion H
ybrid, with sales of 15,554 units in just nine months. Japan and the U.S. repres
ented 84% of global hybrid sales in 2009.
• 3.1 U.S. market
California has been the state leading hybrid sales in th U.S. with 55,553 vehicl
es sold in 2009, 74,932 in 2008, and 91,417 in 2007. In 2009 it was followed by
New York (15,438) and Florida (14,949). In terms of new hybrids sold per capita,
the District of Columbia was the leader in 2009 with 3.79 hybrids per 1000 resi
dents, followed by Califormia (1.54) and Washington (1.53).
The top 5 U. S. metropolitan area markets for sales of hybrid electric vehicles
in 2009 were Los Angeles (26,677), New York (21,193), San Francisco(15,799), Was
hington, D.C. (11,595), and Chicago (8,990).[10] The following table summarizes
the top metropolitan area markets in terms of new hybrids sold per capita.
3.2 Japanese market
Toyota's hybrid sales in Japan since 1997, including both Toyota and Lexus model
s, reached 615,800 units by August 2009[8] and passed the 1 million mark in July
2010. Cumulative sales ofHonda's hybrid vehicles since November 1999 reached 25
,239 units by January 2009, and in March 2010, Honda announced that the new 2010
Insight broke through 100,000 sales in Japan in just one year after its introdu
ction.[95] Total worldwide sales of the Insight during its first year in the mar
ket reached 143,015 units, falling short of the 200,000 global sales target set
by Honda when it was launched in 2009.
Hybrid sales in Japan almost triple in 2009 as compared to 2008 as a result of g
overnment incentives that included a scrappage program, tax breaks on hybrid veh
icles and other low emission cars and trucks, and a higher levy on gasoline that
rose prices in the order of US$4.50. New hybrid car sales jumped from 94,259 in
2008 to 334,000 in 2009, and hybrid sales in 2009 represented around 10% of new
vehicles sales in Japan. In contrast, the U.S. market share was 2.8% for the sa
me year. These record sales allowed Japan to surpass the U.S. in total new hybri
d sales, as the Japanese market represented almost half (48%) of the worldwide h
ybrid sales in 2009 while the U.S. market represented 42% of global sales.
The Toyota Prius became the first HEV to top annual new car sales in Japan with
208,876 units sold in 2009, and by February 2010 the Prius remained the top sell
ing car, and became so popular that there is a six month waiting list. The Insi
ght ranked fifth in overall sales in 2009 with 93,283 units sold.
4. Technology
The varieties of hybrid electric designs can be differentiated by the structure
of the hybrid vehicle drivetrain, the fuel type, and the mode of operation.
In 2007, several automobile manufacturers announced that future vehicles will us
e aspects of hybrid electric technology to reduce fuel consumption without the u
se of the hybrid drivetrain. Regenerative braking can be used to recapture energ
y and stored to power electrical accessories, such as air conditioning. Shutting
down the engine at idle can also be used to reduce fuel consumption and reduce
emissions without the addition of a hybrid drivetrain. In both cases, some of th
e advantages of hybrid electric technology are gained while additional cost and
weight may be limited to the addition of larger batteries and starter motors. Th
ere is no standard terminology for such vehicles, although they may be termed mi
ld hybrids.
4.1 Engines and fuel sources
Fossil fuels
Free-piston engines could be used to generate electricity as efficiently as,
and less expensively than, fuel cells.
Gasoline
Gasoline engines are used in most hybrid electric designs, and will likely remai
n dominant for the foreseeable future. While petroleum-derived gasoline is th
e primary fuel, it is possible to mix in varying levels of ethanol created from
renewable energy sources. Like most modern ICE powered vehicles, HEVs can typica
lly use up to about 15% bioethanol. Manufacturers may move to flexible fuel engi
nes, which would increase allowable ratios, but no plans are in place at present
.
• Diesel
Diesel-electric HEVs use a diesel engine for power gener
ation. Diesels have advantages when delivering constant power for long periods o
f time, suffering less wear while operating at higher efficiency. The diesel eng
ine's high torque, combined with hybrid technology, may offer substantially impr
oved mileage. Most diesel vehicles can use 100% pure biofuels (biodiesel), so th
ey can use but do not need petroleum at all for fuel (although mixes of biofuel
and petroleum are more common, and petroleum may be needed for lubrication). If
diesel-electric HEVs were in use, this benefit would likely also apply. Diesel-e
lectric hybrid drivetrains have begun to appear in commercial vehicles (particul
arly buses); as of 2007, no light duty diesel-electric hybrid passenger cars are
currently available, although prototypes exist. Peugeot is expected to produce
a diesel-electric hybrid version of its 308 in late 2008 for the European marke
t.
PSA Peugeot Citroën has unveiled two demonstrator vehicles featuring a diesel-elec
tric hybrid drivetrain: the Peugeot 307, Citroën C4 Hybride HDi and Citroën C-Cactus
.[101] Volkswagen made aprototype diesel-electric hybrid car that achieved 2 L/1
00 km (140 mpg-imp; 120 mpg-US) fuel economy, but has yet to sell a hybrid vehic
le. General Motors has been testing the Opel Astra Diesel Hybrid. There have bee
n no concrete dates suggested for these vehicles, but press statements have sugg
ested production vehicles would not appear before 2009.
At the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2009 both Mercedes and BMW dis
played diesel-electric hybrids.
Robert Bosch GmbH is supplying hybrid diesel-electric technology to di
verse automakers and models, including he Peugeot 308. So far, producti
on diesel-electric engines have mostly[vague] appeared in mass transit buses.
FedEx, along with Eaton Corp. in the USA and Iveco in Europe, has begun deployin
g a small fleet of Hybrid diesel electric delivery trucks.[104] As of October 20
07 Fedex now operates more than 100 diesel electric hybrids in North America, As
ia and Europe.[105]
• Liquefied petroleum gas
•
Hyundai Elantra LPI Hybrid.
Hyundai introduced in 2009 the Hyundai Elantra LPI Hybrid, which is the first ma
ss production hybrid electric vehicle to run on liquefied petroleum gas(LPG).[55
]
• Hydrogen
Hydrogen can be used in cars in two ways: a source of combustible heat, or a sou
rce of electrons for an electric motor. The burning of hydrogen is not being dev
eloped in practical terms; it is the hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicle (HFEV)
which is garnering all the attention. Hydrogen fuel cells create electricity fed
into an electric motor to drives the wheels. Hydrogen is not burned, but it is
consumed. This means molecular hydrogen, H2, is combined with oxygen to form wat
er. 2H2 (4e-) + O2 --> 2H2O (4e-). The molecular hydrogen and oxygen's mutual af
finity drives the fuel cell to separate the electrons from the hydrogen, to use
them to power the electric motor, and to return them to the ionized water molecu
les that were formed when the electron-depleted hydrogen combined with the oxyge
n in the fuel cell. Recaling that a hydrogen atom is nothing more than a proton
and an electron; in essence, the motor is driven by the proton's atomic attracti
on to the oxygen nucleus, and the electron's attraction to the ionized water mol
ecule.
An HFEV is an all-electric car featuring an open-source battery in the form of a
hydrogen tank and the atmosphere. HFEV's may also comprise closed-cell batterie
s for the purpose of power storage from regenerative braking, but this does not
change the source of the motivation. It implies the HFEV is an electric car with
 two types of batteries. Since HFEV's are purely electric, and do not contain an
y type of heat engine, they are not hybrids.
Biofuels
Main articles: biofuel and flexifuel vehicle

The Ford Escape Hybrid was the first hybrid electric vehicle with a flex-fuel en
ginecapable of running on E85 fuel.

Demonstration Ford Escape E85 flex-fuelplug-in hybrid.

Hybrid vehicles might use an internal combustion engine running on biofuels, suc
h as a flexible-fuel engine running on ethanol or engines running on biodiesel.
In 2007 Ford produced 20 demonstration Escape Hybrid E85s for real-world testing
in fleets in the U.S.[106][107] Also as a demonstration project, Ford delivered
in 2008 the first flexible-fuel plug-in hybrid SUV to the U.S. Department of En
ergy (DOE), a Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid, capable of running on gasoline or E85.
[108]
The Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid electric vehicle would be the first commercial
ly available flex-fuel plug-in hybrid capable of adapting the propulsion to the
biofuels used in several world markets such as the ethanol blend E85 in the U.S.
, or E100 in Brazil, or biodiesel in Sweden.[109][110] The Volt will be E85 flex
-fuel capable about a year after its introduction.[111][112]
4.2 Electric machines
In split path vehicles (Toyota, Ford, GM, Chrysler) there are two electrical mac
hines, one of which functions as a motor primarily, and the other functions as a
generator primarily. One of the primary requirements of these machines is that
they are very efficient, as the electrical portion of the energy must be convert
ed from the engine to the generator, through two inverters, through the motor ag
ain and then to the wheels.
Most of the electric machines used in hybrid vehicles are brushless DC motors (B
LDC). Specifically, they are of a type called an interior permanent magnet (IPM)
machine (or motor). These machines are wound similarly to the induction motors
found in a typical home, but (for high efficiency) use very strong rare earth ma
gnets in the rotor. These magnets contain neodymium, iron and boron, and are the
refore called Neodymium magnets. The magnet material is expensive, and its cost
is one of the limiting factors in the use of these machines.
4.3 Design considerations
In some cases, manufacturers are producing HEVs that use the added energy provid
ed by the hybrid systems to give vehicles a power boost, rather than significant
ly improved fuel efficiency compared to their traditional counterparts The trad
e-off between added performance and improved fuel efficiency is partly controlle
d by the software within the hybrid system and partly the result of the engine,
battery and motor size. In the future, manufacturers may provide HEV owners with
the ability to partially control this balance (fuel efficiency vs. added perfor
mance) as they wish, through a user-controlled setting. Toyota announced in Janu
ary, 2006 that it was considering a "high-efficiency" button.
4.4 Conversion kits
One can buy a stock hybrid or convert a stock petroleum car to a hybrid electric
vehicle using an aftermarket hybrid kit.

5. Environmental impact
5.1 Fuel consumption
Current HEVs reduce petroleum consumption under certain circumstances, compared
to otherwise similar conventional vehicles, primarily by using three mechanisms.
Reducing wasted energy during idle/low output, generally by turning the ICE off
Reducing the size and pow
er of the ICE, and hence inefficiencies from under-utilization, by using the add
ed power from the electric motor to compensate for the loss in peak power output
 from the smaller ICE. Recapturing waste energy (i.e. regenerative braking)

Try combination of these three primary hybrid advantages may be used in differe
nt vehicles to realize different fuel usage, power, emissions, weight and cost p
rofiles. The ICE in an HEV can be smaller, lighter, and more efficient than the
one in a conventional vehicle, because the combustion engine can be sized for sl
ightly above average power demand rather than peak power demand. The drive syste
m in a vehicle is required to operate over a range of speed and power, but an IC
E's highest efficiency is in a narrow range of operation, making conventional ve
hicles inefficient. On the contrary, in most HEV designs, the ICE operates close
r to its range of highest efficiency more frequently. The power curve of electri
c motors is better suited to variable speeds and can provide substantially great
er torque at low speeds compared with internal-combustion engines. The greater f
uel economy of HEVs has implication for reduced petroleum consumption and vehicl
e air pollution emissions worldwide
5.2 Noise
• Reduced noise emissions resulting from substantial use of the electric motor at
idling and low speeds, leading to roadway noise reduction,[118] in comparison to
conventional gasoline or diesel powered engine vehicles, resulting in beneficia
l noise health effects (although road noise from tires and wind, the loudest noi
ses at highway speeds from the interior of most vehicles, are not affected by th
e hybrid design alone).
• Reduced noise may not be beneficial for all road users, as blind people or the v
isually-impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while cr
ossing streets and feel quiet hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard. The U.S.
Congress and the European Commission are exploring legislation to establish a mi
nimum level of sound for plug-in electric and hybrid electric vehicles when oper
ating in electric mode, so that blind people and other pedestrians and cyclists
can hear them coming and detect from which direction they are approaching. Tests
have shown that vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to
hear below 20 mph (32 km/h). In January 2010 the Japanese Ministry of Land, Inf
rastructure, Transport and Tourism issued guidelines for hybrid and other near-s
ilent vehicles.
• A 2009 study conducted by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administratio
n found that crashes involving pedestrian and bicyclist have higher incidence ra
tes for hybrids than internal combustion engine vehicles in certain vehicle mane
uvers. These accidents commonly occurred on in zones with low speed limits, duri
ng daytime and in clear weather.
• Even though no specific national regulation has been enacted in most countries a
s of mid 2010, some carmakers announced they have decided to address this safety
issue shared by regular hybrids and all types of plug-in electric vehicles, and
as a result, the upcoming Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Volt, both due in late 2010
, and the new Nissan Fuga hybrid and the Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid, both due i
n 2011, will include synthesized sounds to alert pedestrians, the blind and othe
rs to their presence.There is also after market technology available in Californ
ia to make hybrids sound more like conventional combustion engine cars when the
vehicle goes into the silent electric mode (EV mode).[128]On August 2010 Toyota
began sales in Japan of an onboard device designed to automatically emit a synth
esized sound of an electric motor when the Prius is operating as an electric veh
icle at speeds up to approximately 25 kilometres per hour (16 mph). Toyota plans
to use other versions of the device for use in gasoline-electric hybrids, plug-
in hybrids, electric vehicles as well as fuel-cell hybrid vehicles planned for m
ass production.

5.3 Pollution
• Battery toxicity is a concern, although today's hybrids use NiMH batteries, not
the environmentally problematic rechargeable nickel cadmium. "Nickel metal hydri
de batteries are benign. They can be fully recycled," says Ron Cogan, editor of
the Green Car Journal. Toyota and Honda say that they will recycle dead batterie
s and that disposal will pose no toxic hazards. Toyota puts a phone number on ea
ch battery, and they pay a $200 "bounty" for each battery to help ensure that it
will be properly recycled.
6.Vehicle types
Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles
Mopeds, electric bicycles, and even electric kick scooters are a simple form of
a hybrid, as power is delivered both via an internal combustion engine or electr
ic motor and the rider's muscles. Early prototypes of motorcycles in the late 19
th century used the same principles.
In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor power are mechanically coupled at t
he pedal drive train or at the rear or the front wheel, e.g. using a hub motor,
a roller pressing onto a tire, or a connection to a wheel using a transmission e
lement. Human and motor torques are added together. Almost all manufactured mode
ls are of this type. See Motorized bicycles, Mopeds and[2] for more information.
In a series hybrid bicycle (SH) the user powers a generator using the pedals. Th
is is converted into electricity and can be fed directly to the motor giving a c
hainless bicycle but also to charge a battery. The motor draws power from the ba
ttery and must be able to deliver the full mechanical torque required because no
ne is available from the pedals. SH bicycles are commercially available, because
they are very simple in theory and manufacturing.[3]
The first known prototype and publication of an SH bicycle is by Augustus Kinzel
(US Patent 3'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electril
ite[4] SH lightweight vehicle which used power electronics allowing regenerative
braking and pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Müller designed a "Fahrrad
mit elektromagnetischem Antrieb" in his 1995 diploma thesis and built a function
al vehicle. In 1996 Jürg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Applied
Sciences built an SH bicycle and in 1998 mounted the system onto a Leitra tricyc
le (European patent EP 1165188). In 1999 Harald Kutzke described his concept of
the "active bicycle": the aim is to approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing
and having no drag by electronic compensation. Until 2005 Fuchs and colleagues b
uilt several prototype SH tricycles and quadricycles.[5]
6.1 Motorcycles
Companies such as Zero Motorcycles and Vectrix have market-ready all-electric m
otorcycles available now, but the pairing of electrical components and an intern
al combustion engine (ICE) has made packaging cumbersome, especially for niche b
rands.
Also, eCycle Inc produces series diesel-electric motorcycles, with a top speed o
f 80 mph (130 km/h) and a target retail price of $5500.
Peugeot HYmotion3 compressor,[133][134] a hybrid scooter is a three-wheeler that
uses two separate power sources to power the front and back wheels. The back wh
eel is powered by a single cylinder 125 cc, 20 bhp (15 kW) single cylinder motor
while the front wheels are each driven by their own electric motor. When the bi
ke is moving up to 10 km/h only the electric motors are used on a stop-startbasi
s reducing the amount of carbon emissions.
SEMA has announced that Yamaha is going to launch one in 2010, with Honda follow
ing a year later, fueling a competition to reign in new customers and set new st
andards for mobility. Each company hopes to provide the capability to reach 60 m
iles (97 km) per charge by adopting advanced lithium-ion batteries to accomplish
their claims. These proposed hybrid motorcycles could incorporate components fr
om the upcoming Honda Insight car and its hybrid powertrain. The ability to mass
-produce these items helps to overcome the investment hurdles faced by start-up
brands and bring new engineering concepts into mainstream markets.

6.2 Automobiles and light trucks:-

6.2 .a)Taxis

Toyota Camry hybrid-electric taxi.

In 2000 North America's first hybrid electric taxi was put into service in Vanco
uver, British Columbia, operating a 2001 Toyota Prius which traveled over 332,00
0 kilometres (206,000 mi) before being retired.[136][137] Many of the major citi
es in the world are adding hybrid taxis to their taxicab fleets, led by San Fran
cisco and New York City. By 2009 15% of New York's 13,237 taxis in service are h
ybrids, the most in any city in North America, and also began retiring its origi
nal hybrid fleet after 300,000 and 350,000 miles (480,000 and 560,000 km) per ve
hicle.[138][139] Other cities where taxi service is available with hybrid vehicl
es include Tokyo, London, Sydney, Melbourne, and Rome.
6.2.b)Buses

Volvo 7700 hybrid bus.

Hybrid technology for buses has seen increased attention since recent battery de
velopments decreased battery weight significantly. Drivetrains consist of conven
tional diesel engines and gas turbines. Some designs concentrate on using car en
gines, recent designs have focused on using conventional diesel engines already
used in bus designs, to save on engineering and training costs. Several manufact
urers are currently working on new hybrid designs, or hybrid drivetrains that fi
t into existing chassis offerings without major re-design. A challenge to hybrid
buses may still come from cheaper lightweight imports from the former Eastern b
lock countries or China, where national operators are looking at fuel consumptio
n issues surrounding the weight of the bus, which has increased with recent bus
technology innovations such as glazing, air conditioning and electrical systems.
A hybrid bus can also deliver fuel economy though through the hybrid drivetrain
. Hybrid technology is also being promoted by environmentally concerned transit
authorities.
6.2.C)Truck
In 2003, GM introduced a hybrid diesel-electric military (light) truck, equipped
with a diesel electric and a fuel cell auxiliary power unit. Hybrid electric li
ght trucks were introduced in 2004 by Mercedes Benz (Sprinter) and Micro-Vett SP
A (Daily Bimodale). International Truck and Engine Corp. and Eaton Corp.have bee
n selected to manufacture diesel-electric hybrid trucks for a US pilot program s
erving the utility industry in 2004. In mid 2005 Isuzu introduced the Elf Diesel
Hybrid Truck on the Japanese Market. They claim that approximately 300 vehicles
, mostly route buses are using Hinos HIMR (Hybrid Inverter Controlled Motor & Re
tarder) system. In 2007, high petroleum price means a hard sell for hybrid truck
s[141] and appears the first U.S. production hybrid truck (International DuraSta
r Hybrid).[142]

6.3 Cranes
Railpower Technologies Corp. engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems Inc. in
Vancouver, British Columbia are testing a hybrid diesel electric power unit wit
h battery storage for use in Rubber Tyred Gantry (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are ty
pically used for loading and unloading shipping containers onto trains or trucks
in ports and container storage yards. The energy used to lift the containers ca
n be partially regained when they are lowered. Diesel fuel and emission reductio
ns of 50–70% are predicted by Railpower engineers.[10] First systems are expected
to be operational in 2007.
6.4 Aircraf
Taxiing and other ground operations of Boeing 737NGs will soon be done using hyb
rid electric drives as WheelTug ground propulsion systems become available .By u
sing the APU (powered by a turbine) to energize a Chorus electric motor mounted
in the landing gear for ground movement, aircraft will be operating in a hybrid
configuration where the main engines are used only for take off, landing, and fl
ight.
Boeing 737-800
The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane has a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)
fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which is
coupled to a conventional propeller. The fuel cell provides all power for the c
ruise phase of flight. During takeoff and climb, the flight segment that require
s the most power, the system draws on lightweight lithium-ion batteries.
The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built by Diamond Aircraft In
dustries of Austria, which also carried out structural modifications to the airc
raft. With a wing span of 16.3 meters (53.5 feet), the airplane will be able to
cruise at approximately 100 kilometers per hour (62 miles per hour) on power fro
m the fuel cell.
6.5 Road transport, commercial vehicles

GM has launched hybrid versions of its full-size GMC Yukon (pictured) andChevrol
et Tahoe SUVs for 2008
Early hybrid systems are being investigated for trucks and other heavy highway v
ehicles with some operational trucks and buses starting to come into use. The ma
in obstacles seem to be smaller fleet sizes and the extra costs of a hybrid syst
em are yet compensated for by fuel savings, but with the price of oil set to con
tinue on its upward trend, the tipping point may be reached by the end of 1995.
Advances in technology and lowered battery cost and higher capacity etc. develop
ed in the hybrid car industry are already filtering into truck use as Toyota, Fo
rd, GM and others introduce hybrid pickups and SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company rece
ntly introduced a hybrid-electric truck, called the Kenworth T270 Class 6 that f
or city usage seems to be competitive .FedExand others are starting to invest in
hybrid delivery type vehicles—particularly for city use where hybrid technology m
ay pay off first.
6.6 Military off-road vehicles
Since 1985, the U.S. military has been testing serial hybrid Humvees and have f
ound them to deliver faster acceleration, a stealth mode with low thermal signat
ure/ near silent operation, and greater fuel economy.
6.7 Ships
Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early form of hybri
d vehicle. Another example is the diesel-electric submarine. This runs on batter
ies when submerged and the batteries can be re-charged by the diesel engine when
the craft is on the surface.
Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large towing kites manufactured by
companies such as SkySails. Towing kites can fly at heights several times higher
than the tallest ship masts, capturing stronger and steadier winds.
6.8 Rail transport:-
Europe
An is the new Autorail à grande capacité (AGC or high-capacity railcar) built by the
Canadian company Bombardier for service in France. This has dual mode (diesel a
nd electric motors) and dual voltage capabilities (1500 and 25000 V) allowing it
to be used on many different rail systems .A The locomotive has been on trials
in Rotterdam, the Netherlands with Railfeeding, a Genesse and Wyoming company.
China
The First Hybrid Evaluating prototype locomotive was designed and contracted by
rail research center MATRAI in 1999 and the sample was ready in 2000. it was a G
12 locomotive that was converted to hybrid by using a 200KW diesel generator and
batteries and also was equipped with 4 AC traction motors (out of 4) retrofited
in the cover of the DC traction motors.
Japan
The first operational prototype of a hybrid train engine with significant energy
storage and energy regeneration capability was introduced in Japan as the KiHa
E200. It utilizes battery packs of lithium ion batteries mounted on the roof to
store recovered energy.
North America
In the U.S., General Electric introduced a prototype railroad engine with their
"Ecomagination" technology in 2007. They store energy in a large set of sodium n
ickel chloride (Na-NiCl2) batteries to capture and store energy normally dissipa
ted during dynamic braking or coasting downhill. They expect at least a 10% redu
ction in fuel use with this system and are now spending about $2 billion/yr on h
ybrid research.
Variants of the typical diesel electric locomotive include the Green Goat (GG) a
nd Green Kid (GK) switching/yard engines built by Canada's Railpower Technologie
s. They utilize a large set of heavy duty long life (~10 yr) rechargeable lead a
cid (Pba) batteries and 1000 to 2000 HP electric motors as the primary motive so
urces and a new clean burning diesel generator (~160 Hp) for recharging the batt
eries that is used only as needed. No power or fuel are wasted for idling—typicall
y 60–85% of the time for these type locomotives. It is unclear if dynamic braking
(regenerative) power is recaptured for reuse; but in principle it should be easi
ly utilized.
Since these engines typical need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the b
attery pack's weight is a negligible penalty. In addition the diesel generator a
nd battery package are normally built on an existing "retired" "yard" locomotive
's frame for significant additional cost savings. The existing motors and runnin
g gear are all rebuilt and reused. Diesel fuel savings of 40–60% and up to 80% pol
lution reductions are claimed over that of a "typical" older switching/yard engi
ne. The same advantages that existing hybrid cars have for use with frequent sta
rts and stops and idle periods apply to typical switching yard use.[9] "Green Go
at" locomotives have been purchased by Canadian Pacific Railway, BNSF Railway, K
ansas City Southern Railway and Union Pacific Railroad among others.
6.9 Other vehicles are:
Big mining machines like the Liebherr T 282B dump truck or Keaton Vandersteen Le
Tourneau L-2350 wheel loader are powered that way. Also there was several models
of BelAZ (7530 and 7560 series) in USSR (now in Belarus) since the middle of 19
70th.
NASA's huge Crawler-Transporters are diesel-electric.
Mitsubishi Fuso Canter Eco Hybrid is a diesel-electric commercial truck.
Hino Motors (a Toyota subsidiary) has the world's first production hybrid electr
ic truck in Australia (110 kW/150 hp diesel engine plus a 23 kW/31 hpelectric mo
tor).
Other hybrid petroleum-electric truck makers are DAF Trucks, MAN AG with MAN TGL
Series, Nissan Motors and Renault Trucks with Renault Puncher.
Hybrid electric truck technology and powertrain maker: ZF Friedrichshafen.
By a voice vote, the United States House of Representatives approved the Heavy D
uty Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 2009 ( for he
avy duty plug-in hybrid vehicles) authored by representative James Sensenbrenner
.
6.10 Military vehicles
The United States Army's manned ground vehicles of the Future Combat System all
use a hybrid electric drive consisting of a diesel engine to generate electrical
power for mobility and all other vehicle subsystems. However, with the current
2010 DOD budget all FCS land vehicles have been put on hold. Other military hybr
id prototypes include the Millenworks Light Utility Vehicle, the International F
TTS, HEMTT model A3,and the Shadow RST-V.
6.11 Locomotives
In May 2003, JR East started test runs with the so called NE (new energy) train
and validated the system's functionality (series hybrid with lithium ion battery
) in cold regions. In 2004, Railpower Technologies had been running pilots in th
e US with the so called Green Goats,[145] which led to orders by the Union Pacif
ic[146] and Canadian Pacific[147] Railways starting in early 2005.
Railpower offers hybrid electric road switchers,[148] as does GE.[149] Diesel-el
ectric locomotives may not always be considered HEVs, not having energy storage
on board, unless they are fed with electricity via a collector for short distanc
es (for example, in tunnels with emission limits), in which case they are better
classified as dual-mode vehicles.
6.12 Marine and other aquatic
Produces marine hybrid propulsion:
eCycle Inc.[150]
Solar Sailor Holdings
7.Engine type
• Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles

Hybrid New Flyer Metrobus

Hybrid Optare Solo

When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric
vehicle. These encompass such vehicles as the AHS2 (Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC Yukon,
Chevrolet Silverado, Cadillac Escalade, and the Saturn Vue), Toyota Prius, Toyot
a Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Hon
da Civic Hybrid Lexus RX 400h and 450h and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid m
ost commonly uses internal combustion engines (generally gasoline or Diesel engi
nes, powered by a variety of fuels) and electric batteries to power the vehicle.
There are many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from Full hybrid
to Mild hybrid, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages.
Ferdinand Porsche in 1900 developed the first gasoline-electric series-hybrid au
tomobile in the world, setting speed records using two motor-in-wheel-hub arrang
ements with a combustion generator set providing the electric power. While liqui
d fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 19th century, the braking regenera
tive hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdal
e, Arkansas in 1978–79. His home-converted Opel GT was reported to return as much
as 75MPG with plans still sold to this original design, and the "Mother Earth Ne
ws" modified version on their website.
The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has the
range needed in locations where there are wide gaps with no services. The batter
ies can be plugged in to house (mains) electricity for charging, as well being c
harged while the engine is running.
• Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV)
Given suitable infrastructure, permissions and vehicles, BEVs can be recharged w
hile the user drives. The BEV establishes contact with an electrified rail, plat
e or overhead wires on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other sim
ilar mechanism (see Conduit current collection). The BEV's batteries are recharg
ed by this process—on the highway—and can then be used normally on other roads until
the battery is discharged.
This provides the advantage, in principle, of virtually unrestricted highway ran
ge as long as you stay where you have BEV infrastructure access. Since many dest
inations are within 100 km of a major highway, this may reduce the need for expe
nsive battery systems. Unfortunately private use of the existing electrical syst
em is nearly universally prohibited.
The technology for such electrical infrastructure is old and, outside of some ci
ties, is not widely distributed (see Conduit current collection, trams, electric
rail, trolleys, third rail). Updating the required electrical and infrastructur
e costs can be funded, in principle, by toll revenue, gasoline or other taxes.
• Hybrid fuel (dual mode)

Ford Escape Hybrid the first hybrid electric vehicle with a flexible fuelcapabil
ity to run on E85(ethanol).
In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, s
ome also consider vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types ("fue
ls") using the same engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybri
ds as described above and to use correctly the terms, these are perhaps more cor
rectly described as dual mode vehicles:
Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on board diesel engine and over
head electrical power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In principle,
this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plug-in hybrid
trolleybus, although as of 2006, no such design seems to have been announced.
Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank — typica
lly gasoline and ethanol, or methanol, or biobutanol.
Bi-fuel vehicle:Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from
petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be impossi
ble to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built wit
h two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. While the duplicated tanks cos
t space in some applications, the increased range and flexibility where (LPG or
NG) infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase.
Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available,
such as cars modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels modified to run onwast
e vegetable oil that has not been processed into biodiesel.
Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are also i
ncluded (see Motorized bicycle).
Fluid power hybrid
Hydraulic and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an engine to charge a pressure accum
ulator to drive the wheels via hydraulic or pneumatic (i.e. compressed air) driv
e units. The energy recovery rate is higher and therefore the system is more eff
icient than battery charged hybrids, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in ener
gy economy in EPA testing.[23] Under tests done by the EPA, a hydraulic hybrid F
ord Expedition returned 32 miles per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp) City,
and 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg-imp) highway.[24] UPS currently
has two trucks in service with this technology.[25]
While the system has faster and more efficient charge/discharge cycling and is c
heaper than gas-electric hybrids, the accumulator size dictates total energy sto
rage capacity and requires more space than a battery.
Electric-human power hybrid vehicle
Another form of hybrid vehicle are human power-electric vehicles. These include
such vehicles as the Sinclair C5, Twike, electric bicycles, and electric skatebo
ards.
Hybrid vehicle power train configurations
Main articles: Hybrid vehicle drivetrains and Micro HEV
Parallel hybrid

The Honda Insight is a Mild Parallel Hybrid.

The Toyota Prius is a series-parallel hybrid.

The Ford Escape Hybrid has a series-parallel drivetrain.

In a parallel hybrid the single electric motor and the internal combustion engin
e are installed so that they can both individually or together power the vehicle
. In contrast to the power split configuration typically only one electric motor
is installed. Most commonly the internal combustion engine, the electric motor
and gear box are coupled by automatically controlled clutches. For electric driv
ing the clutch between the internal combustion engine is open while the clutch t
o the gear box is engaged. While in combustion mode the engine and motor run at
the same speed.
The first mass production parallel hybrid is the Honda Insight.
Mild parallel hybrid
These types use a generally compact electric motor (usually <20 kW) to provide a
uto-stop/start features and to provide extra power assist[26] during the acceler
ation, and to generate on the deceleration phase (aka regenerative braking).
On-road examples include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight, Mercedes Benz S400 B
lueHYBRID, BMW 7-Series hybrids, General Motors BAS Hybrids and Smart fortwo wi
th micro hybrid drive.
Power-split or series-parallel hybrid
Typical passenger car installations include the Toyota Prius, the Ford Escape, t
he Lexus RX400h, RX450h, GS450h and LS600h.
In a power-split hybrid electric drive train there are two motors: an electric m
otor and an internal combustion engine. The power from these two motors can be s
hared to drive the wheels via a power splitter, which is a simple planetary gear
set. The ratio can be from 0-100% for the combustion engine, or 0-100% for the
electric motor, or an anything in between, such as 40% for the electric motor an
d 60% for the combustion engine. The electric motor can act as a generator charg
ing the batteries.
On the open road, the primary power source is the internal combustion engine, wh
en maximum power is required, for example to overtake, the electric motor is use
d to assist maximizing the available power for a short period, giving the effect
of having a larger engine than actually installed. In most applications, the en
gine is switched off when the car is stationary reducing curbside emissions.
Series hybrid

The Chevrolet Volt is a series plug-in hybrid with an unknown release date.

A Honda Civic Hybrid used by Zipcar, a car sharing service at Washington, D.C.

Ford Escape plug-in hybrid.

A series- or serial-hybrid vehicle has also been referred to as an Extended Rang
e Electric Vehicle or Range-Extended Electric Vehicle (EREV/REEV); however, rang
e extension can be accomplished with either series or parallel hybrid layouts.
Series-hybrid vehicles are driven by the electric motor with no mechanical conne
ction to the engine. Instead there is an engine tuned for running a generator wh
en the battery pack energy supply isn't sufficient for demands.
This arrangement is not new, being common in diesel-electric locomotives and shi
ps. Ferdinand Porsche used this setup in the early 20th century in racing cars,
effectively inventing the series-hybrid arrangement. Porsche named the arrangeme
nt "System Mixt". A wheel hub motor arrangement, with a motor in each of the two
front wheels was used, setting speed records. This arrangement was sometimes re
ferred to as an electric transmission, as the electric generator and driving mot
or replaced a mechanical transmission. The vehicle could not move unless the int
ernal combustion engine was running.
The setup has never proved to be suitable for production cars, however it is cur
rently being revisited by several manufacturers.
In 1997 Toyota released the first series-hybrid bus sold in Japan.Meanwhile, GM
will introduce the Chevy Volt EREV in 2010, aiming for an all-electric range of
40 miles, and a price tag of around $40,000. Supercapacitors combined with a lit
hium ion battery bank have been used by AFS Trinity in a converted Saturn Vue SU
V vehicle. Using supercapacitors they claim up to 150 mpg in a series-hybrid arr
angement.
Plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle (PHEV)
Main article: Plug-in hybrid
Another subtype added to the hybrid market is the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicl
e (PHEV). The PHEV is usually a general fuel-electric (parallel or serial) hybri
d with increased energy storage capacity (usually Li-ion batteries). It may be c
onnected to mains electricity supply at the end of the journey to avoid charging
using the on-board internal combustion engine.
This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by avo
iding – or at least minimizing – the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure e
lectric vehicles, the total emissions saving, for example in CO2 terms, is depen
dent upon the energy source of the electricity generating company.
For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive so long
as the electrical energy being used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they
would have otherwise used. Current tax systems in many European countries use mi
neral oil taxation as a major income source. This is generally not the case for
electricity, which is taxed uniformly for the domestic customer, however that pe
rson uses it. Some electricity suppliers also offer price benefits for off-peak
night users, which may further increase the attractiveness of the plug-in option
for commuters and urban motorists.
Fuel cell, electric hybrid
The fuel cell hybrid is generally an electric vehicle equipped with a fuel cell.
The fuel cell as well as the electric battery are both power sources, making th
e vehicle a hybrid. Fuel cells use hydrogen as a fuel and power the electric bat
tery when it is depleted. The Chevrolet Equinox FCEV, Ford Edge Hyseries Drive a
nd Honda FCX are examples of a fuel cell/electric hybrid.
8. Hybrid Premium and Showroom Cost Parity
Fuel use in vehicle designs
Vehicle type Fuel used
All-petroleum vehicle
Most use of petroleum
Regular hybrid electric vehicle Less use of petroleum, but non-pluginable
Plug-in hybrid vehicle
Residual use of petroleum. More use of electricity
All-electric vehicle
Most use of electricity
HEVs can be initially more expensive (the so-called "hybrid premium") than pure
fossil-fuel-based ICE vehicles(ICEVs), due to extra batteries, more electronics
and in some cases other design considerations (althoughbattery renting can be us
ed to reach the cost parity). The trade-off between higher initial cost (also ca
lled showroom costs) and lower fuel costs (difference often referred to as the p
ayback period) is dependent on usage - miles traveled, or hours of operation, fu
el costs, and in some cases, government subsidies. Traditional economy vehicles
may result in a lower direct cost for many users (before consideration of any ex
ternality).
Consumer Reports ran an article in April 2006 stating that HEVs would not pay fo
r themselves over 5 years of ownership. However, this included an error with cha
rging the "hybrid premium" twice.[152] When corrected, theHonda Civic Hybrid and
Toyota Prius did have a payback period of slightly less than 5 years.[153] This
includes conservative estimates with depreciation (seen as more depreciation th
an a conventional vehicle, although that is not the current norm) and with progr
essively-higher gas prices. In particular, the Consumer Reports article assumed
$2/U.S. gallon for 3 years, $3/U.S. gallon for one year and $4/U.S. gallon the l
ast year. As recent events have shown, this is a volatile market and hard to pre
dict. For 2006, gas prices ranged from low $2 to low $3, averaging about $2.60/U
.S. gallon.
A January 2007 analysis by Intellichoice.com shows that all 22 currently availab
le HEVs will save their owners money over a five year period. The most savings i
s for the Toyota Prius, which has a five year cost of ownership 40.3% lower than
the cost of comparable non-hybrid vehicles.
A report in the Greeley Tribune says that over the five years it would typically
take for a new car owner to pay off the vehicle cost differential, a hybrid Cam
ry driver could save up to $6,700 in gasoline at current gasoline prices, with h
ybrid tax incentives as an additional saving.
In countries with incentives to fight against global warming and contamination a
nd promote vehicle fuel efficiency, the pay-back period can be immediate and all
-combustion engine vehicles (ACEVs) can cost more than hybrids because they gene
rate more pollution.
Toyota and Honda have already said they've halved the incremental cost of electr
ic hybrids and see cost parity in the future (even without incentives).
9. Raw materials shortage
The rare earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of the advanced
electric motors and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems.
However, nearly all the rare earth elements in the world come from China, and on
e analyst believes that an overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing
may consume this entire supply by 2012. In addition, export quotas on Chinese r
are earth exports have resulted in a generally shaky supply of those metals.
A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern C
anada and Mt Weld in Australia are currently under development,[160] however it
is not known if these sources will be developed before a shortage hits.
10. Legislation and incentives
In order to encourage the purchase of HEVs, several countries have introduced le
gislation for incentives and ecotaxes.

10.1 Canada
Residents of Ontario and Quebec in Canada can claim a rebate on the Provincial R
etail Sales Tax of up to $2,000 CDN on the purchase or lease of a hybrid electri
c vehicle. Ontario has a green license plate for hybrid car users and was to ann
ounce a slew of benefits to go along with it in 2008. Residents in British Colum
bia are eligible for a 100% reduction of sales tax up to a maximum of $2,000 if
the hybrid electric vehicle is purchased or leased before April 1, 2011 (extende
d in 2007/2008 budget from March 31, 2008 and expanded from a maximum of only $1
,000 from April 1, 2008 to March 31, 2009, at which point the concession was sch
eduled to expire.) Prince Edward Island residents can claim rebates on the Prov
incial Sales Tax of up to $3,000 CDN on the purchase or lease of any hybrid vehi
cles since March 30, 2004.
10.2 Israel
In Haifa, hybrid vehicles are entitled to a free parking in city's parking lots
for domestic citizens.
10.3 Japan
In 2009 the Japanese government implemented a set of policies and incentives tha
t included a scrappage program, tax breaks on hybrid vehicles and other low emis
sion cars and trucks, and a higher levy on gasoline that raised prices in the or
der of USD 4.50 per gallon. New hybrid car sales for 2009 were almost triple tho
se for 2008.
10.4 Jordan
In Jordan, a full import customs and sales tax reduced for all hybrid vehicles f
rom 80% to 60% of the vehicle list price based on the engine size.
10.5 Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the Vehicle Registration Tax (VRT), payable when a car is so
ld to its first buyer, can earn the owner of an HEV a discount up to €6,000.
10.6 New Zealand
In Christchurch, hybrid vehicles are entitled to an hour free parking in city co
uncil parking buildings. Where those buildings already provide an hour free, hyb
rid vehicles are entitled to an extra hour free.
10.7 Republic of Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, a 50% reduction in VRT applies, which normally amoun
ts to 25% of the market value of a car.
10.8 Sweden
In Sweden there is an "Eco car" subsidy of SEK 10 000 (~ USD 1.600) cash payout
to private car owners. For fringe benefit cars there is a reduction of the benef
it tax of 40% for EV's & HEV's and 20% for other "Eco cars".
10.9 United Kingdom
Drivers of HEVs in the United Kingdom benefit from the lowest band of vehicle ex
cise duty (car tax), which is based on carbon dioxide emissions. In central Lond
on, these vehicles are also exempt from the £8 daily London congestion charge.[166
] Due to their low levels of regulated emissions, the greenest cars are eligible
for 100% discount under the current system. To be eligible the car must be on t
he current Power Shift Register.[167] At present, these include the cleanest LPG
 and natural gas cars and most hybrid-, battery- and fuel cell-electric vehicles
.
10.10 United States

Some shopping malls in Northern Virginia have designated reserved parking spaces
for electric hybrid cars.
10.10.1 Federal
• The purchase of hybrid electric cars qualifies for a federal income tax credit u
p to $3,400 on the purchaser's Federal income taxes. The tax credit is to be pha
sed out two calendar quarters after the manufacturer reaches 60,000 new cars sol
d in the following manner: it will be reduced to 50% if delivered in either the
third or fourth quarter after the threshold is reached, to 25% in the fifth and
sixth quarters, and 0% thereafter.
• As of April 2010 three auto manufactures have reached the 60,000 cap, Toyota Mot
or Company reached it in 2007, Honda in 2008, and as of April 1, 2010, allFord M
otor Company hybrid vehicles are also no longer eligible for this tax credit. Ve
hicles purchased after December 31, 2010 are not eligible for this credit as thi
s benefit will expire on this date.
10.10.2 States and local
Occupied HEVs to enter the HOV lanes on the highway.
California's clean air bumper sticker used to allow HEVs to access HOV lanes. Sh
own a RechargeIT's plug Certain states (e.g., New York, California, Virginia, an
d Florida) allow singly--in converted Prius (left) and a conventional Toyota Pri
us (right).
Initially, the Federal Highway Administration ruled that this was a violation of
ederal statute[171] until August 10, 2005 when George W. Bush signed the Transp
ortation Equity Act of 2005 into law. In California alone, 85,250 owners of the
three eligible hybrid models have benefited from free access to HOV lanes, howev
er this incentive expired on December 31, 2010.
Some states, e.g. California, exempt hybrid electric cars from the biennial smog
inspection, which costs over $50 (as of 2004).
The city of San Jose, California issued a free parking tag until 2007 when it be
came issued for a fee annually for hybrid electric cars that were purchased at a
San Jose dealership. The qualified owners do not have to pay for parking in any
city garage or road side parking meters.
The city of Los Angeles, California offers free parking to all HEVs which starte
d on 1 October 2004. The experiment is an extension to an existing offer of free
parking for all pure electrical vehicles.
In October, 2005, the city of Baltimore, Maryland started to offer discount on m
onthly parking in the city parking lots, and is considering free meter parking f
or HEVs. On 3 November 2005, the Boston Globe reports that the city council of B
oston is considering the same treatment for hybrid electric cars.
Annual vehicle registration fees in the District of Columbia are half ($36) that
paid for conventional vehicles ($72).