Reproduction in Plants

Involves fusion of gametes. The nuclei of the 2 gametes fuse to form a zygote.
Gametes are produced in a process called meiosis
Involves pollination and fertilization
Flower à Fruit à Seed à Reproduction of new plant
A cell divides to form 4 daughter cells called gametes.
Each gamete is half the number of chromosome as the parent cell. This is called
haploid number (n). When gametes fuse during fertilisation, the normal number of
chromosome is restored. This is the diploid number (2n).
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two types of gametes, a male gamete
with a female gamete.
Components Consists of Function
Calyx (epicalyx) Sepals Protect the flower in bud
Corolla Petals Often coloured & scented, help to attract insects
Androecium Stamens – filament & anther Anther produces pollen (male gametes)
Gynoecium or pistil Carpels –ovary, style & stigma Ovary consists of ovule(s)
(female gamete)
Pollen grains contains male gametes-produced by meiosis.
The nuclei contain haploid number of chromosome.
Each pollen grain has two nuclei, generative nucleus and pollen tube nucleus
(vegetative nucleus)
Pollination: transfer of pollen from an anthers to the stigmas so that the male and
female gametes can be brought together.
Self pollination (same plant) Cross pollination (another plant)
Features •Flowers are bisexual with anthers and stigmas maturing at the same time.
•Stigma is situated directly below the anthers. •Some plants with bisexual flowers
have closed flowers which encourages self pollination. •Dioecious plants bearing
male or female flowers so that self-pollination is impossible. •Many plants with
flowers that are bisexual, the anthers and stigmas may mature at different time.
•Stigma of plants with bisexual flowers may be situated some distance from
anthers so that self pollination is unlikely.
Advantages •Only one parent is required •Offspring inherits beneficial qualities
from parent plants through its genes. •Does not depend on external factors such as
insects or wind for pollination. •Less pollen and energy is wasted in self-
pollination compared to cross-pollination. Cross pollination is favoured to self
pollination. •Offspring produced may have inherited beneficial qualities from both
parents. •More varieties of offspring can be produced, greater genetic variation.
More viable seeds produced
Disdavantages •Offspring’s genes are similar to parent plant, so less variety of
offspring are produced. •Self-pollination leads to offspring becoming weaker,
smaller and less resistant to disease. •Two parents are required. •Depend on
external factors such as insects or wind for pollination. •Less likely to take place
than self-pollination as pollen grains have to be transferred. •More energy and
pollen is wasted compared to self-pollination.
Mechanism to prevent self fertilization
1.Unisexual Plants
-Dioecious (most efficient safeguard)
-Monoecious (Reduce but does not prevent)
2.Protandry
-Male parts mature before the female parts (pollen shed, stigma closed)
3.Protogyny
-Female parts mature before the male parts
4.Heterostyly/Tristyly
-Different types of perfect flowers (short styled flower, long styled flower)
5.Self incompatibility
-Pollen grains from the plant does not successfully produce pollen tubes which
allows the male gamete to fuse with the female gamete in the ovary.
Features Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated
Petals Large, conspicuous, bright coloured Small or absent
Nectar May be present Absent
Scent May be present Absent
Stamens Stamens are not pendulous and do not protrude out of the flower Stamens
have long and pendulous anthers.
Filament Short, rigid Long, flexible
Pollen Sticky, rough & relatively large. Adhere to insect body Smooth, light &
relatively small. Produced in large quantities, to offset losses.
Stigma Relatively small, enclosed within flower Feathery, large S.A. exposed on
outside of flower to collect pollen
Nectar
Guides May be present on the petals to guide the insects towards nectar. Nectar
guides are absent.
Fertilisation
1) After pollination, the pollen grains germinate in response to the sugary fluid
secreted by the mature stigma.
2) Pollen tube grows out from each pollen grain.
3) The cytoplasm and the two nuclei (pollen tube nucleus and generative nucleus)
of each pollen grain pass into the pollen tube. The growth of the pollen tube is
controlled by the pollen tube nucleus.
4) As the pollen tube grows, it secretes enzymes to digest the surrounding tissue of
the stigma and style. Thus, the pollen tube penetrates right through the style as it
grows.
5) The pollen tube enters the ovule usually through an opening in the ovule wall
called the micropyle.
6) Along the way, the generative nucleus divides to form two male gametes. The
pollen tube nucleus soon disintegrates.
7) Within the ovule, the tip of the pollen tube absorbs sap and bursts, releasing the
two male gametes.
8) One male gamete fuses with the ovum to form the zygote. This is fertilisation.
The other male gamete fuses with the definitive nucleus to form the endosperm
nucleus.
9) The zygote will divide and develop into the embryo in the seed. The endosperm
nucleus will divide and give rise to the food storage tissue called the endosperm
Post Fertilization Changes
1.Whole ovule ® seed
2.Zygote® embryo
3.Endosperm nucleus® endosperm
4.Integuments® testa & tegmen
5.Ovule stalk® seed stalk
6.Ovary® fruit
7.Ovary wall® fruit wall / pericarp
8.Stigma and style® wither
9.Stamens® wither
10.Petals® wither
11.Sepals® may persist
Structure of a typical seed
Feature Functions
Testa Protects the seed from damage by fungi, bacteria and insects
Hilum Scar which marks the point of attachment to the ovary wall
Micropyle The small hole through which water is absorbed
Plumule Embryonic shoot
Radicle Embryonic root
Cotyledon
Embryonic leaf(first leaf or leaves) which contains food reserves for the early stage
of germination
Endosperm food storage tissue (may be not present)
Advantages of dispersal methods
–Reduce chances of inbreeding
–Prevents overcrowding and competition for light and water with parent plant
–Decrease vulnerability to epidemic attacks of diseases
–Ensure variability
–Enable plants to colonise new and favourable habitats
Types of dispersal methods:
1.Dispersal by wind
-small & light
-large wing like structures
2.Dispersal by water
-waterproof skin
-fibrous husk
-floats to hold air
3.Dispersal by animals
-edible fruits (brightly colored, fragrant, seeds small hard and indigestible)
-dry fruits posses hook like structures
4.Dispersal by self explosive mechanism
-on drying up, fruits burst open suddenly with great force to throw out seeds
Changes during germination:
1.Seeds absorb water and swells,
2.Cotyledons secretes enzymes to digest stored food,
3.Soluble products of digestion (glucose & amino acids) are transported to the
growth regions of the embryos (i.e. plumule and radicle).
4.Glucose is used for the synthesis of cellulose and other cell wall materials
5.Amino acids are used for protein synthesis as components of protoplasm
6.The dry mass decreases at first because of tissue respiration to provide energy for
growth.
7.This loss will continue until the seedling produces green leaves and starts to
photosynthesize and make its own food.
Conditions required during germination
•Sufficient water - cotyledons produce enzymes with water
•Suitable temperature - for enzyme activity
•Adequate oxygen supply - for respiration