Forces

and
Stresses

Engineering Science 10 Institute of Civil Engineering

Strength of Materials: Why Things Break? College of Engineering
University of the Philippines-Diliman
 Effect of forces

What are the effect of forces?

1N 1N

External:
 Development of forces at surfaces of
contact between bodies.

 Change in the state of motion of a body.

Internal:
 Deformation C'
θ'

 Development of internal stresses.

 Effect of forces
Classification of Loads:

I. With respect to time

 Static – gradually applied load for which
equilibrium is reached in a relatively short
time.

 Sustained – load that is constant over a

long period of time.
 Effect of forces
Classification of Loads:

I. With respect to time

 Impact – impulsive and rapid application
of loads. “big force applied at short
period of time”

 Repeated – load that is applied and

removed many times (cyclic).
 Effect of forces
Classification of Loads:

II. With respect to distribution

 Concentrated – load or force applied at a
point.

 Distributed – a load distributed along a

length or over an area.
 Effect of forces
Classification of Loads:

III. With respect to location and method of

application.
 Centric/Axial – load that passes through
the centroid of the resisting section.
 Shearing – a load applied parallel to
cross section
 Torsional – a load that twists a member.
 Flexural – a load that bends a member
 Material
properties
 Material properties

What do we mean when we say a material is…

Hard vs Soft?

Strong vs Weak?

Brittle vs Tough?
 Material properties

What we mean is:

Hard – material is not easily indented by

another object.

Soft – material is easily indented (cut).

 Material properties

What we mean is:

Strong – material resists a force without much

change in shape.

Weak – material is easily deformed by an

applied force.
 Material properties

What we mean is:

Brittle – material can not deform far without

breaking.

Tough – material can absorb a great deal of

force (and energy) before breaking.
Is there a way we can quantify these intuitive
material properties?
Concept of stress
 Stress vs. Pressure

What is the diff between the

two terms?

Stress Pressure
Solids Liquids and Gas
Internal External
 Concept of stress

Consider two bars having the same length and

made of the same material as shown:

F F

F F

Which bar will fail first?

 Concept of stress

Consider two bars having the same length and

made of the same material as shown:

F F

2F 2F

Which bar will fail first?

 Concept of stress

We need some way to normalize applied force.

The failure is dependent on the applied force and

the cross sectional area of the bar.

σ ~ F
A
 Concept of stress

The concept of stress and strain was

formalized by Thomas Young (1779 –
1829)

 Young published the definition of the

modulus of elasticity in 1807, in a nearly
incomprehensible paper.
 Concept of stress

If we assume that a material is:

 continuous – uniform distribution of matter; no

voids.
 cohesive – all portions are connected together;
no breaks, cracks and separations.
 homogeneous – same physical and mechanical
properties throughout its volume.
 isotropic – same properties in all directions.
 prismatic – constant cross sectional area.
 Concept of stress

Then we can define the average stress:

stress = F
A

Where F is the internal force acting on an area

A.
Therefore, stress is the force acting per unit
area.
 Concept of stress

When the force is acting perpendicular to the area,

the stress associated with it is called the average
normal stress, represented by the Greek letter
sigma (σ).

F F
A

σ= F
A
 Concept of stress

When the force is acting parallel to the area, the

stress associated with it is called the average
shear stress, represented by the Greek letter tau
(τ).

A F

τ = F
A
 Concept of stress

The units of stress:

Stresses are normally expressed in Pascals.

1 Pascal = 1 N/m2
 Design Considerations

1.) Strength – actual design load a

structure can carry.

2.) Serviceability – vibration,

deformations, deflection,
cracks, functionality

3.) Economy – most efficient and

cost-effective design
 Deformation
and
Strain

Engineering Science 10 Department of Engineering Science

Strength of Materials: Why Things Bend and Break? College of Engineering
University of the Philippines-Diliman
Deformation
 Deformation

How are materials deformed?

 By applying forces.

 By changing the surrounding temperature.

 Deformation

Consider the bar:

F F

L
 Deformation

Consider the bar:

F F

L δ
 Deformation

Consider the bar:

F F

L δ

Normalizing the deformation, we have:

δ
ε=
L
 Deformation

The normalized deformation is called the

average normal strain represented by the
Greek letter epsilon (ε).
When an object elongates then that means the
normal strain is positive.

Otherwise, it is negative.
 Deformation

The shear strain on the other hand, measures

the angular change between two
perpendicular line segments on an object. This
causes a change in shape.
π
γ= -θ
2

Where:
θ = angle after deformation
γ = shearing strain in radians.
 Deformation

For very very small deformations, the shear

strain can be approximated by

γ (gamma) = θ Where θ is measured

in radians.