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INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
1.1. Introduction
The modern power distribution network is constantly being faced with an
ever-growing load demand. Distribution networks experience distinct change from a low
to high load level everyday. Electric load growth and higher regional power transfers in a
largely interconnected network becoming more complex and less secure power system
operation. Power generation and transmission facilities are unable to meet these new
demands.
Many loads at various distribution ends like domestic utilities ,computers,
process industries, adjustable speed drives, printers microprocessor based equipments etc.
have become intolerant to voltage fluctuations, harmonic content and interruptions.
Growth of electronic loads has made the quality of power supply a critical issue. There
fore numerous problems have to be attended in monitoring the operation of such a
system, like voltage fluctuations, power losses, etc. Power system engineers facing these
challenges to operate the system in more a flexible.
Electrical power losses in distribution systems correspond to about 70% of
total losses in electric power systems. These electrical losses can be considerably reduced
through the installation and control of reactive support equipments, such as capacitor
banks, reducing reactive currents in distribution feeders and so on.
Conventional solutions for solving distribution network problems, like
tap-changing transformers to control the voltage along feeders are no longer viable,
because the distribution network will be changed from a passive network into an active
network and thus the voltage profile is not predictable any more. One of the most severe
problems faced by distribution networks operators is voltage drop along distribution
feeders, which is caused by real and reactive power flow. Voltage control is a difficult
task because voltages are strongly influenced by random load fluctuations.
Voltage profile can be improved and power losses can be considerably
reduced by installing Custom Power Devices or Controllers at suitable location. These
controllers which are also named Distribution Flexible AC Transmission System (D-
2
FACTS) [1] are a new generation of power electronics-based equipment aimed at
enhancing the reliability and quality of power flows in low-voltage distribution networks.
Custom power is formally defined as the employment of power electronic
or static controllers in distribution systems rated up to 38 kV for the purpose of supplying
a level of reliability or PQ that is needed by electric power customers who are sensitive to
power variations. Custom power devices or controllers [2-3] include static switches,
inverters, converters, injection transformers, master-control modules and energy-storage
modules that have the ability to perform current-interruption and voltage-regulation
functions with in a distribution system.
Custom Power Devices is classified into three categories by their structures such as
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), Distribution STATCOM (DSTATCOM) and Solid-
State Breaker (SSB). In the present paper D-STATCOM, a member of Custom power
controllers family, is considered.
The D-STATCOM is a shunt-connected, solid-state switching power
converter that provides flexible voltage control at the point of connection to the utility
distribution feeder for power quality (PQ) improvements and also exchanges both active
and reactive power (current) [4] with the distribution system by varying the amplitude
and phase angle of the converter.
Since this device is utilized in steady-state condition for long term,
because of limited capacity of energy storage system, it cannot inject active power to the
system for long term. Therefore, a suitable model for D-STATCOM has been proposed
in load flow program, which is applicable in large distribution systems.
The effects of D-STATCOM on voltage improvement at other nodes are considered and
the optimum location of D-STATCOM in the distribution network is determined.
In the proposed method D-STATCOM is considered in modified load flow
computations. Further the optimal location is identified to place D-STATCOM for the
purpose of loss reduction and voltage improvement.
Load flow is an important method for analysis, operation and planning
studies of any power system in a steady-state condition. In this paper an efficient method
for node and line identification utilized in load flow has been proposed.
3
The load flow method [5] is modified by considering all the line
parameters and load flow solution is obtained. By considering these modifications the
line losses are still reduced and voltage profile is also improved. D-STATCOM is then
modeled [6] and incorporated in the system under consideration. The results obtained are
highly satisfactory and hence the method can be applied a system of any size.
(a) Feeders: A feeder is a conductor which connects the substation to the area where
power is to be distributed .Generally tappings are taken from the feeders, so that current
remains same through out .The main consideration in the design of feeder is the current
carrying capacity.
(b) Distributor: A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken from supply to
the consumers. While designing the distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main
consideration.
(c) Service main: A service main is generally a small cable which connects the distributor
to the consumers terminals.
The a.c.distribution system is classified in to Primary distribution system,
Secondary distribution system.
Distribution substation:
The distribution system is fed through distribution substation. Each
substation normally serves its own load area, which is a subdivision of the area served by
the distribution system. At the distribution substation the sub transmission voltage is
reduced for general distribution throughout the area. The substation consists of one or
more power transformers together with the necessary voltage regulating equipments,
buses and switchgear. The substation designs are based on the consideration such as load
density, high side voltage, low side voltage, reliability, voltage drop, cost and losses.
4
Primary distribution system
It is the part of a.c.distribution system which operates at voltages some
what higher than general utilization and handles large blocks of electrical energy than the
average low voltage consumer uses. The voltage used for primary distribution depends
upon the amount of power to be conveyed and the distance of the substation to be used.
The most commonly used primary distribution voltages are 11kV, 6.6kV and 3.3kV.
Primary feeder supply small industrial consumers. Due to economic considerations
primary distribution is carried out by 3-phase, 3-wire system.
5
Distribution losses
It has been established that 70% of the total losses are occurring in the
primary and secondary distribution system, while transmission and sub transmission lines
account for only 30% of the total losses. There fore the primary and secondary
distribution system must be properly planned to ensure losses within the acceptability
limits.
Factors contributing to the increase in the line losses in the primary and
secondary distribution system are Feeder length, Inadequate size of conductor, Location
of distribution transformer, Use of over rated distribution transformers, Low voltages,
Low power factor and Poor workman ship in fittings.
(b) Methods for reduction of line losses
The following methods are adopted for reduction of distribution system
losses are Constriction of new substation, Reinforcement of the feeder, Reactive power
compensation, HV distribution system, Grading of conductor, Using shunt compensation
techniques, Feeder reconfiguration and DG unit placement.
Distribution power losses can be considerably reduced by installing
Custom Power Devices or Controllers at suitable location. These controllers which are
also named Distribution Flexible AC Transmission System (D-FACTS) are a new
generation of power electronics-based equipment aimed at enhancing the reliability and
quality of power flows in low-voltage distribution networks. ). D-FACTS mean FACTS
(Flexible AC Transmission Systems) (Hingorani, 1993) that are diverted to distribution
systems.
6
quality of supplied voltage, etc. some of power quality improvement techniques are given
as below.
7
power can be made by the use of a tap changer in the shunt reactor .It can be possible to
vary the reactive power between 50 to 100% of the needed power.
Benefits
Simple and robust customer solution with low installation costs and minimum
maintenance
No losses from an intermediate transformer when feeding reactive
compensation from a over voltage level
No harmonics created which may require filter banks
1.3.4. Filters
Harmonic filters may be used to mitigate, and in some cases, eliminate problems
created power system harmonics. Non linear loads such as rectifiers, converters, home
electronic appliances, and electric arc furnaces cause harmonics giving rise to extra losses
in power equipment such as transformers, motors and capacitors. They can also causes
other, probably more serious problems, when interfering with control systems and
electronic devices. Installing filters near the harmonic sources can effectively reduce
harmonics.
8
These filters consist of capacitor banks with suitable tuning reactors and damping
resistors. For small and medium size loads, active filters, based on power electronic
converters with high switching frequency, may be a more attractive solution.
Benefits
Eliminates harmonics
Improved power factor
Reduce transmission losses
Increased transmission capability
Improved voltage control
Improved power factor
Other applications
Shunt capacitors
9
Flicker, the random. The random voltage variations can also be disturbing to other
process equipment fed from the same grid. The proper mitigation of flicker is therefore a
matter of power quality improvement as well as an improvement to human environment.
Benefits:
Increased power transfer capability
Additional flexibility in grid operation
Improved grid voltage stability
Improved grid voltage control
Improved power factor
Other applications:
Power oscillation damping
Power quality (Flicker Mitigation, Voltage, Balancing)
Grid voltage support
1.3.6. STATCOM
Static Compensator, when connected to the grid, can provide dynamic voltage
support in response to system disturbances and balance the reactive power demand of
large and fluctuating industrial loads. A Static Compensator is capable of both generating
and absorbing variable reactive power continuously as opposed to discrete values of fixed
and switched shunt capacitors or reactors. With continuously variable reactive power
supply, the voltage at the Static Compensator bus may be maintained smoothly over a
wide range of system operation conditions .This entails reduction of network losses and
provision of sufficient power quality to the electric energy end- users.
Static Compensator uses voltage source converters to improve furnace
productivity similar to a traditional Static Var Compensator while offering superior
voltage flicker mitigation due to fast response time. Similar to Static Var Compensator,
the Static Compensator can elegantly be used to restore voltage and current balance in the
grid, and to mitigate voltage fluctuations generated by the traction loads.
Benefits
Increased power transfer capability
Additional flexibility in grid operation
Improved grid voltage stability
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Improved grid voltage control
Improved power factor
Eliminated flicker
Harmonic filtering
Voltage balancing
Power factor correction
Furnace/mill process productivity improvement
Other Applications
Power quality(Flicker mitigation, Voltage balancing)
Grid voltage support
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1.4. Literature Survey
From literature there exist several control strategies which are usually
based on mathematical approach. Plenty of work has been dedicated to applying the
mathematical optimization techniques for system planning. Before the emergence of
FACTS devices, early research on planning reactive power compensation has employed
linear programming [9], discrete programming [10], parameter sensitivity [11], nonlinear
programming [12], etc. So far, with the development of computer technology and
optimization theory, more and more sophisticated models recently have been established
for FACTS devices allocation problems.
A method of applying shunt capacitors for voltage control and peak loss
reduction is discussed [13]. The concept is extended to the optimization of total monetary
savings due to both peak loss and energy loss reductions. A computer program is
developed to aid engineers in the application of such a method. In [14], a successful
attempt was made to solve the problem using the dynamic programming approach. This
optimization technique has eliminated the previously mentioned problems of optimum
number and standard bank size. The method, however, was capable of dealing with the
fixed type of capacitors only.
In [15], the location of SVC is determined by modal analysis of reduced
power flow Jacobian matrix. The critical mode is found by stressing the system to the
vicinity of the saddle node of P–V curve, so that the voltage stability issue can be
addressed. This method is verified via a 1380 bus system. Three types of FACTS
controllers are considered, SVC, TCSC and UPFC. The location with the best average
controllability index of FACTS controllers is selected. In addition, an extended voltage
phasers approach (EVPA) [16] is established for SVC, TCSC and STATCOM allocation
to enhance loadability and voltage stability respectively. The authors in [17] propose a
scheme for TCSC and TCPST planning via linear optimal power flow (OPF) method.
The location is selected via implementing OPF to optimise the cost of installation and
size. In addition, market consideration is also included in TCSC placement.
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The D-STATCOM (distribution static compensator) with fast response is
an effective solution for improving the power quality of distribution systems. The
dynamic compensation of D-STATCOM in 10/0.4 kV distribution system is simulated
with Matlab, which proves the superiority and feasibility of D-STATCOM.
It is also quite interesting to note that the Bharat Heavy Electric Limited
(BHEL), India was successful in developing distribution scale STATCOM also known as
D-STATCOM which has successfully been installed in industry. The worlds first
commercial STATCOM (±80 MVA, 154 kV) was developed by Mitsubishi Electric
Power Products, Inc. and installed at Inuyama substation in Japan in 1991. STATCOM
also finds its application in industries for flicker reduction.
Generally, distribution networks are radial and the R/X ratio is very high.
For this reason, conventional Newton- Raphson (NR) [18] and fast decoupled load-flow
[19] methods do not converge. Goswami and Basu [20] have presented a direct method
for solving radial and meshed distribution networks. However, the main limitation of
their method is that no node in the network is the junction of more than three branches,
i.e. one incoming and two outgoing branches. Jasmon and Lee [21-22] have proposed a
new load-flow method for obtaining the solution of radial distribution networks. They
have used the three fundamental equations representing real power, reactive power and
voltage magnitude. They have solved the radial distribution network using these three
equations by reducing the whole network into a single h e equivalent. Das et al. [23] have
proposed a load-flow technique for solving radial distribution networks by calculating the
total real and reactive power fed through any node. They have proposed a unique node,
branch and lateral numbering scheme which helps to evaluate exact real- and reactive
power loads fed through any node and receiving-end voltages.
13
1.5. Scope of the Project
In this project, the structure and principle of operation, implementation of
Distribution Static Synchronous Compensator are discussed. And the Proposed method
for modeling D-STATCOM is considered in modified load flow computations. Further
the optimal location is identified to place D-STATCOM for the purpose of loss reduction
and voltage improvement and program is done.
Such device is employed to provide continuous voltage regulation using controlled
converter. The advantage of this type of compensator over conventional SVC’s is the
improved speed of response. This speed of response means that such a device is ideally
suited to application with a rapidly varying load.
Two standard distribution systems consisting of IEEE-15 and IEEE-29
buses are considered and the D-STATCOM model is applied to load flow and
corresponding results are also presented and are compared.
.
14
Chapter II
15
2. Custom Power Devices
2.1. Introduction
Modern power systems are complex networks where hundreds of
generating stations and thousands of load centers are interconnected through long power
transmission and distribution networks. The main concern of consumers is the quality and
reliability of power supplies at various load centers where they are located at .Even
though the power generation in most well developed countries is fairly reliable.
Power distribution systems ideally, should provide their customers with an
uninterrupted flow of energy at smooth sinusoidal voltage at the constant magnitude level
and frequency. However in practice power systems especially the distribution systems
have numerous non linear loads, which significantly effect the quality of power supplies.
As a result of the non linear loads, the purity of the waveform of supplies is lost. This
ends up producing many power quality problems. Apart from non linear loads some
system events both usual (e.g. capacitor switching, motor starting) and unusual (e.g.
faults) could also inflict power quality problems. The consequence of power quality
problems could range from a simple nuisance flicker in the electrical lamps to loss
thousands of dollars due to production shutdown.
A power quality problem is defined as any manifested problem in voltage
or current or leading to frequency deviations that result in failure or misoperation of
customer equipment .
Voltage sag is defined as the sudden reduction of supply voltage down
90% to 10% of nominal, followed by a recovery after a short period of time. A typical
duration of sag is, according to the standard 10 ms to one minute .Voltage sag can cause
loss of production in automated process since voltage sag can trip a motor or cause its
controller to malfunction.
Voltage swell, on the other hand, is defined as a sudden increasing of
supply voltage up 110% t0 180% in rms voltage at the network fundamental frequency
duration 10ms to one minute. Switching off a large inductive load or energizing a large
16
capacitor bank in a typical system event that causes swells. To compensate the voltage
sag or swell in a power distribution system, appropriate devices need to be installed at
suitable location. These devices are typically placed at the point of common coupling
(PCC) which is defined as the point where the ownership of the network changes.
17
the poor power quality [24] and reliability of supply affecting factories, offices and
homes. Power quality and Reliability are becoming important issues for critical and
sensitive loads after introducing the term of Custom Power by Hingorani in early 1980s.
Custom power is formally defined as the employment of power electronic
or static controllers in distribution systems rated up to 38 kV for the purpose of supplying
a level of reliability or PQ that is needed by electric power customers who are sensitive to
power variations. Custom power devices or controllers [6] include static switches,
inverters, converters, injection transformers, master-control modules and energy-storage
modules that have the ability to perform current-interruption and voltage-regulation
functions with in a distribution system.
The power electronic controllers that are used in the custom power
solution can be a network reconfiguring type or a compensating type. The network
reconfigurating devices are usually called switchgears which include current limiting,
current breaking and current transferring devices. The solid state or static versions of the
devices are called: solid state current limiter (SSCL), solid state breaker (SSB), and solid
state transfer switch (SSTS). The compensating devices compensate a load, i.e. its power
factor, unbalance conditions or improve the power quality of supplied voltage, etc. These
devices are either connected in shunt or in series or a combination of both. This class of
devices includes the distribution static compensator (D-STATCOM), dynamic voltage
restorer (DVR), and unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) [2]. Among compensating
devices, a Dynamic Voltage Restorer can deal with voltage sags and swells which are
considered to have a severe impact on manufacturing places such as semiconductors and
plastic products, food processing places and paper mills.
Custom Power Devices is classified into three categories by their
structures such as Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), Distribution STATCOM
(DSTATCOM) and Solid-State Breaker (SSB). Two of the devices DSTATCOM and the
DVR share a similar architecture. Both are based on the voltage source converter. DVR is
connected in series with the line where as DSTATCOM is in shunt with the line across
the load. Among these devices, the main purpose of DVR that injects voltage in series
with a distribution feeder is reducing the effect of short-term voltage sags, dips, swells
and momentary interruptions.
18
The proposed system has a function of generating and absorbing voltage
by self-charging control technique. This system has three states: 1) normal operation, 2)
charging operation and 3) recharging operation. The paper discusses control issues and
the proposed control algorithm. The proposed control technique is applied to
DSTATCOM for protecting voltage sags, swell and momentary interruption.
19
rating of the inverters, and the length of time that the load can be maintained by the
amount of energy storage provided.
The D-STATCOM is available in ratings from 2 to 10 MVA in modular 2-
MVA increments. These are similar in performance to SVC. Using only capacitors or
inductors or batteries, these devices can draw / supply both leading and lagging currents.
They have a very good response time and are more suitable for special industrial loads
like arc furnaces.
20
sags, swells, and power outages. When combined with a current limiting reactor or
resistor, the SSB can rapidly insert the current limiting device into the distribution line to
prevent excessive fault current from developing from sources of high short circuit
capacity, e.g. multi-sourced distribution substations. At the power levels associated with
15-kV and higher voltage class systems, commercially available Gate Turn-Off (GTO)
thyristors and conventional Thyristors (SCRs) can be used for the AC switch.
The SSB consists of two parallel-connected circuit branches: a solid-state
switch composed of GTOs and a solid-state switch using SCRs in series with a current
limiting reactor or resistor. The GTO switch is the main circuit breaker used to clear
source-side faults. It is rated for the maximum normal line current, but not rated for fault
currents. It is normally closed and conducts current uninhibited until the magnitude of the
current reaches a pre-set level at which point it opens rapidly interrupting the current
flow.
21
being developed for 4.16 to 34.5 kV and 300 to 1200 System protection practices are
accommodated in the SSTS available control modes depending upon the critical load
requirements and utility preferences/practices.
In this project report D-STATCOM, a member of Custom power
controllers family, is considered.
22
Voltage source converters are of two type’s viz. series voltage controller and
shunt voltage controller. However D-STATCOM belongs to the shunt voltage controller.
In this project, the D-STATCOM is used to regulate voltage at the connecting bus.
23
Therefore, for the steady-state application, D-STATCOM consists of a
small DC capacitor and a voltage source converter and the steady-state power exchange
between D-STATCOM and the ac system is reactive power.
But, there are several factors that must be considered when designing the
D-STATCOM and associated control circuits. In relation to the power circuit the
following issues are of major importance:
24
(b)Principle of Operation
D-STATCOM is to suppress voltage variation and control reactive power
in phase with system voltage. It can compensate for inductive and capacitive currents
linearly and continuously.
The VSC converts the dc voltage across the storage device into a set of
three-phase ac output voltages. These voltages are in phase and coupled with the ac
system through the reactance of the coupling transformer. Suitable adjustment of the
phase and magnitude of the D-STATCOM output voltages allows effective control of
active and reactive power exchanges between the D-STATCOM and the ac system. Such
configuration allows the device to absorb or generate controllable active and reactive
power.
The controller of the D-STATCOM is used to operate the inverter in such a way that
the phase angle between the inverter voltage and the line voltage is dynamically adjusted
so that the D-STATCOM generates or absorbs the desired VAR at the point of
connection. By varying the amplitude of D-STATCOM output voltage can control the
reactive power exchange between the inverter and the AC system. If the amplitude of the
output voltage is increased above that of AC system voltage, the inverter generates
reactive power for the AC system. If the amplitude of the output voltage is decreased
below that of the AC system, the inverter absorbs the reactive power. If the output
voltage is equal to the AC system voltage, the reactive power exchange is zero, but
actually they have a little phase difference to compensate the loss of transformer winding
and inverter switching, so absorbs some real power from system.
The real power exchanges between the inverter and the AC system can be
controlled by altering the phase angles between the inverter output and the AC system
voltages. The inverter supplies real power to the AC system if the inverter output voltage
is made to lead the corresponding AC system voltage. Conversely, the inverter absorbs
real power from the AC system, if the inverter output voltage is made to lag the AC
system voltage.
There are two techniques for controlling the STATCOM. The first
technique, referred to as phase control, is to control the phase shift to control the
STATCOM output voltage magnitude. The other technique referred to as Pulse Width
25
Modulation (PWM) on the other hand allow for independent control of output voltage
magnitude and phase shift (phase angle of the output voltage); in this case, the DC
voltage is controlled separately from the AC output voltage.
The name is an indication that STATCOM has a characteristic similar to
the synchronous condenser, but as an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to
the synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a lower investment
cost and lower operating and maintenance costs.
With the advent of D-STATCOM, better performance can be reached in areas such as:
• Dynamic voltage control in distribution systems;
• Power oscillation damping;
• Transient stability improvement;
• Ability to control not only reactive power but, if needed, also active power (with a DC
energy source available).
Such device is employed to provide continuous voltage regulation using
controlled converter. The advantage of this type of compensator has over conventional
SVC’s is the improved speed of response. This speed of response means that such a
device is ideally suited to application with a rapidly varying load.
26
Chapter III
PROPOSED METHOD
27
3. PROPOSED METHOD
28
NR and FDLF methods failed to converge in solving the load flow problem of
distribution system or converged in high iterations.
In this paper, a modified load-flow technique is considered for solving
radial distribution networks. The proposed method involves only the evaluation of a
simple algebraic expression of receiving-end voltages. The proposed method is very
efficient. It is also observed that the proposed method has good and fast convergence
characteristics.
In this paper, a modified load-flow technique is considered for solving
radial distribution networks. The proposed method involves only the evaluation of a
simple algebraic expression of receiving-end voltages also node and line identification
[25] utilized in load flow has been proposed. The proposed method is very efficient. It is
also observed that the proposed method has good and fast convergence characteristics.
Two standard radial distribution systems consisting of IEEE-15 and IEEE-
29 nodes are considered for solving radial distribution system.
29
Before proceeding to the fundamentals of power system control and
stability limits, some factors influencing active and reactive power flows on the power
system are needed to be discussed. The power transfer between two buses is related to
some parameters:
• Sending and receiving bus voltages
• Power angles between two buses
• Series impedances of the transmission line connecting the two buses.
Consider a single line diagram of two buses of a radial distribution system
as shown in Fig.3.1, the number of branches nb and the number of buses t are related
through t = nb+1.
Vk VS
ILi
PLk+jQLk PLS+jQLS
Where R and X are resistance and reactance of the branch. PLk and QLk are the
active and reactive powers of node k. ILi is the current flowing in the line. Subscript ‘L’ in
PLS and QLS refers to the load connected at Sth bus.
Initially, a flat voltage (1 p.u) of all the nodes is assumed and load currents and
charging currents of all the loads are computed using Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) respectively.
The load current of node k is
PLk ( k ) − jQLk ( k )
I Lk ( k ) = ,
V * (k )
for k = 2, 3,……. nb (3.1)
Where PLk(k) and QLk(k) are active and reactive power of load connected to node k,
respectively.
The charging current at node k is
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I Ck (k ) = y0 (k ) *V (k ) ,
for k = 2, 3… nb (3.2)
Here shunt admittance yo is considered as small.
Branch current
Branch Current I(n) is equal to the sum of the load currents of all the nodes beyond
that branch n plus the sum of the charging currents of all the nodes beyond that branch n
i.e.,
nb nb
I ( n) = ∑
k = n +1
I Lk (k ) + ∑I
i = n +1
Ck (k ) (3.3)
Voltage at buses
A generalized equation of receiving-end voltage, sending-end voltage, branch
current and branch impedance is
V (a2) = V (a1) - I (i) * Z (i) (3.4)
Power losses
The real and reactive power loss of branch i are given
Lreal (i) = |I (i) |2 * R (i) (3.5)
Lreactive (i) = |I (i) |2 * X (i) (3.6)
Where Lreal (i) and Lreactive (i) are the active and reactive power losses at branch i.
At first identification of the nodes beyond all the branches is realized through an
algorithm
31
3.2. Identification of the Nodes
For identification of nodes, consider the single line diagram of radial distribution system
feeder in fig.3.2.
1 2 3 4 5
(1) (2) (3) (4)
(5) (7)
6 8
(6) (8)
7 9
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1) = ie(1, ip + 1) will help to identify all the nodes beyond branch 1. This will help to find
the exact current flowing through branch 1. Similarly, consider branch 2, i.e. i = 2; the
receiving-end node of branch 2 is 3, i.e. RE (i) = RE (2) =3.
Therefore, ie(i, ip + 1) = ie(2, ip + 1) will identify all the nodes beyond branch 2.
No node will be repeated while identifying nodes [25] beyond a particular branch.
Identification of nodes beyond all the branches, which helps in computing the exact
current flowing through all the branches, has been explained using an algorithm.
33
Step 13. if {iP =0} go to step 14
Otherwise go to step 15
Step 14. ie(i, ip + 1) = RE(i)
N(i) = ip + 1, go to step 15
Step 15. i = i + 1
If {i ≤ nb-1}go to step 3
Otherwise go to step 16
Step 16. ie(nb, 1) = RE(nb)
N(nb) = 1
Step 17. Stop
By using this algorithm we can find the identification of nodes beyond all branches.
The load current and charging current of each node are calculated by using
Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) and identification of nodes are determined. Then it is easy to
calculate the branch current is given by
nb nb
I (i ) = ∑ IL{ie(i, k )} + ∑ IC{ie(i, k )} (3.7)
k =1 k =1
The voltage of each node is then calculated by using Eqn. (3.4). Real and
reactive power loss of each branch is calculated by using Eqs. (3.5) and (3.6),
respectively.
The convergence of the proposed method is that if, in successive iterations
the difference between the real and reactive power delivered from the substation is less
than 0.1kW and 0.1kVAr, then it has converged.
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3.3. LOAD FLOW ALGORITHM
To determine the voltage at each node in radial distribution network, the
modified load flow method is used and the algorithm is as follows.
Step 1: Read the line and load data.
Step 2: Determine the nodes beyond each branch and their total number.
Step 3: Initialize the voltage of all nodes to 1p.u and phase angle to zero.
Step 4: Find all load currents and charging currents of each nodes using Eqn. (3.1) and
Eqn.(3.2) by using these branch currents are determined given in Eqn.(3.3)
Step 5: Calculate the voltages and phase angles at each node by using Eqn. (3.4).
Step 6: If the voltage at each node for two successive iteration is within a certain
tolerance (10-4p.u) the solution is reached go to step 8 else, repeat step 5 to 7 until
convergence is reached.
Step 7: Read the results
In this modified load flow method line charging capacitance is also taken
into account in step 4 in the above algorithm which is actually neglected in the load flow
method presented in reference 5.
The proposed method can be used to find out the voltages of nodes, D-
Statcom current, phase angle and injected reactive power by D-STATCOM. These are
used to determine the load currents in the proposed load flow method, and power losses.
Here the bus voltage magnitude in the node where D-STATCOM is located is set to a
nominal value of 1p.u.
35
3.4.2. Mathematical formulation
Consider a single line diagram of two buses of a distribution system shown in
Fig.3.3. and its branch currents and voltages are calculated by using phasor diagram
method.
Vk VS
ILi
PLk+jQLk PLS+jQLS
Fig 3.3: Single line diagram of two bus system of a distribution system
Subscript ‘L’ in PLk and QLk refers to the load connected to bus k.
Where R and X are resistance and reactance of the branch. PLk and QLk are the
active and reactive powers of node k. ILi is the current flowing in the line
-jXILi
Vs -RILi
µ
VK
β
ζ
ILi
VS ∠µ = VK ∠β − ZI Li ∠ζ (3.8)
36
This gives relation between voltage and current.
Where VS ∠µ and VK ∠β are the voltage of buses K and S before compensation
flow in line. Voltage VK ∠β and I Li ∠ζ current are derived from the load flow
calculations.
37
Vk VS
ILi
PLk+jQLk PLS+jQLS
Fig 3.5: Single line diagram of two buses of a distribution system with D-
STATCOM consideration.
In this diagram, the shunt injected current Istat corrects the voltage sag by
adjusting the voltage drop across the system impedance. The value of Istat can be
controlled by adjusting the output voltage of the converter.
-jXILi
ID-stat
-RILi
Vs
µ
VK
ζ
µnew -jX ID-stat
ILi -RID-stat
Vsnew
Fig 3.6: Phasor diagram of voltages and currents of the system shown in Fig.3.5
38
Consequently, ID-Stat must be kept in quadrature with voltage of the
system. By installing D-STATCOM in distribution system, all nodes voltage, especially
the neighboring nodes of D-STATCOM location, and branches current of the network,
change in the steady-state condition.
3.4.6. Mathematical equations:-
From the phasor diagram we can see that
V ∠µnew = VK ∠β − ( R + jX ) I Li ∠ζ
Snew
π
−( R + jX ) I D − Stat ∠ + µ new (3.9)
2
And the phase angle of injected D-STATCOM current (ID-stat) from phasor diagram is
π
∠I D − stat = + µnew (3.10)
2
π
Where I D − Stat ∠ + µnew is the injected current by D-STATCOM, V Snew∠µ new
2
is the voltage of bus S after compensation by D-STATCOM, VK ∠β is the voltage of
flow calculations.
Separating the real and imaginary parts of Eqn.(3.9) yields:
Using the notations below:
u1 = Re ( VK ∠β ) – Re (Z I Li ∠ζ ),
u2 = Im ( VK ∠β ) – Im (Z I Li ∠ζ ),
Separating the real and imaginary parts of Eqn.(3.9) and using these notations
we get
bcos λ2 = u1 – c1 λ1 sin λ2 – c2 λ1 cos λ2 (3.11)
39
Where a1, a2, c1 and c2 are constants, b is the magnitude of
compensated voltage (e.g. 1 p.u.), λ1 , λ2 are variables to be determined.
b sin λ2 − u1
λ1 = (3.13)
−c1 sin λ2 − c2 cos λ2
and
b sin λ2 − u2
λ1 = (3.14)
−c2 sin λ2 + c1 cos λ2
Where λ1 = ID-Stat,
By equating Eqs. (3.13) and (3.14), it can be shown that
(u1c2 – u2c1) sin λ2 + (- u1c1 – u2c2) cos λ2 + bc1=0, (3.15)
λ2 = µ new = µ
After testing these conditions on load flow, correct answer is selected.
And then we know that λ2 = µ new and also we assume δ = sin λ2 , then
40
Where
VSnew = VSnew∠µnew (3.19)
π
ID-Stat = I D − Stat ∠ + µnew (3.20)
2
After finding reactive power, current and voltage, load flow is run using Matlab code.
The real power injected by the D-STATCOM is equal to zero (i.e.,
Pinj=0) and the bus voltage magnitude in the node where D-STATCOM is located is set
to a nominal value of 1p.u.
The phase angle at the compensated node and the reactive power
injection of D-STATCOM are calculated by Eqs. (3.17) and (3.18), respectively. If the
reactive power generated (or absorbed) by the D-STATCOM, Qinj, exceeds the rating of
the D-STATCOM device, it is fixed at this value (i.e., Qinj=Srat).
41
Step 5: Then repeat step.2 and again place D-STATCOM at another location and repeat
step.3 and 4 to find out Voltages and losses at all nodes.
Step 6: Read the results and find out the node at which minimum losses is obtained and
it is selected for optimum location for D-STATCOM.
In this modified load flow method line charging capacitance is also taken
into account in the above algorithm which is actually neglected in the load flow method
presented in reference [5].
42
Chapter IV
43
4. RESULTS & DISCUSSION
In this project, software program has been developed in Matlab for simple
and modified load flow method and optimal location of D-STATCOM on radial
distribution system.
This Matlab program is tested for two systems viz., IEEE-15 bus and
IEEE-29 bus systems. The 15-bus and 29-bus data has been reported in tables. The
converged voltages on this system after doing load flow method are presented in table.
Then after installing D-STATCOM, at each node and the proposed method is applied.
The results obtained for these systems are briefly summarized in this section.
8
8 9
11 12 13
6 11 12
10
7
15
1 2 3 4 14 5
1 2 3 4
13
5
9
6 14
10
Fig 4.1: One line diagram of IEEE-15 bus radial distribution system
44
4.1.2. Line data and load data of 15-bus distribution system
The line data and load data of 15-bus distribution system are as follows.
Table 4.1: Line data for 15- bus radial distribution system
No of buses: 15, No of lines: 14, Base Voltage: 11KV, Base KVA: 100KVA
45
Table 4.2: Load data for 15 bus radial distribution system
Pl Ql
0 0
44.0999 44.0999
70 71.4142
140 142.8285
44.9909 44.9909
140 142.8285
140 142.8285
70 71.4142
70 71.4142
44.9909 44.9909
140 142.8285
70 71.4142
44.9909 44.9909
70 71.4142
140 142.8285
No of buses: 15, No of lines: 14, Base Voltage: 11KV, Base KVA: 100KVA
46
4.1.3. Load Flow Results of 15-bus system
The voltages for this system after running load flow are shown in table 4.3.
Without D-STATCOM, and running load flow method the total real and
reactive power loss of this system are 60.0628 kW and 55.5749 kVAr, respectively.
47
4.1.4. Results of 15-bus system after installing D-STATCOM
After installing D-STATCOM, running the load flow method, the Voltage
Magnitudes after compensation in p.u at 10th-node is given by table 4.4.
48
Real and Reactive power losses of 15 – bus distribution system after
installing the D-STATCOM at each nodes is given by table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Real and Reactive power losses of 15 – bus distribution system after installing
the D-STATCOM at nodes are specified.
49
4.2. IEEE-29 bus system:
19 20 21
19 20 21
22
18
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
50
25
28
22 26 27
26 27
25
23 24
23 24
No of buses: 29, No of lines: 27, Base Voltage: 11KV, Base KVA: 100KVA
51
Table 4.7: Load data for 29- bus system
Node no Pl Ql
1 140.00 90
2 80 50
3 80 60
4 100 60
5 80 50
6 90 40
7 90 40
8 80 50
9 90 50
10 80 50
11 80 40
12 90 50
13 70 40
14 70 40
15 70 40
16 60 30
17 60 30
18 70 40
19 50 30
20 50 30
21 40 20
22 50 30
23 50 20
24 60 30
25 40 20
26 40 20
27 40 20
No of buses: 15, No of lines: 14, Base Voltage: 11KV, Base KVA: 100KVA
52
4.2.3. Load flow solution for 29-bus system
The voltages in per unit are obtained for this system after running load
flow method is shown in table 4.8.
1 1.0000 17 0.8477
2 0.9797 18 0.8470
3 0.9603 19 0.9603
4 0.9505 20 0.9592
5 0.9444 21 0.9577
6 0.9228 22 0.9565
7 0.9100 23 0.9505
8 0.9041 24 0.9484
9 0.8946 25 0.9464
10 0.8837 26 0.9100
11 0.8755 27 0.9094
12 0.8720 28 0.9091
13 0.8635
14 0.8563
15 0.8524
16 0.8504
53
4.2.4. Results of 29-bus system after installing D-STATCOM
After installing D-STATCOM, running the load flow method for 29-bus
system, the Voltage Magnitudes after compensation in p.u at 13th-node is given by
table 4.9.
Table 4.9: load flow solution with D-STATCOM
1 1.0000 17 0.8490
2 0.9973 18 0.8472
3 0.9954 19 0.9949
4 0.9942 20 0.9942
5 0.9932 21 0.9928
6 0.9901 22 0.9909
7 0.9875 23 0.9937
8 0.9861 24 0.9922
9 0.9837 25 0.9890
10 0.9801 26 0.9890
11 0.9779 27 0.9885
12 0.9768 28 0.9879
13 1.0000
14 0.8563
15 0.8540
16 0.8516
54
Table 4.10: Real and Reactive power losses of 15 – bus distribution system after
installing the D-STATCOM at each node is given.
Nodes Real power losses Reactive power losses
2 222.9651 89.3485
3 230.7026 92.6054
4 223.2182 89.4897
5 224.9190 90.1879
6 228.1189 91.5345
7 215.7298 86.3536
8 216.4618 86.6710
9 208.2909 83.2839
10 198.3834 79.4189
11 438.0603 176.1914
12 227.4905 91.9262
13 194.3258 78.7030
14 238.3141 95.6078
15 261.5701 104.4960
16 200.5714 81.1681
17 210.3367 84.9354
18 232.4672 93.3656
19 233.6183 93.8158
20 232.2015 93.2887
21 233.7131 93.9616
22 225.6816 90.5424
23 232.0193 93.1783
24 233.6178 93.8242
25 232.6227 93.4192
26 218.8908 87.7012
27 231.1892 92.8270
28 232.8760 93.5262
55
The minimum losses are obtained i.e., 194.3258 kW and 78.7030 kVAr
of real and reactive power losses respectively, when the device is placed at node -13
shown in table 4.10.
Thus D-STATCOM improves the voltage of both nearby downstream
nodes and nearby upstream nodes, especially the nodes located between D-STATCOM
and the source.
Therefore, in the two examples i.e., a IEEE 15-bus and IEEE 29-bus
distribution systems minimum loss occurs when D-STATCOM is placed at nodes 10th
and 13th respectively.
56
Chapter V
CONCLUSION
57
5. CONCLUSION
A simple and modified load-flow technique has been proposed for solving
radial distribution networks. The method has good and fast convergence characteristics
compared with some other existing methods. Later D-STATCOM is applied to proposed
load flow calculations in 15- and 29-bus IEEE test systems. The optimum location for D-
STATCOM is identified based on minimum losses. The results indicated that the
proposed model can be applied for large distribution systems. The computer program is
developed using the Matlab.
58
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59
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PAPER PRESENTED IN NATIONAL CONFERENCE
63