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Slade et al.

/ J Zhejiang Univ Sci A 2007 8(3):335-342 335

Journal of Zhejiang University SCIENCE A


ISSN 1009-3095 (Print); ISSN 1862-1775 (Online)
www.zju.edu.cn/jzus; www.springerlink.com
E-mail: jzus@zju.edu.cn

Vacuum interrupter, high reliability component of distribution


switches, circuit breakers and contactors

SLADE Paul G.†, LI Wang-pei, MAYO Stephen, SMITH R. Kirkland, TAYLOR Erik D.
(Eaton Electrical, Horseheads, NY 14845, USA)

E-mail: PaulGSlade@eaton.com
Received Dec.19, 2006; revision accepted Jan. 10, 2007

Abstract: The use of vacuum interrupters (VIs) as the current interruption component for switches, circuit breakers, reclosers
and contactors operating at distribution voltages has escalated since their introduction in the mid-1950’s. This electrical product
has developed a dominating position for switching and protecting distribution circuits. VIs are even being introduced into
switching products operating at transmission voltages. Among the reasons for the VI’s popularity are its compactness, its range of
application, its low cost, its superb electrical and mechanical life and its ease of application. Its major advantage is its
well-established reliability. In this paper we show how this reliability has been achieved by design, by mechanical life testing and
by electrical performance testing. We introduce the “sealed for life” concept for the VI’s integrity. We discuss this in terms of what
is meant by a practical leak rate for VIs with a life of over 30 years. We show that a simple high voltage withstand test is an easy
and effective method for monitoring the long-term vacuum integrity. Finally we evaluate the need for routine inspection of this
electrical product when it is used in adverse ambient environments.

Key words: Vacuum interrupter (VI), Reliability, Mechanical life, Electrical life
doi:10.1631/jzus.2007.A0335 Document code: A CLC number: TM5

INTRODUCTION vacuum in the life of the switching product?


After a very slow acceptance by the end user
The vacuum interrupter (VI) was introduced in community, products containing VIs have gradually
the 1950’s as a voltage distribution, load-break switch gained a dominant position in the voltage distribution
(Jennings et al., 1956). In the late 1950’s and into the market (Slade, 1997), as shown in Fig.1. Vacuum
1960’s the General Electric Corporation (USA) began circuit breakers are now employed at system voltages
its R & D effort to produce a VI that would interrupt from 1 kV (Fink and Renz, 2002) to 145 kV (Himi et
fault currents (Lee et al., 1963). Eaton Corporation al., 1978). They can also interrupt fault currents up to
(formerly Westinghouse) began its development of 75 kA and are being used in an ever-widening range of
VIs suitable for use in distribution circuit breakers and application (Long and Smith, 2003). In this paper we
reclosers in 1960. We introduced our first designs into will address the second concern. We will show how
the US recloser market at the end of the 1960’s. Thus the design, testing and manufacture of the VI assure an
we have had over 45 years of experience in manu- extremely reliable product. The modern VI provides
facturing and applying VIs. When the VI was first excellent service throughout its design life.
introduced into switching and circuit protection prod-
ucts the end users expressed two major concerns:
(1) What is the reliability of the VI’s performance DESIGN FOR LIFE
over its service life?
(2) How reliable is the vacuum vessel over its Mechanical life
design life; i.e. will the VI maintain the required Vacuum circuit breakers and vacuum contactors
336 Slade et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci A 2007 8(3):335-342

7.5 kV AC voltage. Failure to hold off this voltage


indicates that the VI has started to leak from a crack in
circuit breaker market (%)
Share of medium voltage

80
the bellows. This voltage is generally below the
60 breakdown voltage of the open contact gap at at-
Vacuum
SF6
mospheric pressure; therefore it depends on the
40 Oil breakdown voltage dropping through the minimum of
Air the Paschen curve as air leaks into the VI. For an
20 excellent compilation of Paschen curve data, see
(Dakin et al., 1974).
0
1980 1990 2000 2010
VIs need to have no or very low chance of me-
Year chanical failure below their rated number of
close-open operations. Mechanical life tests were
Fig.1 Sales of different medium voltage circuit breaker performed on a set of VIs, and the distribution of the
technologies by year
life data was analyzed using three-parameter Weibull
distribution (Bruning et al., 1996) given by:
are required to mechanically open and close for a
large number of operations. A bellows made from β
 x − x  
thin stainless steel allows the contacts to open and f ( x) = 1 − exp  0
, (1)

close while retaining vacuum inside the interrupter.  α − x0  
The fatigue performance of the bellows limits the
mechanical life of the VI. The contact opening and where f(x) is the cumulative probability of failure, x is
closing operations stress the bellows, particularly the the mechanical life, α is the life where the fraction of
convolutions closest to the ends. In addition to the 1/e units have failed, β is the shape parameter of the
direct motion from the operation, the bellows oscil- distribution, and x0 is the threshold value below which
lates after the contact motion stops, further adding to the probability of failure is effectively zero. Fig.2
the wear on the bellows. The critical contact motion illustrates an example of this analysis. The plot shows
parameters that affect mechanical life are: the cumulative probability of failure as a function of
(1) steady state contact stroke or gap; the number of operations. This probability is the
(2) opening and closing speed; percentage that has failed at of before a particular
(3) motion damping at end of opening and mechanical life. The three-parameter Weibull distri-
closing stroke; bution reproduces the behavior of the data, and gives
(4) overshoot and rebound on opening; a threshold value of 43770, which is just slightly
(5) mounting resilience; below the lowest mechanical life measurement of
(6) contact bouncing on closing. 44096.
The mechanical life of Eaton Electrical VI’s was
evaluated by performing opening and closing opera- 99
Cumulative probability

tions on sample VIs in a specially constructed life-test 90


75
apparatus designed to simulate the operation of any
of failure (%)

50
mechanism that a VI may use in practice; e.g. that of a 25
switch, a circuit breaker or a contactor. The opening 10
and closing speeds reflect values recommended for 5
use in these mechanisms. For example, a VI that is to 2
be used in a vacuum circuit breaker will have its 1
4 5 6 7 8 9
contact gap set to the circuit breaker’s nominal gap, Mechanical life (×104)
plus the gap tolerance, plus the amount of overtravel.
The opening and closing speeds are adjusted towards Fig.2 Cumulative percentage of VIs experiencing me-
chanical failure as a function of the number of opera-
the maximum values. This gives the maximum de- tions. These results are for a particular bellows design
flection stress on the bellows. The testing pauses after and circuit breaker parameters. The threshold value is
every 100 operations, opens the contacts and applies a 43770 operations
Slade et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci A 2007 8(3):335-342 337

Most VIs are seldom operated. The electrical and forces the high current vacuum arc to move rapidly
mechanical wear the interrupters experience in ser- around the periphery of the contacts. The second,
vice is usually only a small fraction of their actual called the Axial Magnetic Field (AMF) contact,
capability. Table 1 gives an overview of the expected forces the high current columnar vacuum arc into a
life for a number of common VI applications. In high current diffuse mode.
general the VI will certainly perform its switching and When switching the diffuse vacuum arc that
protection function for most applications in excess of occurs when normal load currents (e.g. 630 A to 3150
the expected life of the equipment in which it resides. A) are interrupted, it is important to consider the de-
It is possible to develop bellows for mechanical re- posit of material eroded from the cathode and depos-
quirements beyond the VI life given in Table 1. For ited on the anode. Schulman et al.(1999) showed that
those applications where very frequent switching is when this is taken into account the effective erosion
needed, the number of operations should be moni- of the VI contacts in an ac circuit is considerably
tored and a regular maintenance schedule developed. reduced. They determined the effective erosion as a
The long-term reliability of the VI while switching function of the contact gap <g> divided by the contact
current has permitted these frequent switching ap- diameter <φ> as well as the effect of slots cut into the
plications to be implemented. contact’s surface. For example, a 62 mm diameter
Cu-Cr contact with <g>/<φ> and slots in 28% of the
Electrical life contact surfaces has an effective erosion of 13×10−7
Since the first introduction of the VI it has cm3/C. The life of this contact is given as a function of
demonstrated an exceptional electrical switching life. load current in Table 2. This contact life is much
The major advantage of the contact in vacuum is that larger than the 30000 operations expected from the
throughout its switching life the contact resistance normal operating life of a vacuum circuit breaker. VIs
remains nearly constant. There is no gas inside the VI developed for vacuum contactors have been designed
to change the chemical composition of the contact. with switching lives of up to 5 million electrical
Slade and Smith (2006) explored this life over the switching operations.
whole current range expected for VIs used in vacuum A 62 mm diameter TMF contact switching 25
circuit breakers. These VIs are designed to interrupt kA (RMS) has a switching life of 100 operations
the diffuse vacuum arc that results during load cur- (Slade and Smith, 2006). For currents >6 kA the life
rents switching (for currents ≤6 kA) and the high of this contact is inversely proportional to the square
current vacuum arc that results when switching fault of the current. The contact life as a function of current
currents (for currents >6 kA). In order to control the is shown in Fig.3. The AMF contact of the same
high current vacuum arc two contact structures were diameter has a much lower erosion rate for the same
successfully developed (Slade, 1984). The first, high current interruption. A comparison of the two
named the Transverse Magnetic Field (TMF) contact, contact designs is shown in Fig.4 for a 35 mm di-

Table 1 The expected life of switching equipment using VIs


VI mechanical life Expected operation Expected VI
Application
(operations) frequency in field service life
Vacuum circuit breaker (VCB) 3×104 (1~2)/year >40 years
4
Vacuum recloser 3×10 <100/year >40 years
4
Capacitor switching VCB 3×10 ≤2/d >40 years
4
Capacitor switching switch 5×10 ≤4/d >30 years
Arc Furnace VCB 3×104 ≤100/d <1 year
6
Contactor (≥7.2 kV) 1×10 ≤100/d >30 years
6
Contactor (≤3.3 kV) 5×10 ≤100/d >30 years
6
Contactor: jogging (≤3.3 kV) 5×10 ≥100/d <3 years
338 Slade et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci A 2007 8(3):335-342

Table 2 Life of a 62 mm TMF contact switching load Smith, 2006). It is thus possible to design VIs to have
currents until 3 mm of erosion is reached an outstanding operating life performance, which is
Circuit current Switching to reach greatly in excess of any former and any competing
(RMS) (kA) 3 mm contact erosion interrupter technology.
0.63 953835
1.25 480733 Vacuum integrity, sealed for life
In the early days of application of VIs, there was
1.60 375572
genuine concern about vacuum integrity. This might
2.00 300458 have been the result of the glass envelope used in the
2.50 240366 manufacture of these early VIs. Glass is vulnerable to
3.15 193532 permeation of both hydrogen and helium. At that time
some end users were told that the life expectancy of a
VI was 20 years. In the last few years we have heard
Inverse square calculation from 100 ops @ 25 kA
Diffuse vacuum arc calculations some utility customers replacing perfectly good VIs
Empirical measurement of erosion in their switchgear simply because it has been 20
106
years since the panel boards were installed. Our own
Life, number of operations

105 experiences in seeing our VIs used in the field all over
Mechanical life=30000 ops
Mechanical life=10000 ops the world, in vastly different environments, for well
104
over 40 years, showed that with proper vacuum
103 quarantine testing carried out in the VI manufacturing
plant, VIs are “sealed for life”. A VI can and should
102
continue to be used for as long as it passes a high
10 voltage AC withstanding test, showing that it still has
102 103 104 105 an acceptable vacuum. As far as we know, those VIs
Current (A)
we manufactured in 1968 are still operating reliably.
Fig.3 The contact life vs current (RMS) curve for 62 In fact, an analysis in 1998 of an Eaton (formerly
mm diameter TMF contacts inside a 102 mm diameter Westinghouse) VI that had been in the field since
vacuum interrupter 1970 showed an internal pressure of 1×10−3 Pa.
Once the VIs have gone through the final as-
4.0 sembly, evacuation and brazing process, the com-
Linear contact erosion (mm)

TMF erosion pleted product has a vacuum lower than 10−2 Pa


3.0 AMF erosion
sealed inside it. The usual method for measuring the
vacuum level is the magnetron method (Kageyama,
2.0
1983a; 1983b). The magnetron method for measuring
pressure has been found to be extremely reliable and
1.0
is easily incorporated into the VI manufacturing
process. One misconception we have encountered is
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 that the lower the residual vacuum level inside a VI,
Number of operations the better it will perform electrically. In fact, we have
Fig.4 Erosion of 35 mm diameter TMF and AMF purposely manufactured and tested a VI with a high
contacts switching 12.5 kA (RMS) residual pressure of 10−1 Pa. Its short circuit current
interruption ability and its high voltage dielectric
ameter Cu-Cr contact. For the AMF contact the withstanding performance are equal to similar VIs
eventual limit to the number of high current opera- that have a final pressure of 10−3 Pa. Thus, if the
tions it can achieve is its ability to withstand high pressure of the residual gases inside the VI is sig-
voltage, which gradually deteriorates after about 200 nificantly (~2 orders of magnitude) lower than the
high current operations as metal vapor is deposited on Paschen curve’s minimum value (10 Pa), the VI will
the interior walls of the VI’s ceramic body (Slade and perform perfectly.
Slade et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci A 2007 8(3):335-342 339

Unlike other enclosed interrupting systems such ∆PVint (0.1 − P0 )Vint


Qmax = = Pa ⋅ L/s. (4)
as SF6 puffer interrupters, the VI must be constructed t t
to have a zero leak rate. There are some publications
(Okawa et al., 1987) that discuss a leak rate to give a Using Eq.(4) it is possible to calculate the Qmax
30-year vacuum life (i.e. reach an internal pressure of for a 30 year life:
10−1 Pa). However, these reports do not take into
consideration the unique nature of vacuum seals and N max 0.1Vint
vacuum leaks in an external ambient such as atmos- Qmax = = Pa ⋅ L/s. (5)
30 30 × 365 × 24 × 3600
pheric air. What really matters is to determine what
size of leak can be tolerated. No one really knows the
Table 3 lists the maximum leak rate allowed for
true length of time that commercial VIs can retain a
VIs with volumes ranging from 0.5 to 4 L to reach
vacuum below 10−1 Pa. In our own experience with
10−1 Pa as a function of time. Thus, to obtain a
VIs manufactured by Eaton Electrical (formerly
30-year lifetime, the Qmax allowed is about 10−10
Westinghouse) the field experience goes back to 1968.
Pa·L/s. This is two orders of magnitude beyond the
As far as we know, those VIs we manufactured in
practical detection capability of 10−8 Pa·L/s for the
1968 are still operating reliably. A greater than 30
typical helium leak detector (ASM 142/ASM 142D
year life expectancy certainly imposes a very strict
Helium Leak Detector, 2005; VVPC, 1996). Table 3
requirement on the leak-tightness of the VI envelope
shows that the latter leak rate value would only
and all the braze joints that are exposed to the ambient
guarantee a lifetime of about one-month. Why, then,
environment. If we conservatively assume a maxi-
is the practical experience by VI manufacturers of
mum allowable VI pressure of 10−3 mbar or 10−1 Pa (a
lifetimes in excess of 30 years? Fortunately, nature
commonly accepted criterion), then the maximum
works in their favor. Leak rates of about 10−8~10−10
amount of gas Nmax allowed to leak into a VI of
Pa·L/s may require a bake out to become detectable.
volume Vint is:
Leak rates of about 10−9~10−8 Pa·L/s or less are most
likely plugged permanently when exposed to open air
Nmax=∆PVint=(0.1−P0)Vint≈0.1Vint Pa·L, (2)
at one atmosphere (Wilson and Beavis, 1976). Leak
rates smaller than about 10−8 Pa·L/s are of no practical
where P0 is the initial vacuum level inside the VI. The
importance for the vacuum life of the typical VI. A
amount of gas that can leak into the VI depends upon
leak check level to that sensitivity is enough to
the size of the leak:
guarantee its vacuum integrity over its required life-
time. From the data given in Table 3, it can safely be
N max = ∫ Qdt , (3) said that if a VI with an internal volume of 1 L does
30 years not show a pressure of 10−1 Pa within one month, it
does not have a leak larger than 4×10−8 Pa·L/s and
where Q is the leak rate. will, therefore be unlikely to leak further for its entire
The Qmax for a given time t is: application life. This, of course, presupposes that the

Table 3 Maximum leak rate for VIs to achieve a given life-time


Qmax (Pa·L/s)
Internal VI volume (L)
30 years 10 years 5 years 1 years 1 month 1 week
0.5 0.5×10−10 1.6×10−10 3.2×10−10 1.6×10−9 1.9×10−8 8.2×10−8
1.0 1.1×10−10 3.2×10−10 6.3×10−10 3.2×10−9 3.8×10−8 1.6×10−7
2.0 2.1×10−10 6.3×10−10 1.3×10−9 6.3×10−9 7.6×10−8 3.3×10−7
4.0 4.2×10−10 1.3×10−9 2.5×10−9 1.3×10−8 1.5×10−7 6.6×10−7
340 Slade et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci A 2007 8(3):335-342

VI is not subjected to abusive handling or cor- will never leak.


rosive ambients that can generate unexpected leaks. There are three advantages in using this high
This analysis leads to a straightforward and effective voltage test method:
method for assessing vacuum integrity and expected (1) It is relatively easy to perform.
life of a VI by measuring its high voltage withstand (2) The mechanism only has to be isolated from
level. The VI should be opened to its design contact the circuit and the voltage can be applied across each
gap and the withstanding high voltage value can be VI in turn. The VI does not have to be removed from
measured. The process can be illustrated using the its mechanism.
Paschen curve. A typical VI can withstand a voltage (3) The test also measures the insulation integ-
of 50 kV (RMS) for a contact gap of 10 mm and a rity of the circuit breaker/switch system and not just
pressure inside the VI of 2×10−2 mbar. Thus, a worst the vacuum integrity of the VI.
case leak or maximum leak rate, Lrmax (per unit in- It is important to note that an insulation resis-
ternal volume) would be: tance test normally applies a test voltage of 5~10 kV,
which is too low to assess the vacuum integrity of
2 × 10−2 VIs.
Lrmax = mbar/year, (6)
y1
Ambient effects
where y1 is the age in years since the VI’s manufac- One consequence of the VI’s proven high reli-
ture. A VI would have an unacceptable high voltage ability and its property of being maintenance free for
performance at a pressure of 3×10−2 mbar. Thus the its operating life is that it can be incorporated into
minimum time to reach this pressure y2 would be: sealed chambers. Once installed in such chambers the
VIs are usually inaccessible. At distribution voltages
y2 = 3 × 10−2 / Lrmax = 3 y1 / 2 years. (7) of 24 kV and higher compact switchgear have been
developed that surround the VI with SF6 gas (Lav et
Now if the VI is tested after a time y2−y1 and it still al., 2004) or encapsulate it in a solid dielectric mate-
withstands 50 kV (RMS) then Eq.(6) and Eq.(7) can rial such as cyclo-aliphatic epoxy (Leusenkamp et al.,
be used to calculate a new minimum life for this VI. 1996). Each of these developments is successful,
Table 4 shows that it only takes 7 test sequences to because the VI is sealed for its life and does not re-
ensure the VI’s integrity for 30 years. In fact in our quire replacement once it has been installed.
experience if a VI has been in the field for 5 years There are some characteristics of the interrupter
without showing any sign that it has a small leak, it that can lead to failure if care is not taken. Most if not
all of the cases of vacuum integrity failures are caused
Table 4 Life time calculation integrity of a VI using a by a new leak generated later once the VI has been
high voltage withstand test installed as a result of either mishandling, e.g. twisting
V Lrmax Y1 Ymin Y2 the bellows, or fatigue failures of the braze joints by
1 2.0×10 −2
0.5 1.50 2 inadequate mounting of the VI in the breaker or
2 1.0×10 −2
1.0 3.00 3
misuse of the breaker.
−3
VIs are generally assembled from high purity
3 6.7×10 1.5 4.50 5
metal, such as OFHC copper and stainless steel,
−3
5 4.0×10 2.5 7.55 8 which are susceptible to corrosion in certain
−3
8 2.5×10 4.0 12.00 12 environments. For example, in paper mills and
12 1.7×10 −3
6.0 18.00 20 wastewater treatment facilities, hydrogen sulfide gas
20 1.0×10 −3
10.0 30.00 30 is commonly found. The silver used in the braze joints
can react readily with this gas until the integrity of the
V: withstands 50 kV high voltage after y1 years after manufacture
(pressure ≤2×10−2 mbar); Lrmax: leak rate (mbar/year) to reach braze joint is compromised, leading to a loss of vac-
2×10−2 mbar since manufacture; Y1: years to reach 3×10−2 mbar uum. In order to protect against this type of corrosion,
after the HV withstand test; Ymin: minimum years after manufacture
to reach 3×10−2 mbar; Y2: years after manufacture for the next HV many VI manufacturers apply a protective coating to
withstand test these joints. If the VI is to be used in a corrosive en-
Slade et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci A 2007 8(3):335-342 341

vironment, care must be taken to not scratch or re- CONCLUSION


move this protective coating. Likewise, if the VI is to
be used in a corrosive environment, it is a good idea to (1) The modern VI using state-of-the-art proc-
perform an annual visual inspection of the VIs to look essing techniques ensures a vacuum tight construction
for corrosion, in addition to a yearly high voltage test. for the greater than 30 year life of the VI.
In the aftermath of the flooding caused by Hur- (2) The VI provides a reliable maintenance-free
ricane Katrina in New Orleans in the US, it was ap- operation for its full electrical life.
parent that VIs that have been submerged were also at (3) The VI is used in long-life reclosers, vacuum
risk. Coastal floodwaters often contain salts, which circuit breakers, load break switches and contactors.
have chlorine as one component. The stainless steel (4) The VI can be matched to all types of oper-
used to make the bellows and the copper component ating mechanisms and its opening can be precisely
of the braze material are susceptible to chlorine-based controlled.
corrosion (Fig.5). Even if the VI is externally cleaned (5) The VI proven versatility will result in its
after being immersed, it should not be used, as chlo- having an even wider role in the control and protec-
rine-containing water can become trapped in the tion of electrical circuits.
bellows of the interrupter leading to corrosion of the
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detailed research articles can still be published in the professional journals in the future after Science
Letters is published by JZUS-A).

► Contribution requests
(1) Electronic manuscript should be sent to jzus@zju.edu.cn only. If you have any questions,
please feel free to visit our website (http://www.zju.edu.cn/jzus), and hit “For Authors”.
(2) English abstract should include Objective, Method, Result and Conclusion.
(3) Tables and figures could be used to prove your research result.
(4) Full text of the Science Letters should be in 3−4 pages. The length of articles and reviews is
not limited.
(5) Please visit our website (http://www.zju.edu.cn/jzus/pformat.htm) to see paper format.

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