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Figure E21.2.1 shows the important parts of a windmill. The wind is shown heading
perpendicular toward the hub and blade assembly (this example uses three blades, but
some use only two, and, as Fig. 21.7 shows, some use many blades).
Wind machines come in two basic types—horizontal axis or vertical axis machines.
The illustration Fig. E21.2.1 shows a horizontal axis machine, the type most often
seen. The blades and hub rotate as air streams by. The shape of the blades
“channels” the air, and creates regions of higher and lower pressure that result in a
net force being applied to the blade, which causes it to turn. This rotational motion
represents mechanical energy that will eventually drive the generator to produce
electricity. However, usually, the rotational speed of the turbine is less than the 60
Hz AC, so there is an arrangement of gears to change the speed. This axle, the
Figure E21.3.2 in extension 21.3 shows a photo of a vertical axis machine, of the
Darrieus type, and Fig. E21.2.2 shows a drawing of the Sandia 34 m vertical axis
Energy, Ch. 21, extension 2 How a windmill works 3
test windmill. Another type of vertical axis machine is called a Savonius turbine,
grain.(34)
The blades attached to the hub take on a special shape. According to Ref. 35, “the
of modern wind turbine blades, ... [are] 1) camber along the leading edge, 2)
placement of the blade spar at the quarter chord position (25% of the way back
from the leading edge toward the trailing edge), 3) center of gravity at the same 1/4
chord position, and 4) nonlinear twist of the blade from root to tip.” The newest
wind energy machines are designed to “give” somewhat rather than resist the force
of the wind, and the shape as described is very important in assuring efficient
transfer of energy.(30,35)
Fig. E21.2.3 A farm windmill showing the rear wing that keeps the mill presented to the wind.
(U.S. Department of Energy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
The yaw motor can be used to change the orientation of the turbine blades to keep it
perpendicular to the wind. In old farm windmills, there was a wing at the back that
kept the windmill facing the wind. In Fig. 21.7, the farmer has locked the wing
Energy, Ch. 21, extension 2 How a windmill works 4
sidewise so he could work on the windmill. In Fig. E21.2.3, the wing assuring the
In very strong winds, the windmill can be subjected to large stresses. To prevent
damage, windmills are usually stopped in high wind conditions to protect them
The control system indicated in Fig. E21.2.1 may be mechanical, as it was in olden
Local mean wind speed is the most important parameter to consider in siting a
windmill, because the power transferred to the windmill grows as the cube of the
wind speed. There are many regions in the world suitable as wind turbine sites. (See
Fig. E21.3.1 in Extension 21.3, Power from the wind for such regions in the United
States.) Generally, the wind at windmill height above the ground should be a few
meters per second. When the wind speed is too low, the vanes do not turn at all;
Efficient windmills can produce 175 W per square meter of area swept by the
propeller. (37) This compares favorably to the total solar annual energy flux. Someone
planning to erect a wind turbine would look for a region with steady, relatively fast
winds, because the turbine’s delivered power grows as the cube of the speed.
Energy, Ch. 21, extension 2 How a windmill works 5
Windmills cannot extract all the power in the wind, because air must be able to
move away from behind the blade and because conversion of mechanical energy
16
involves losses. The maximum fraction of wind power extractable is only 27 ≈
0.6.(37,38) This is known as the Betz limit. The limitation arises because, if the
blades slow the wind too much, most wind will just flow around the blades, but if
the blades do not slow the wind enough, the energy will be lost.(39) Sites with mean
wind speeds in excess of 7 m/s at 25 m height are prime wind energy resources.
Windmills produce power at a rate that depends on the effective area swept by the
windmill blades and on the speed of the wind. The area is basically the circle cut by
the windmill blades. Air entering this region pushes against the blades of the
1
propeller. Since the kinetic energy of any air parcel having mass m is 2 mv 2, the rate
of mass flow through the blade’s effective area, A, determines the power transferred
to the blades.
The rate of mass flow past the blades is given by Av, where is the air density,
since the mass flowing through area A in a small time ∆t is the density times the
volume A(v∆t) of air having that mass. As a result, the wind’s power is the rate of
1
energy flow, ∆E/∆t, which is 2 (the rate of mass flow)v 2,
1
P = 2 ( Av3).
Because of the wind’s variability, we must average the power density over time. That
We call the average of the factor v 3 over time <v 3>, and it is found by calculation to
be
Energy, Ch. 21, extension 2 How a windmill works 6
6
<v 3> = π (<v>)3 ≈ 2 (<v>)3.
Therefore, the mean power density is almost twice as great as the power density at
To increase the power collected by the wind turbine, then, we must have a location
having winds with mean speeds great enough, and then we need a large collecting
spaced too close to one another, the change in the flow pattern caused by the
windmill in front or to the side can interfere with neighboring windmills. In the
mountain passes in California, the machines are spaced 2.5 rotor diameters apart in
a row perpendicular to the prevailing winds, and the rows are spaced 8 rotor
The rotor blades are very important to the windmill. They must be big in order to
capture as much wind as possible, but not so big that they lose their structural
integrity when subjected to large forces. As noted in Extension 21.3, the smaller
more cost-effectively, we would want to make the machines bigger. As of 1997, the
average size of an installed new windmill was 600 to 750 kW.(30,41) By 2000,
The first windmill used to generate electricity was built only a little over a century ago.
Charles Brush built that wind machine in Cleveland, Ohio in 1888.(35,42) It generated only
12 kW. Developments came slowly, because the real work of windmills was for small-
scale pumping of water on farms, not for electricity for the grid.
Fig. E21.2.4 Large-scale windmills were developed in the early response to the 1973 and 1979 energy
crises. This is a two-bladed research turbine.
(U.S. Department of Energy)
Windmills seem such old technology, having been around for at least a millennium, it
might seem that there is nothing more to learn about the behavior of windmills. This is far
from the truth. It is true that small windmills, such as the one in Fig. 21.7, are better
understood. Because of the immense amount of energy that could be produced by tapping
the winds, even at 35% efficiency, the 1970s and 1980s saw many companies enter the
Energy, Ch. 21, extension 2 How a windmill works 8
wind turbine business.(43) Immediately after the 1973 energy crisis, large wind units were
designed and studied (Fig. E21.2.4). They were found to be uneconomic at that time, and
smaller units of size 50 to 70 kWe were preferred. The technology of small wind units is
now relatively mature, and reliable units are available up to 0.5 MWe. The 1990s saw
Engineering research is often thought of as “cleaning up around the edges,” but it has made
real contributions to the efficiency and profitability of wind turbines. Problems were
identified in research in the 1970s that were rectified in the wind turbines of the 1980s,
Nevertheless, the new technology was pushed and many investments made, and direct
government research money dried up. Renewable energy research and development, which
languished during the Reagan-Bush years, made a comeback after the election of President
Clinton. So much progress was made in this newer round of research that the technology
will probably withstand any decision of the George W. Bush administration to de-
One important change is that new wind units are being certified, which should prevent
“hidden” problems from coming to light only after the purchase of the unit. DOE’s
National Wind Technology Center is the only certification unit in the United States
Much 1990s research focused on mid-size turbines. Three sites were chosen by the
Department of Energy in 1993 for significant new wind energy feasibility tests: Texas,
Vermont, and Maine. There are 150 windmills at the Maine site, producing 30 to 50 MW.
The plan calls for 20 wind turbines at the Vermont site. The windmills were built by
Energy, Ch. 21, extension 2 How a windmill works 9
Kenetech-U.S. Windpower; they are a new design that can be used even when winds are
gusty. (44) The rotors are about 30 m in diameter; each mill, rotating 50 to 100 times per
minute, will generate 300 kW. Texas is also interested in wind energy. Ft. Davis, Texas,
will have at least 20 windmills (producing about 6 MW). The Department of Energy is
putting up $6 million of a total of $40 million for tests, with the remainder coming from
local utilities. A different sort of wind energy system has been tested at Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York. It will give variable-frequency power, first
to produce electricity at a total cost of $0.05/kWh where the wind speed at hub height is
Compared to a decade ago, turbine blades are as much as 30% more efficient.(30)
According to the Department of Energy, 40 m blade lengths as at present are very close to
the size limit imposed by the strength of the materials.(30) As discussed above, the larger
the size of the blade, the greater the area swept out. The larger the area swept out, the
greater the energy that can be coaxed from the wind on a piece of real estate. Research at
the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) shows that size only helps so
much—that is, economy of scale is not a total panacea.(30) However, the size of wind
turbines has increased steadily, from the 50 kW machines installed in California wind
farms in the early 1980s to the 1.5 MW turbines now being mounted.(35)
One of the many new things found recently is that intermittent energy output decreases
in wind turbines arises because of the piling up of insect bodies on the turbines.(45) The
inexplicable decline in generator output. The output rose after every rain or manual
cleaning. Clearly, this has implications for increasing efficiency of all sorts of wind
turbines.
Variable speed turbines are more able to harvest wind energy than fixed speed machines.
The ability to absorb energy from gusts can add significantly to the capacity factor of
windmills, which has sometimes been very low.(30,42) Electronic inverter circuits convert
the energy into the 60 Hz used in the electricity grid. Variable speed turbines are more
committed to variable speed turbines, while European companies have remained with
Another area of research is rotor design. Should there be two or three rotors? It seems to
depend. According to NREL,(30) “Configuration options include the number of blades; the
Energy, Ch. 21, extension 2 How a windmill works 11
allowed in the blades and the hub; and the way blades are used for speed and power
control.” For example, it had been found in German research in the 1960s that putting a
bearing in the rotor hub allowed the rotor to move in response to wind gusts and
stabilized the windmill, but this result was not widely known.(35) The teetering hubs
turned out to be crucial for reducing loads and are a feature of every advanced machine.
The idea had to be rediscovered through laborious research. Another product of research
was the nodding nacelle—a hinge was inserted between nacelle and tower to allow better
Seven different drivetrain combinations are also being studied. Surprisingly, except for the
foundations, the cost of running a windfarm was found to be independent of the size of
the turbine installed.(30) Drivetrains are important for another reason: to change the much
slower revolution frequency of the wind-caused rotation to 60 Hz, they have many
moving parts and must be serviced regularly. This is why a new Swedish design that
In another research project, it was found by examining data from Germany that having
wind farm turbines that are widely separated, rather than bunched, tends to even out the
electricity production and make a better match to the load. This implies that tying
Energy program for sharing experience among utilities. This led to installation of better
Finally, two Croatian researchers from Rijeka University found that by changing the
cowling on the generator, they could increase the output by a factor of 3.5.(48) Their
device works by shunting off air in high winds, stabilizing output in almost all wind
conditions. This approach holds promise, but it does cost a substantial amount more
(perhaps an additional 75%) than conventional windmills. This configuration even gives
electricity when the windspeed is below 5 m/s, the usual limit for wind machines—it
will be only about 3% by 2020.(49) Renewables are expected to continue to grow at over
1% per year, higher than any other form of energy. Wind is expected to be a large part in
Germany has installed windmills having a capacity of 4.5 MW. The larger the mill, the
more difficult repairs are and the more reliable the machine must be in order to be put into
service. This development is a vote of confidence in these giant windmills (the machine
stands 120 meters tall, and its wind vanes are 52 meters long).(50) As of this writing, the
The mills are based on a design already in use in Finland (at 1 MW, however).(51)
Whatever the final word, it is research that will help give us the final best configurations
for future wind energy machines. Progress made since the early 1980s is startling. There is