Appendix D- Derivation of frontal theory

relations for applications

The fractional flow of water is defined as
qw qw
fw = =
qt qw + qo
substituting the Darcy’s law

ko A ⎡ ∂Pc g ⎤
1+
μ o qt ⎢ ∂x + ( ρ o − ρ w ) g Sinα ⎥
fw = ⎣ c ⎦
k ro μ w
1+
k rw μ o
 3.1 . Fractional flow equation

This gradient can be expressed as

∂Pc ∂Pc ∂S w
=
∂x ∂S w ∂x
∂Pc
although the value of can be determined from the
∂S w
appropriate
pp p ( given
g the knowledge g whether it is
imbibition or drainage) oil water capillary
pressure curve, the ∂S w values are not available.
∂x
So in practice the capillary pressure term is neglected
but not forgotten
forgotten.
 3.1 . Fractional flow equation

As for the effect capillary pressure gradient, we know

f
from the
h capillary
ill h ∂∂SP is
pressure curves that c
i always
l
w
negative. That is capillary pressure decreases with
increasing water saturation.
saturation

Since the water saturation must decrease with distance

∂S
in the direction of flow, we can deduce that ∂xw

is always negative as well.

∂Pc
Thus the capillary pressure gradient has a positive
∂x
sign and its effect is to increase the value of fw.
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

Using the following assumptions:

1 Incompressible
1. I ibl flow
fl
2. fw is a function of saturations only
3 No mass transfer between phases
3.
In its differential form; the frontal advance equation is
derived as:

dx S w
qt df w
v Sw = = Eq.3.4
Aφ dS w
Sw
dt
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

The frontal advance equation states that the rate of

advance
d (i.e.
( velocity)
l ) off a plane
l off a specified
f d water
saturation is equal to
the total fluid velocity
multiplied by
the change
g in composition
p off the flowing
f g stream
caused by
a change in the saturation of the displacing fluid.
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

In other words the frontal advance equation states that

eachh water saturation,
i Sw,S travelsl through
h h system at a
constant velocity that can be computed from the
derivative of the fractional flow curve with respect to
Sw.

It also states that as the total rate increases the

velocity of the plane of saturation increases
correspondingly and vice versa.
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

The location of a particular saturation is found by

i
integrating
i Eq.3.4
E 3 4 with
i h respect to time
i as follows:
f ll

qt t df w
xSw =
Aφ dS w
Sw

It is more convenient to work with dimensionless

variables hence dividing both sides by the total
system length L;
df w
xSw
=
qt t df w or x D = Qi Sw
L ALφ dS w
Sw
dS w
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

In the previous equation Qi ( or dimensionless time

tD ) is
i defined
d fi d as pore volume
l injection.
i j i
df w
Provided that we a formula for dS w or we can
Sw

determine it accurately from a plot of fw vs Sw;

we can determine x Sw for each Sw, and hence the
location of all saturations in the system (i.e the
saturation profile in the system at a particular time, )
We can also determine saturation history at a
particular distance as well.
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

Since the term ∂∂Px is difficult to evaluate, we expect

c

df
w
to have
h problems
bl in
i determining
d i i dS .
w
Sw

∂Pc
However, whenever
However ≅0
, then fw can be computed
∂x
directly from the relative permeability data.

The question is then, is there a water saturation

range for which that assumption holds ?
and
Can we determine that portion of the saturation
values?
3.2 Frontal advance theory
Examining the following figure dx S w qt df w
q
and frontal advance equation v Sw = =
Aφ dS w
Sw
dt
reveals several important
points.
1. Intermediate saturations
are faster than small 8
7
saturations 6
5
2. Faster saturations

fw'
4
3
must catch up small 2
1
saturations
t ti and
d mustt 0

overcome them 0 0.2 0.4

Sw
0.6 0.8 1

3. Result should be Fig. x. Derivatives of the fractional flow curve for example 3.5
in textbook

formation of a saturation
discontinuity
 3.2 Frontal advance theory
Is the previous conclusion supported by experiments?

Y ( see nextt figure

Yes. fi )

The experimental observations of Terwilliger indicated that

lower range of saturations all moved at the same velocity.
i.e. The shape of the saturation distribution over this range
of saturations was constant with time.
time This zone was called
STABILIZED ZONE.

They also
Th l observed
b d that
th t in
i the
th higher
hi h range off saturations
t ti
called NONSTABILIZED ZONE, saturations will move at
different speeds and hence will continuously get separated
apart.
 3.2 Frontal advance theory
E
Experimental
i l observations
b i off Terwilliger
T illi Fig.
Fi
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

Supported by the above experimental observations, it was

rationalized
ti li d that
th t the
th frontal
f t l advance
d
solution is characterized by a saturation discontinuity at the
flood front where the water saturation jumps from Swi, initial
saturation to Swf, flood front saturation.

In conclusion we represented the stabilized zone where

all saturations moves at a constant speed as a line
discontinuity i.e. the front

Thus the expected saturation profile is as follows from

frontal advance equation.
3.2 Frontal advance theory

In this figure, let’s represent the saturation at the front as

S f
Swf.

S wf

Sw
xf x
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

Remember that frontal advance equation assumes Sw is

continuous
ti and d differentiable
diff ti bl along
l x.
Therefore, it is inappropriate to describe the situation at
the front itself. Now we have an half of the answer for
the appropriate portion of the fractional flow curve:

The saturation range from Swii to Swff of the fractional

flow curve constitutes the portion where frontal advance
equation does not apply,
andd
the saturations from Swf to (1-Sor) constitute the region
of applicability for the frontal advance equation.

How to determine this Swf ?

3.2 Frontal advance theory

The answer is much easier to describe mechanically but

quite involved to explain
q p mathematically.
y
The mechanical description is that you have to draw a
tangent to the fw curve through the point (Swi, fwi) such as
the one in the following figure
figure.
1
1
0.9 fwf
0.8
0.7
(Swi,fwi) 0.6
fw 0.5
0.4
03
0.3
0.2
0.1 Swf
0 0
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
0.24 Sw 0.7
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

An elegant method for the determination of the flood

f
front saturation
i andd is
i based
b d on the
h mathematical
h i l
construction of Welge.

The Welge’s equation for the average water saturation

for the interval x1<x<x2 is,,

x 2 S w 2 − x1 S w 1 ⎛ q t t ⎞ f w 2 − f w 1
Sw = −⎜ ⎟
x 2 − x1 ⎝ A φ ⎠ x 2 − x1
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

Welge’s equation is quite general and the point 2 can

b at any distance
be di from
f the
h inlet,
i l x=00 andd Qi2 is
i the
h
pore volume injection in the portion of the system
from the the inlet to the point 2.
2

⎛ qt t ⎞
S w = S w2 + ⎜ ⎟(1 − f w 2 )
⎝ Ax2φ ⎠

S w = S w 2 + Qi 2 f 02
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

The Welge’s
Th W l ’ equation i relates
l three
h factors
f off prime
i
interest in waterflooding;

1. The the average water saturation and hence the oil

recovery,
2. Cumulative injected pore volume,
3. Oil cut and thus water cut and producing WOR.
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

Coming back to determining the flood front equation,

l ’ consider
let’s id theh following
f ll i three
h equations.
i

1 a material balance from the inlet to flood front

1.
In-Out=Accumulation

qt t − f wi qt t = ( S wf − S wi ) Aφx f Eq.3.9

qt t S wf − S wi
=
Aφx f 1 − f wi Eq.3.10
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

2. frontal advance solution written for flood front

position
qt t 1
=
Aφx f ∂f w
∂S w S wf

3. Welge’s equation written for the flood front

position
qt t Eq 3 12
Eq.3.12
S wf = S wf + (1 − f wf )
Aφx f
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

Rearranging Eq 3.12

qt t S wf − S wf
=
Aφx f (1 − f wf )

Then comparing
p g the above three equations
q we see;;

∂f w (1 − f wff ) (1 − f wi )
= =
∂S w S wf
S wf − S wf S wf − S wi
3.2 Frontal advance theory

Now, number 1:

∂f w (1 − f wf )
=
∂S w Swf
S wf − S wf
Derivative means slope of the tangent line to the
curve of the function at the point where derivative
is calculated. The above relation dictates that the
tangent
g line to the fractional curve at the flood
front values ( S wf ; f wf ) must pass through the point
(Swf ; f w = 1)
3.2 Frontal advance theory

Number 2:

(1 − f wf ) (1 − f wi )
=
S wff − S wff S wff − S wii

The above relation implies p that the line connecting

g the
points (S wi ; f wi) and ( S wf ;1 ) will also have the same
slope of the tangent at ( S wf ; f wf )
3.2 Frontal advance theory
Number 3: If two lines are required
1. to pass from the same point and
2 to
2. t have
h the
th same slope
l
They have to be identical lines.

In other words you cannot pass two different lines

ffrom the same point
p and require
q them to have
different slopes.

Therefore the line originating from ( S wi ; f wi) and

tangent to the fractional curve fixes the location of
the front.
front This is the mathematical proof.
proof
 3.2 Frontal advance theory

As a result we can state that we can determine the

fl d front
flood f values
l ( S wf ; f wf ) by
b drawing
d a tangent
line to the fractional curve that originates from the
point ( S wi ; f wi ).
)

In addition intersection off that tangent

g line with
f wf = 1 axis will give us a very valuable parameter
namely, S wf (i.e the average saturation behind the
front).
 3.3 Estimating the displacement performance for a linear
waterflood at constant rate

I simulating
In i l i the h displacement
di l performance
f we are
interested in three quantities;

1. Volume oil displaced

2. The rate of oil production,
p ,
3. The volume of water that must be handled per
volume of oil after water production begins;
4. And we want to determine them as a function of
time.
 3.3.1 Cumulative oil displaced, Np

By definition, N p = V p ( S w − S wi )

and again by definition the pore volume injection for

the
h totall length
l h is
i qt t
Qi =
AφL

Let’s revisit Welge’s equation expressed for the

interval x=0 to x2 which is applicable
pp at all times to
calculate the average water saturation.
S w = S w 2 + Qi 2 f 02
 3.3.1 Cumulative oil displaced, Np

R
Rearranging
i Welge’s
W l ’ equation
i
S w2 − S w2
Qi 2 =
1 − f w2
Also from the frontal advance equation
q
1
Qi 2 =
∂f w ⎞
⎟⎟
∂S w ⎠ S
w2
 3.3.1 Cumulative oil displaced, Np

Equating the above two equations, one obtains

∂f w ⎞ 1 − f w2
⎟⎟ = Eq.3.19
∂S w ⎠ S w 2 S w 2 − S w 2

Let’s also see the ggraphical

p form of the derivative
In the following figure
Fig (3.11) shows
tangent drawn to the
fractional flow curve
at a saturation Sw2.

From (fig 3.11)

∂f w ⎞ 1 − f w2
⎟⎟ =
∂S w ⎠ S w 2 S e − S w 2
Eq 3 20
Eq.3.20
 3.3.1 Cumulative oil displaced, Np

Comparing Eq 3.19 and 3.20, one can see that

S e = S w2

Hence, average water saturation in the region from

x=0 to x=xSw2 can be obtained by finding the
intersection of the tangent to the fractional flow
ith f w = 1.0 line.
curve with li

Note XSw2
S 2 is the position of the saturation Sw2
2.
 3.3.1 Cumulative oil displaced, Np

The above relation has an implication of great value.

When XSw2=L,L, it allows us to determine:
the average water saturation, S w after the
breakthrough.

In other words, finding the intersection of the tangent

t the
to th fractional
f ti l flowfl curve att any Sw2 value
l
between (Swf and (1-Sor) with f w = 1.0 line will
give us the average saturation in the system when
that production end saturation is equal to that
pparticular saturation where we draw the tangent.
g
 3.3.1 Cumulative oil displaced, Np

Remember that Sw2 can also be Swf and for that

special case we have arrived at the same
intercept conclusion earlier about the intersection
of tangent with f w = 1.0
 3.3.1 Cumulative oil displaced, Np

Since the fluids are considered to be incompressible, Np is

equal to change in the volume of water in the system; and
the cumulative displacement is calculated as:
Np
N p = V p ( S w 2 − S wi ) or = ( S w 2 − S wi )
Vp
Where the average saturation value is obtained from the
intersection of the tangent line to the fractional
curve with f w = 1.0
3.3.2 Production rates
The fractional flow of water is determined from the frontal
advance solution for every value of Sw2. Thus qw2 and qo2 are
f w 2 qt (1 − f w 2 )qt
given by qw2 = and qo 2 =
Bw Bo
3.3.3 WOR the water oil ratio

WOR is a measure of the efficiency of the displacement

process at a point in the process. It represents, the volume
of water that must be handled to produce a unit volume of
oil and is expressed as:

f w 2 Bo
Fwo =
f o 2 Bw
3.3.4 Time required for displacement

Since the
Si th injection
i j ti ratet is
i assumedd constant,
t t the
th time
ti required
i d
to inject Qi PV’s of fluid is Qi
t= AφL
qt