The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 18:2 (2009), pp.

151-165

A Qualitative Research Study on School

Absenteeism Among College Students
Mic hael A. Clores
Ateneo de Naga University
mclores@adnu.edu.ph

School absenteeism is an alarming problem for administrators, teachers, parents, and the society,
in general, as well as for the students, in particular. It may indicate low performance of teachers,
students’ dissatisfaction of the school’s services, or lack of or poor academic and non-academic
structures or policies that address the problems or factors influencing or reinforcing this behavior.
Parents are financially burdened for having their children to stay longer in the school, having to
re-enroll them in subjects where they fail due to excessive absences. The present study aimed
to explore the process by which the phenomenon of school absenteeism evolves or is experienced
by the college students. In-depth interviews of ten absentee students and the use of editing
style analysis and a method described by Colaizzi (1978) yielded three category schemes of
experience of school absenteeism: (a) disempowering circumstances - feeling of helplessness;
(b) misguided value system - mixed up priorities; and (c) pedagogical dilemmas - unappealing
academic environments. Based on the findings, the pedagogical, psychological and socio-cultural
implications are discussed.

Keywords: Absenteeism, qualitative research, regular attendance

Success in any field of endeavor requires
discipline. In school for example, students are
molded to become responsible individuals who
would be able to carry out tasks and duties without
much supervision from teachers. At home, they are
trusted by parents to help themselves seek for their
bright future. But the kind of environment these
students frequent creates a negative force that tests
their control and discipline. A critical factor lurking
within academic institutions and shaking their
psychosocial and cognitive stability is absenteeism.
When a student chooses to be absent in school,
especially at the college level, he/she suffers a loss
of learning and instructional time leading to poor
social and academic achievements. This is not to
mention the financial loss if the student is enrolled
in a private school. As he/she continuously misses
learning opportunities in school, he/she may
eventually drop out of school moving on to lives of
delinquency, crime, poverty, and unemployment.
Hence, school absenteeism has far-reaching
consequences.
In most countries, attendance to primary and
secondary schools is compulsory; thus, students
who irregularly attend their classes and demonstrate
patterns of chronic absences violate the compulsory
attendance laws. These laws consider absences
due to illness and family crises as excused absences.

© 2009 De La Salle University, Philippines

152 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
An unjustifiable or unexplainable absence or non-
attendance from school with attempt by the student
to conceal the absenteeism is referred to as
truancy. Research done on school absenteeism/
non-attendance/truancy at the primary and
secondary levels suggests that it is a phenomenon
with no single cause-effect relationship (Cameron,
2004). Understanding the phenomenon means
considering interrelated and multidirectional forces
interacting among them, namely, the student, the
school, and the community.
In England, Finland, France, Germany,
Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, and
Russia, absenteeism is considered to be one of the
standard problems of the school systems.
Researches done on absenteeism in these European
countries reveal that absenteeism is associated
with juvenile delinquency, social and individual
factors, school problems, poor language ability,
difficult family situation, alcoholism, financial need
and illness. Demographic and ethnic factors are
also mentioned in this connection. In general, the
frequency of absences in major cities is higher than
the frequency of absenteeism in rural areas.
Absenteeism among students is also attributed to
an extremely cold and impersonal learning
environment (Sokrates Programme COMENIUS
2.1., 2003).
Researches on school absenteeism revealed that
absences are related to a number of important
consequences or outcomes (Lounsbury, Steel,
Loveland, & Gibson, 2004). These include school
drop-out, student achievement, IQ scores,
delinq uency (To wberman, 1 994) , gang
membership (Aiken, Rush, Wycoff, 1993),
educational aspirations, and school performance/
attendance of one’s own children (Bhatnagar &
Sharma, 1992; Matumoto, 1994).
Quantitative research on antecedent and
correlates of absenteeism linked it to such diverse
variables as socioeconomic disadvantage, self-
concept and personality needs, teacher control and
support, teacher interpersonal skills (Loveland,
Lounsbury, Welsh, & Buboltz, 2007), academic
press (Philips, 1997), teen pregnancy (Stevenson,
Maton, & Tett, 1998), family activity levels
VOL. 18 NO. 2
(Hansen, Sanders, Massaro, & Last, 1998), and
affiliation problems with peers (Hirate & Sako,
1998-1999), substance abuse (Byrne & Mazanov,
1999), participation in school athletics (Whitley,
1999), cognitive style (Rayner & Riding, 1996),
season of birth (Carroll, 1992), and self-reported
alienation. Corville-Smith, Ryan, Adams, &
Dalicandro, (1998) define absenteeism as a
complex behavioral product triggered by multiple
factors.
In the Philippines, research on absenteeism
started in 1950s and many of these studies focused
on the elementary and high school levels. It appears
that there is a dearth of researches on school
absenteeism at the college level, particularly among
private institutions.
In the case of Ateneo de Naga University, one
of the Filipino Catholic Jesuit universities in the
Philippines, school absenteeism is a major
problem. During the first semester of the school
year 2006-2007, a total of 2003 (35.30%) of 5673
students were placed under Warning Status (i.e.,
they have incurred the maximum allowable
absences). About 461 or 23% of the 2003 students
are from the College of Arts and Sciences, 431 or
21.5%, from the College of Computer Studies, 401
or 20% from the College of Commerce, 310 or
15.5% from the College of Education, 210 or
10.5% from the College of Nursing, and 190 or
9.5%, from the College of Engineering.
The comparative data on Failure Due to
Absences (AF) for the past three semesters had
almost the same number of absentees. Thirty-nine
percent (39%) of the total number of students
(5295) during the 1st semester of S/Y 2006-2007
incurred AF status. Similarly, forty-nine percent
(49%) during the 2nd semester of school year (SY)
2005-2006, and thirty-seven (37%) during the 1st
semester of SY 2005-2006 were in the same
situation.
Although the College Faculty Manual (2003)
explicitly states that:
Punctual and regular attendance is expected
of every student, thus all absences are
counted…. Any student who accumulates
SCHOOL ABSENTEEISM AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS
absences beyond 5 hours for a 3-unit subject,
9 hours for a 5-unit subject, or 10 hours for a
6-unit subject receives Final Grade of AF.
Lost hours due to late registration are
considered absences…Lateness greater than
15 minutes after the star t of class is
considered an unexcused absence….
…If the student incurs half of the norm of
absences, the OSA (Office of Student
Affairs) issues a [warning] slip to notify him/
her [student] of his/her absences…
Still absenteeism has been prevalent among the
students.
This alarming scenario has to be considered and
explained so that academic hours are fruitfully
spent by the students and that the university could
better allow students to fully realize the effects of
absenteeism to their academic performance.
This qualitative study was conducted to
uncover the reasons for college students’
absenteeism, and find out how it evolves and
develops among the students. Using Constructivism
as an alternative inquiry paradigm, this research
focuses on the dynamics that influence absenteeism
among the said group.
METHOD
Research Design
This study employed qualitative research design
to explore the nature of school absenteeism among
college students in one university in the Philippines.
The experiences of absenteeism were reduced to
a central meaning o r the ‘essence’ of t he
experience (Moustakas, 1994) and how it
evolves or develops Specifically, the researcher
utilized a phenomenological approach called
descriptive phenomenology, specifically the
met ho d s o f Co laizzi ( 1 9 78 , as cit ed in
Cresswell, 2003; Denzin & Lincoln, 2000) in
seeking for a thorough description of the meaning
and process of the experience of absenteeism by
identifying essential themes. Common patterns
shared by particular instances were described.
CLORES, M. 153
Finally, the pedagogical, psychological, and socio-
cultural context in which absenteeism occur were
also examined.
Setting and Informants
This study was conducted in Ateneo de Naga
University, a Jesuit Catholic Filipino university in
the Bicol Region in the Philippines.
To meet the theoretical needs of the research,
maximum variation and criterion sampling
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Cresswell, 2003; Polit
& Beck, 2004) were used. These sampling
strategies involve the purposeful selection of wide
range of cases with varied dimensions of interest.
By selecting participants with diverse views and
perspectives, researchers foresee preconceived or
emerging conceptualizations. Cognizant with these
facts, students were selected based on the List of
Students with AF (Failed due to Absences), and
from the Summary Report on Student Absences
during the 1st semester of SY 2006-2007 obtained
from the University Registrar.
A tentative number of 15 students that committed
AF in either their major and minor subject, or both
major subjects, or either minor subjects, or
received a Warning Slip were selected for the in-
depth unstructured interview. Both genders, all year
levels and colleges were represented by the
respondents. The sample size was determined
based on informational needs and guided by the
principle of data saturation.
A total of ten participants were interviewed
about their experiences of school absenteeism.
Each interview was carefully recorded and
transcribed. With high concordance between
interviews, the researcher judged that at the eighth
interview, sufficient data saturation was achieved.
At the cessation of the tenth interview, it was clear
that additional themes had emerged since the eighth
interview.
Ethical Considerations
Ethics was observed in the execution of the
design. All the participants were asked to sign a
document that states their consent of their voluntary
participation and the same document that
154 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
responses would be taken with confidentiality. All
data, e.g., participants’ information sheet,
audiotape recordings and interview transcripts,
were safely kept. No identifying information was
included in the results section of this study.
Data-Collection and Analysis
Questions were prepared before the actual
interview. Tape-recorded interviews of the
informants were listened to and checked for
audibility and completeness immediately after the
interview. All interviews were later transcribed.
In the analysis of data, the editing analysis style
(Crabtree & Miller, 1999) was employed. Acting
as the interpreter, the researcher read through texts
in search of meaningful segments. Once segments
were identified and reviewed, a category scheme
and corresponding codes that can be used to sort
and organize the data were developed. Then
patterns and structures that connect the thematic
categories were searched for in the data.
Collaizi’s (1978, as cited in Creswell, 2003;
Denzin & Lincoln, 2000) method calls for a final
validation of the results by returning to the participants
of the study (i.e., member checking) to ensure the
trustworthiness of the study. This was done by
asking three participants to review and comment on
the category schemes and thematic summaries. To
further ascertain scientific rigor, credibility and
confirmability of the findings, a clinical psychologist
acted as an external evaluator and conducted an
inquiry audit and audit trail. The results were further
reviewed by an educational psychologist.
FINDINGS
A total of ten participants were interviewed
abo ut t heir experiences regarding schoo l
absenteeism. Each interview was carefully
recorded and transcribed. With high concordance
between interviews, the researcher felt that after
the eighth interview, sufficient data saturation was
achieved. At the cessation of the tenth interview, it
was clear that additional themes had emerged since
the eighth interview.
VOL. 18 NO. 2
Each experience was analyzed according to
Collaizi’s (1978) phenomenological method. First,
the researcher read all protocols to get a feeling
for them. Each protocol was reviewed and
significant statements extracted. The researcher
identified and extracted about 136 significant
statements. Seventy-five (75) meanings were
formulated to each of the significant statement was
made. Then the meanings were clustered by themes
(i.e., the process by which absenteeism is
experienced). Clusters were referred back to the
original protocols to validate them. The researcher
initially identified 27 themes which were organized
into four clusters. The last step includes noting
discrepancies among or between the various
clusters, ignoring data or themes that do not fit,
until six processes within three overarching
categories were derived (Figure 1). After which,
the results were integrated into a number of clear
description of the phenomenon. Lastly, as a final
validating step, the researcher asked some of the
participants to read and comment on the findings.
Category: Disempowering Circumstances –
Feeling Of Helplessness
People’s behavior can be explained in terms of
dispositional (or personal/internal) efforts, such as
ability or effort, and situational (or environmental/
external) factors, such as circumstances or luck.
Behaviors can be distinguished also between
intentional and unintentional behaviors.
People have also the tendency to deny
responsibility when they do wrong (and take credit
when things go right).
The students explained their absenteeism in
situational (environmental/external) terms.
Generally, they also expressed helplessness in
avoiding missing classes, implying therefore that this
behavior is unintentional.
In this category, two major themes emerged:
(a) overcoming practical predicaments and (b)
struggling with classroom complexities.
Process: Overcoming practical predicaments.
Home and family situations, health problems,
major life events, bad weather conditions and
SCHOOL ABSENTEEISM AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS CLORES, M. 155

School absenteeism

Feeling of helplessness
DISEMPOWERING CIRCUMSTANCES

Mixed up priorities Pedagogical dilemmas

MISGUIDED VALUE UNAPPEALING LEARNING
SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT

Figure 1. The three categories of influences leading to school absenteeism

transportation problems were mentioned by the
students as reasons for their absences in school.
Students fail to enter classes to attend to some
of their family concerns and home situations or
family problems. Students said they attend to a
family member who is sick.
When my grandfather was hospitalized...he
underwent operation. He was old, about 70
plus. He had asthma and heart disease...there
were complications. We had to do shifting in
attending to him.
Another informant explained the reason of his
absenteeism.
school absenteeism is confounded by the emotional
neglect he is experiencing from his parents.
I have a long trouble with my family. My
father is always beating me physically,
violently. I do not want to go home anymore.
…Since childhood I was never appreciated
by my family. By getting absent, I thought I
could get them concerned with me…
The family’s financial concerns require or force
students to do part-time job. Others do not have
allowance for the day. Some students have
problems with their transportation allowance. All
these contribute to school absenteeism.

I cannot avoid being absent because of
work...family business. I am the eldest child.
Usually when there is an urgent work... My
parents allowed to manage everything. The
[business] project won’t be done unless I am
[present] in the site...
One student said that he is trying to rebel from
his parents for the maltreatment he received. His
This semester, it is only now that it happened.
We have a financial problem, I do not have
allowance to go to school.
Dysmenorrhea, fever, stomach ache, toothache
are some of the cited ailments of the student causing
them to miss classes. Some of these may be
intolerable and troublesome for students prompting
them to choose not to attend classes.
156 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
Death in the family, or wedding of a family
member, early pregnancy, as major life events were
also mentioned as causes of skipping classes. For
example, when a student finds out that she is
pregnant, she avoids embarrassment by not
attending her classes anymore.
I am ashamed already...before I knew that I
was pregnant, I was already absent for a
week, they were looking for me already. I
was in a block section. They were asking why
I no longer attended my classes... that was
when I decided not to continue attending my
classes anymore...
Regular attendance of students to their classes
may be caused by bad weather conditions and
transportation. In the country in which this study
was conducted, weather is very unpredictable. A
respondent said:
When there is flood…I thought it would be
declared… I thought that there would be no
classes… So I did not go to school anymore…
though it “no classes” was not yet declared.
Transportation problem is also cited by students.
Transportation problem... Yes, sometimes
there are jeepneys that take more than one
hour when travel time is supposed to be 30
minutes only. It depends on the jeepney where
you are riding… sometimes it stops a lot…
According to another student:
Sometimes, when I am in our town and then
there is a typhoon forecast, I do not go to the
city anymore… also because of transportation
problem or traffic.
Process: Struggling with classroom
complexities.
Some of the students felt anxious because they
thought could not cope with the demands of their
subjects. This is compounded with problems such
as alienation in the classroom and schedule of
VOL. 18 NO. 2
classes in which students felt helpless to do
anything.
Some failed in coping with learning demands
especially after dropping from school and being
re-admitted after two or three years is one of the
causes of absenteeism among students. Students
found it very hard to cope with the cognitive
demands of the lessons. Realizing that he/she would
not be able to cope with the academic tasks and
he/she thought it was too advanced for him, so he/
she decided to be absent and finally just let him/
herself be marked AF (Failed due to Absences):
I listened intently to my teacher...what I
understood was different... I failed in 2
quizzes and Prelims exams... By Midterms
exams, I decided that it would be good if I
didn’t enter the class anymore and have AF.
Alienation occurred when a student is enrolled
in a class wherein he/she is either different in year
level or course. If the teacher is not mindful of this
and does not consider his/her being an “alien” in
the class, learning experiences became unpleasant
for the student.
In that class, I joined a block section…
because I have conflict in schedule if I join
my block… I was an irregular student…Then
this class is not my block… It was difficult to
adjust.
Another student said about the same problem:
It was... I am an irregular student...I was
enrolled in a block section... I do not belong
in their block...I was a new student during
that sem... and in that class... I was absent
all the time... It is difficult to adjust...
Some students said that they are sleepy during
certain class hours, especially the 3:00-4:30
classes. If they have consecutive classes from 10:30
to 1:30 or up to 3:00, students decide to be absent
to take their lunch.
At 10:30- 12:00am class, I am lazy
already...Sometimes I wanted to eat already...
SCHOOL ABSENTEEISM AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS
Schedule of classes also overlaps with other
themes, like Self-discipline and Nature of peers
(see Category: Student’s value system: Mixed up
priorities).
I did not enroll in a 3:00pm class because I
feel sleepy and lazy and it is usually the time
to going out and to have fun with my peers.”
Category: Student’s value system –
Mixed up priorities
The occurrence of absenteeism as experienced
by the students was not accidental and can be
explained in dispositional and intentional terms. In
many instances, students freely choose to be absent
and were not forced to act that way. Deliberate
rather than accidental school absenteeism is caused
by lack of self-discipline, peer pressure, lack of
study skills or time management, and extra-
curricular activities.
Three themes emerged that support the idea
that student’s mixed up priorities caused school
absenteeism: (a) procrastinating for self-serving
activities; (b) desiring to belong, and (c) getting
the wrong idea.
Process: Procrastinating for self-serving
activities.
It is obvious that a student’s lack of self-
discipline and inefficient study skills or time
management emanated from their value system
whose priorities set aside regular attendance in their
classes.
Students themselves admitted that they have
problems in waking up early for their morning
classes or they go home or go to their boarding
house at noontime or during their free time to sleep,
then they sometimes feel lazy going back to school.
One participant said that he oversleeps every time
it rains, resulting to his absence in the class.
The lack of efficient study skills or time
management is manifested by (a) the lack of
preparation for the exam or cramming, and (b) the
inability to meet course requirements or projects.
Many st udents opted to be absent on the
examination day because they lacked preparation
for the examination.
CLORES, M. 157
I was not ready… because even if you study
a lot, you will not be able to finish all.
Sometimes you have 9 subjects or 8 subjects
at the same time. You need to study all.
Sometimes there is an exam on five or four
of these subjects, sometimes one after the
other… sometimes I am so stressed… I
would rather have the delayed exam.
Process: Desiring to belong.
Students’ friends pressure them to go out during
class time especially during the 6:00 or 7:30
classes. There are students who decide to be absent
to attend parties or family gathering. Hence, the
students’ ‘priority’ that is in conflict with their
schedule of classes is another common reason for
absenteeism.
Yes... in my evening classes... They invite...
sometimes just to go to [ downtown] .. .
sometimes we go to [bar s and discos]
(laughs)...
Process: Getting the wrong idea.
Deliberately or unintentionally, some students
expressed non-compliance with the policy of
attendance. It seemed that their compliance (or
non-compliance) represented a compromise in this
situation where people face a conflict between
what they privately believe and what majority of
students publicly believe.
Reasoning out that the allowable absences
stated in the academic policy on attendance is a
“privilege” to enjoy and expressing other seemingly
immature perceptions about the policy, students
evidently get the wrong idea about the intentions
of the policy.
Some students think that the allowable absences
are a privilege –working to the advantage of those
who would meet deadlines of class requirements.
Also, according to one informant,
Of course as a typical student… for me,
sometimes just for fun not to attend my
class… sometimes I just want to go
anywhere… actually, for me, it is a normal
event… In my own opinion, because I think
158 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
not one student in our school has never been
absent from his/her class.
The student’s observation regarding the
implementation of school policy is a factor why
students do not care about being absent in their
classes. Students’ absenteeism is further aggravated
when,
Maybe it was the teacher ’s fault. There are
teachers who are not strict in attendance...
especially in my minor subjects... They let
t he b ea d lle d o t he s ole chec ki ng of
attendance.
Another dominant perception regarding the
attendance policy is that the number of allowable
absences is not enough.
Here in our school, I think the allowable
absences is not enough… For me… Because
compared to other schools, I learned they
allow mor e absences… So I think the
allowable absences must be increased…
maybe 5 hours… or 8 hours…additional 2…
It would be favorable to us.
Another informant said:
For me as a student... It is like.... we are
given a certain degree of freedom to be
absent, t hat is how I inter pr et the
policy...Sometimes… when it is too much, and
I know I have three absences already…I
thought if I would be absent again, I would
get an AF… So I hesitate to be absent
again…But if it was my first absence… it is
okay… to be absent because it is the first…
Especially if I know that the teacher has not
required any anything to be submitted from
us yet.
Students explained also that they decide to be
absent from their classes knowing that they will
fail just the same; they would rather choose an AF
(Failure due to Absences) rather than F (Failed)
so they deliberately not attend their classes
anymore.
VOL. 18 NO. 2
Category: Pedagogical dilemmas –
Unappealing learning environment
Unintended and unexpected outcomes tend to
be attributed to external factors. Similarly, many
students said that they unintentionally miss classes
because of some situational factors related to their
learning environment. It should be noted, however,
that embedded in the themes under this category
are the overarching entangled roles played by
motivational and cognitive factors.
Process: Losing interest.
Teaching practices done with the best intentions
may seem ineffective and used by students to
rationalize their absenteeism. Some students also
cited t hat teacher personal factors are so
unappealing to them that their interest in attending
classes is lost.
When the teachers do not employ varied
teaching strategies and when the students know
beforehand what they will do in the class, then they
just decide to miss the class. One student said that
in one of her classes, there is an overuse of a
teaching strategy, like film viewing or film analysis:
Yeah…my grades are fine…then, sometimes
we are just watching films…sometimes I’ve
seen it already…so I don’t enter the class
anymore…
Also, when instruction or learning experience
is boring for the students, like when the lesson in
their religious studies class is done through a long
prayerful mood (e.g., the Bible reading is used as
a springboard for the day’s lesson) or when they
know the next topic to be discussed, students
would rather be absent. Some students opt to be
absent when they feel that they will pass the course
even if they are always absent. Maybe they know
that the teacher does not fail students in that
subject:
It is okay to sacrifice the class because I am
bored in that subject anyway... And yes, it is
because I think I will pass the subject
anyway.
SCHOOL ABSENTEEISM AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS
Also, if a teacher always gives hand-outs,
students are also confident that even if they are
absent. For some, knowing that the teacher will
not give a quiz or recitation in their class can be a
reason also for being absent. Maybe students knew
that their grades will not be affected since there
will be no graded activity announced in the class:
If it is really necessary that I must be absent
so that I can do what I have to do… for
example it has to be at a certain time or
period…And when I know that there would
really be no significant activity or quiz in the
class today…I know that the teacher will just
be doing the lesson or he distributes hand-
outs… if I really have to be absent to do
something else, I would. I will just make up
for it in the next meeting…
Bo ring , unappr o achable, u nkind, and
unsympathetic teachers indirectly urge students to
miss their classes.
Nothing really, I am just lazy…That is
all…Maybe it is also becau se of the
teacher… because if the teacher is… he/she
is boring indeed…
The student’s dislike for his/her teacher
compounds absenteeism. Moreover, when the
teacher is always absent, the students are also
absent. This is common among part-time teachers.
Sometimes, ther e are teachers who are
always present. There are also those who are
always absent. You could not predict when
they will come to meet us. .. Always
absent...ther are a few... Yes... if I attend
the class, my teacher doesn’t... If you don’t...
the teacher comes (laughs)...
DISCUSSION
School absenteeism as experienced by the
college students is related to various circumstances.
For many, the decision to miss classes come from
experiences of disempowering situations that are
CLORES, M. 159
expressed as feeling of helplessness against some
very practical problems in the family, health and
safety. The samples of this study are enrolled in a
rural private university wherein majority of the
students come from low- or average-income
families. This study supports previous quantitative
research regarding the prevalence of parent-
condoned absenteeism and the contribution of
socio-economic factors to high incidence of
absenteeism (Marsh, 2000).
The phenomenon of absenteeism can readily be
traced to the issue of poverty. In general, the lower
the family income, the higher the absenteeism rates.
Living in a poor or a low-income family greatly
increased the chances of being an at-risk or chronic
absentee (Romero & Lee, 2007)
Majority of Filipinos are poor, given its high
population growth and unequal distribution of
income. The disrupting growth and worsening
poverty in the Philippines is mainly rural, although
variable by region and deepened by natural
disasters, variable markets and armed conflicts.
Access to education, particularly primary
education, provides a vivid evidence of this
disempowering circumstance. It was reported that
in school year 2005-2006, the participation rate
dropped from 96.8% to 84.4%. Dropout rates
increased from 2001-2005; completion rates were
on decreasing trend from 2002-2005 (Australian
Agency for International Development [AusAid],
2008). This distressing scenario is no different in
secondary and tertiary schools. Even in developed
countries like Australia, socio-economic conditions
are strong factors leading to absenteeism. For
instance, Fitzgibbon (1996) found that students
from ‘low socio-economic backgrounds and from
rural and remote communities [were] trailing their
higher socio-economic background, urban peers
[in retention rates]’ (p. 2).
Indeed, individuals are driven by forces beyond
their control, either unconscious forces from within
or reinforcements from without. The practical
predicaments from family and natural events like
bad weather are external forces which can be
related to Maslow’s (1968) needs (i.e., lower
needs such as survival and safety). When such
160 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
needs, including belongingness and self-esteem are
satisfied, a person begins to be motivated to fulfill
other higher needs (e.g., intellectual achievement,
aesthetic appreciation and self-actualization). In the
case of the respondents of this study, intellectual
achievement through regular attendance to classes
was set aside for more urgent and practical needs.
Giddens (1990) contends that even though
education has promised to lessen gaps of wealth
and power by providing young people from an
extensive range of backgrounds with skills that will
facilitate them to fit more easily into society, on the
contrary, it tends to reinforce existing inequalities
rather than act to change them. Rizvi (1993)
stressed that ‘poverty is not only a problem for
individuals, it is also an educational issue about how
relations of social distribution are arranged and
how curriculum and pedagogy serve some groups
better than others’ (p. 45). While a line between
poverty and education is clearly important, it
appears trapped within a deficit theory that
suggests that children who are poor lack some
essential condition necessary for educational
success. Hence, school absenteeism could be an
outcome or the process by which this promise of
reducing socio-economic disparities is not fulfilled.
Absentee students reported struggling with
classroom complexities manifested by anxiety and
alienation. At one time or another, everyone has
experienced anxiety, a general uneasiness, a feeling
of self-doubt, and sense of tension. The effects of
anxiety on school achievement are clear. It can be
both a cause and an effect of school failure – students
do poorly because they are anxious, and their poor
performance increases with anxiety. Anxiety is
probably both a trait and a state. Some students tend
to be anxious in many situations (trait anxiety), but
some situations are especially anxiety-provoking
(state anxiety) (Covington, 1992; Zeidner, 1998).
Seemingly, the anxiety felt by the absentee
students is also connected to their self-efficacy
beliefs. In the classroom, successes raise efficacy
beliefs, while failures lower efficacy. Level of
arousal affects self-efficacy, depending on how the
arousal is interpreted. As one faces the task, he/
she is anxious and worried (lowers efficacy) or
VOL. 18 NO. 2
excited and “psyched” (raises efficacy) (Bandura,
1997; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002).
What teachers should do is to help highly anxious
students to set realistic goals because these
individuals often have difficulty making wise
choices. They tend to select either extremely difficult
or extremely easy tasks. In the first case, they are
likely to fail, which will increase their sense of
hopelessness and anxiety about school. In the
second case, they will probably succeed on the
easy tasks, but they will miss the sense of
satisfaction that could encourage greater effort and
ease their fears about schoolwork. Goal cards,
progress charts or goal-planning journals may help
in this case (Woolfolk, 2004).
Students learn from the company they keep.
They are motivated to learn if they are members
of a classroom that values learning. The greatest
motivational problems arise when students
attribute failures to stable, uncontrollable causes.
“Unmotivated” students may seem resigned to
failure, depressed, and helpless (Weiner, 2000;
Weiner, Russell, & Lerman, 1978). These students
respond to failure by focusing even more on their
own inadequacy, and their attitudes toward
schoolwork may deteriorate even further (Ames,
1992). Some of the students who develop
absenteeism are resigned to believe that they will
just fail, and decide that they might as well miss
their classes altogether. Apathy is a logical reaction
to failure if students believe the causes are stable,
unlikely to change, and beyond their control. In
addition, students who view their failures in this
light are less likely to seek help; they believe
nothing and no one can help (Ames & Lau, 1982).
Cognitive theorists believe that behavior is
determined by our thinking (Stipek, 2002).
Behavior is initiated and regulated by plans, goals,
schemas, expectations, and attributions. People do
not respond to external events or physical
conditions such as hunger but rather to their
interpretations of these events. People are active
and curious, searching for information to solve
personally relevant problems (Woolfolk, 2004).
This is another way to understand why the
misguided value system surfaced as mixed up
SCHOOL ABSENTEEISM AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS
priorities that lead to school absenteeism. Their
lack of self-discipline and inefficient study skills
and time management reflected their procrastination
for self-serving activities.
Absentee students are not able to manage
themselves. And this calls for rethinking about how
the schools, in general, are able to move from
demanding obedience to teaching self-regulation
and self-control (Weinstein, 1999). Regular
attendance in school especially for university
students is a sign of self-control. Savage (1999)
said that “the fundamental purpose of discipline is
the development of self-control… Academic
knowledge and technological skill will be of little
consequence if those who posses them lack self-
control” (p.11). Through self-control, students
demonstrate responsibility – the ability to fulfill their
own needs without interfering with the rights and
needs of others (Glasser, 1990). What teachers
can therefore do to help absentee students learn
self-control is to help them make choices and deal
with the consequences. They can also help these
students to set goals and priorities, manage time,
collaborate to learn, mediate disputes and peace,
and develop trusting relations with trustworthy
teachers and classmates (Lewis, 2001; Rogers &
Freiberg, 1994).
Students may develop absenteeism because of
their desire to belong, but the nature of their peers
inadvertently determine their behavior. Belonging
to a social group and maintaining self-esteem
within that group, for example, are important
to students. If doing what the teacher says
conflicts with group rules, students may choose to
ignore the teacher’s wishes or even defy the
teacher (Woolfolk, 2004).
Student’s desire to belong is associated with
their intentional or unintentional misinterpretation
of the academic policy on regular attendance in
classes. It may be related to students less mature
socio-emotional functioning or level of maturity.
Indeed , t he immat u re so cio -emo t io nal
development and functioning of students as
reported by teachers, and their incipient school
refusal behaviors as reported by parents, emerged
as important factors related to absenteeism.
CLORES, M. 161
Students who exhibited less mature socio-
emotional functioning in the classroom, as indicated
by scores on approaches to learning, interpersonal
relations, self-control, as well as on externalizing
and internalizing problem behaviors, had higher
absenteeism rates than those with greater socio-
emotional maturity. Likewise, children who,
according to their parents, complained about
school, were upset to go to school, or claimed to
be sick to stay home had higher absenteeism than
those who did not engage in these behaviors
(Romero & Lee, 2007).
Without a doubt, classes are particular kinds of
environments. They have unique characteristics that
affect students no matter how they or the
classrooms are organized or what the teacher
believes about education (Doyle, 1986). How the
teacher manages the classroom environment affects
the sustained interest of students in attending
classes regularly.
During a single day, teachers have literally
hundreds of interactions with students. Classrooms
have differing abilities, goals, and preferences.
Actions occur concurrently –all takes place at once
and t he pace is quick. In these rapid-fire
interactions, events are also erratic. Moreover,
classrooms are public; the way the teacher handles
these unexpected interruptions is observed and
judged by everyone. Students always perceive if
the teacher is being “fair.” Is there favoritism?
(Woolfolk, 2004). What happens when a rule (like
regular attendance to classes) is broken? Lastly,
Classrooms have histories. The implication of a
particular teacher’s or student’s actions depends
in part on what has happened before. The fourth
time a student is absent requires a different
rejoinder from the teacher than the first absence.
In addition, the history of the first few weeks of
school shapes life in the classroom all semester.
Thus, a problem like absenteeism is related to how
teacher reacts to it; how they are reminded of the
importance of regular attendance to classes
Why are students bored in their classes and
eventually lose interest? Unappealing learning
environments can be avoided if individual variations
are taken into account in instructional planning.
162 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
Maybe students deliberately miss their classes
because the work assigned is too complicated. Or
maybe students are uninterested by lessons
because these are well below their ability levels,
hence, are more engrossed in finding more
stimulating activities to fill their time.
Thus far, any attempt of the teacher to motivate
students is in a way preventing discipline problems
including absenteeism. A student involved in
learning is generally not drawn in a conflict with
the teacher or other students at the same time.
Effective teachers build on a good start. They keep
their management system by avoiding problems and
keeping students engaged in dynamic learning
activities. To motivate students, teachers facilitate
students so that they stimulate curiosity, relate lessons
to student interest, establish learning goals instead of
performance goals, and have positive expectations.
Careful planning and monitoring is also a key
to keep students in their classes. The format of a
lesson affects student involvement. In general,
without eliminating independent work from the
students, as teacher supervision increases,
students’ engaged time also increases (Emmer &
Evertson, 1981). If their curiosity is piqued,
students will be motivated to persist in seeking
answers. And students will be more engaged if they
are drawn in in authentic tasks – activities that have
connections to real life.
Early researches on effective teaching focused
on the personal qualities of the teachers themselves.
Results revealed some lessons about three teacher
characteristics: knowledge, clarity, and warmth
(Woolfolk, 2004). Some teachers are much more
enthusiastic than others. Some studies found that
ratings of teachers’ enthusiasm for their respective
subjects are correlated with student achievement
gain (Rosenshine & Furst, 1973). Warmth,
friendliness, and understanding seem to be the
teacher traits most strongly related to student
attitudes (Murray, 1983). In other words, to keep
students in their classes, like their teachers and the
class in general, teachers should continue to be
warm and friendly. Teachers trained to demonstrate
their enthusiasm have students who regularly attend
classes, are focused and involved.
VOL. 18 NO. 2
Why do the students of this study choose a
particular explanation of their absenteeism?
Heider’s attribution theory (1958, cited in Ciccarelli
& Meyer, 2007) can be used as a lens to synthesize
all the reasons, circumstances and conditions in
which this problem evolved among the students.
Many antecedents and causes of such behavior
could be assumed to be coming from external
sources (situational cause), such as the weather,
traffic, and family problems leading to feeling of
helplessness as well as, unappealing learning
environments emanating from uninteresting learning
processes. Other reasons of missing classes could
be assumed to come from within the students
themselves (dispositional cause). In this case, it is
the person’s internal personality characteristics that
are seen as the cause of observed behavior. As
shown in this study, many absentee students
procrastinate in self-serving activities and prioritize
friends and play over regular attendance to their
classes.
Lastly, Lewin (1951) proposed that every
object exists in a “field of forces” that move to change
it, define it, or give it a degree of stability and
substance. The behavior of an individual at a given
moment is the result of existing forces operating
simultaneously in his life space. Thus, ideas,
expectations, feelings, attitudes and needs of the
individuals constitute the internal forces while
everything in the physical world, including other human
beings, with which the internal forces interact at a
given moment constitute the external force
(psychological environment) of his life space.
Undeniably, a student is motivated by psychological
tensions by the interaction of the psychological self
with a psychological environment. Absenteeism has
become a particular response that occurs to reduce
the psychological tension experienced by the students.
Thus, to understand the learner’s motivation to
continue attend their classes, “the teacher has to
develop the ability to transcend the tensions
(needs) of the learner, the learner’s abilities, and
t he pro pert ies of the learner ’s perceived
environment” (Bustos & Espiritu, 1996, p.41).
Hitherto, the experience of absenteeism can
be explained by linking important theories
SCHOOL ABSENTEEISM AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS
related to motivation, needs, attributions and
cognitivism. Ultimately, to understand this behavior,
one must look at all pieces of the puzzle - all
dynamic interact ions influence outcomes.
Students’ processes of developing absenteeism are
“coexisting facts which are conceived of as
mutually interdependent (Lewin, 1951). As the
students participate in many different life spaces
such as family, church, work, or scho ol,
[absenteeism] was represented as movements
through life spaces that carry both positive and
negative influences and are driven by ones
per cept io ns based o ff t heir und erlying
psychological needs (Daniels, 2003).
REFERENCES
Aiken, C., Rush, J. P., & Wycoff, J. (1993). A
preliminary inquiry into Alabama youth gang
membership, Journal of Gang Research, 1
(2), 37-47.
Ames, R., & Lau, S. (1982). An attributional
analysis of student help-seeking in academic
settings. Journal of Educational Psychology,
74, 414-423.
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures,
and st ud ent mo t ivat io n. Jo urn al of
Educational Psychology, 84, 261-271.
AusAid. (2008). Australia’s Aid Program.
Retrieved 19 November 2008 from http://
www.ausaid.gov.au/makediff/default.cfm
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise
of control. New York: Freeman.
Bhatnagar, J. K., & Sharma, M. (1992). A study
of the relationship between parental education and
academic achievement in a semi-rural setting.
Psychological Studies, 37 (2-3), 126-129.
Bust o s, A.S., & Espiritu, S.C. (1996).
Psychological, anthropological, and
sociological foundation of education.
(Foundation of education I) (Rev. ed.). Quezon
City, Philippines: Katha Publishing Co., Inc.
Byrne, D. G., & Mazanov, J. (1999). Sources of
adolescent stress, smoking, and the use of other
drugs. Stress Medicine, 15 , 215-227.
CLORES, M. 163
Cameron, J.W. (2004). Managing scho o l
at t endance. Audit o r General Vict o ria.
Government Printer for the State of Victoria.
Melbourne: Govt. Printer. Website:http://
www.audit.vic.gov.au; http://www.audit.
vic.gov.au/reports_par/absenteeism_report.pdf
Carroll, H. C. (1992). Season of birth and school
attendance. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 62, 392-396.
Ciccarelli, S. K., & Meyer, G. E. (2007).
Psychology (1 st ed.). New Delhi: Pearson
Education.
Colaizzi, P. F. (1978). Psychological research
as the phenomenologist views it. In R. Valle
& M. King (Eds.). Existential phenomeno-
logical alternatives for psychology (pp.
48-71). New York: Oxford University Press.
College Faculty Manual. 2003 Edition. Ateneo de
Naga University. Website: www.adnu.edu.ph/
fmanual
Corville-Smith, J., Ryan, B., Adams, G. R., &
Dalicandro, T. (1998). Distinguishing absence
st u dent s fr o m regu lar at t enders: The
combined influence of personal, family, and
school factors. Journal of Youth Adolescents.
27, 629-640.
Covington, M. V. (1992). Making the grade: A
self-worth perspective on motivation and
school reform. New York: Holt, Rinehart, &
Winston.
Crabtree, B. F., & Miller, W. L. (Eds.). (1999).
Doing qualitative research (2nd ed.). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Cresswell, J. W. (2003). Research Design:
Qu alit ative, q uant itat ive, and mixed
methods approaches (2nd ed.). London: Sage
Publications.
Daniels, V. (2003). Kurt Lewin notes. Sonoma
State University. Retrieved March 12, 2009,
from http://www.sonoma.edu/users/d/daniels/
lewinnotes.html
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.). (2000). The
handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and
management . In M. C. Witt rock (Ed.)
164 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
Handbook of research on teaching, (4th ed.).
New York: MacMillan Publishing.
Emmer, E. T., & Evertson, C. M. (1981). Synthesis
of research on classroom management.
Educational Leadership, 38, 342-345.
Fitzgibbon, E. (1996). Truancy and exclusion
from school: Report of the inquiry into
truancy and exclusion of children and
young people from school. Canberra: The
P ar liamen t o f t he Co mmo nw ealt h o f
Australia. Retrieved March 8, 2009, from
http://www.iier.org.au/
Glasser, W. (1990). The quality school:
Managing students without coercion. New
York: Harper & Row.
Giddens, A. (1990). Sociology. Cambridge: Polity
Press.
Hansen, C., Sanders, S. L., Massaro, S., & Last,
C. G. (1998). Predictors of severity of
absenteeism in children with anxiety-based
school refusal. Journal of Clinical Child
Psychology, 27, 246-254.
Hirate, S., & Sako, T.(1998-1999). Perceptions
of school environment among Japanese junior
high school, non-attendant, and juvenile
delinquent students. Learning Environment
Research Journal, 1, 321-331.
Lewin, K. (1951) Field theory in social science:
Selected theoretical papers. D. Cartwright.
New York: Harper & Row. Retrieved March
12, 2009, from http://www.psychology.sbc.edu/
Kurt%20Lewin.htm
Lewis, R. (2001). Classroom discipline and
student responsibility: The students’ view.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 307-
319.
Lounsbury, J. W., Steel, R. P., Loveland, J. M, &
Gibson, L. W. (2004). An investigation of
personality traits in relation to adolescent
absent eeism. Jo urna l of You th a nd
Adolescence, 33, 57-466.
Loveland, J. M., Lounsbury, J. W., Welsh, D., &
Buboltz, W. C. (2007). The validity of physical
aggression in predicting adolescent academic
performance. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 77, 167-176.
VOL. 18 NO. 2
Marsh, P. F. (2000). Truancy or absenteeism? A
school governance perspective. Queensland
Journal of Educational Research, 16, 147-157.
Maslow, A.H. (1968). Toward a psychology
of being (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand.
Retrieved March 12, 2009, from http://
alangullette.com/essays/psych/
maslow.htm
Matumoto, J. (1994). A follow-up study of school
refusal: The relationship between parent’s
expectations and the process of the child’s
school refusal. Japan Journal of Family
Psychology, 49, 710-727.
Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological
research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Murray, H. G. (1983). Low inference classroom
teaching behavior and student ratings of college
teaching effectiveness. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 75, 138-149.
Philips, M. (1997). What makes schools effective?
A co mp ariso n o f t he relat io nships o f
co mmunit arian climat e and academic
achievement and attendance during middle
school. American Educational Research
Journal, 34, 633-663.
Philippines. Australian Agency for International
Development (AusAID). Retrieved March 8,
2009, fro m http ://www.ausai d.gov. au/
country/country.cfm?CountryID=31
Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (2002).
Motivation in education: Theory, research,
and applications (2 nd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2004). Essentials of
nursing research: Methods, appraisal, and
applications. Philadelphia: Lippincott.
Rayner, S., & Riding, R. (1996). Cognitive style
and school refusal. Educational Psychology,
16, 445-451.
Rizvi, F. (1993). Broadbanding equity in Australian
schools. In I. Macpherson (Ed.), Curriculum
in profile: Quality or inequality (pp. 39-45).
Conference Report, Curriculum 93. Belconnen,
ACT: Au st ralian Cur ricu lum St ud ies
Association. Retrieved March 8, 2009, from
http://www.iier.org.au/
SCHOOL ABSENTEEISM AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS
Rogers, C. R., & Freiberg, H. J. (1994). Freedom
to learn (3rd ed.) Columbus: OH: Charles E.
Merrill.
Romero, M., & Lee, Y. (2007). A national portrait
of chronic absenteeism in the early grades.
Retrieved March 8, 2009, from http://
www.nccp.org/publications/pub_771.html
Rosenshine, B., & Furst, N. (1973). The use of
direct observation to study teaching. In R.
Travers (Ed.), Second handbook of research
in teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Savage, T. V. (1999). Teaching self-control
through management and discipline. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Sokrates Programme COMENIUS 2.1. (2003).
Absenteeism: Strat egies, co ncept s and
materials to fight truancy. European Synopsis.
Niedersachsen. Retrieved 19 November 2008
from http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/static/Bots/
docbots/Documents/Compendium/Comenius/
Revised%20compendiumComenius%2021
2003.pdf
Stevenson, W., Maton, K. I., & Tett, D. M.
(1998). School importance and dropout among
pregnant adolescents. Journal of Adolescence
Health, 22, 376-382.
Stipek, D. J. (2002). Motivation to learn:
Integrating theory and practice (4 th ed.).
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
CLORES, M. 165
To wberman, D. B. (1994). Psycho so cial
antecedent of chronic delinquency. Journal of
Offender Rehabilitation, 21, 151-164.
Weiner, B. (2000). Interpersonal and intrapersonal
theories of achievement striving. Review of
Education Research, 64, 557-575.
Weiner, B., Russell, D., & Lerman, D. (1978).
Affective consequences of causal aspirations.
In J.H Harvey, W.J. Ickes, & R.F. Kidd (Eds.),
New directions in attribution research
(Vol.2.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Weinstein, C. S. (1999). Reflections on best
practices and promising programs: Beyond
assertive classroom discipline. In H. J. Freiberg
(Ed.), Beyond behaviorism: Changing the
classroom management paradigm (pp. 147-
163). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Whitley, R. L. (1999). Those ‘dumb” jocks are at
it again: A comparison of the educational
performance of athletes and nonathletes in
North Carolina high schools from 1993-1996.
High School Journal, 82, 223-233.
Woolfolk, A. (2004). Educational Psychology.
(9th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Zeidner, M. (1998).Test anxiety: The state of the
art. New York: Plenum.