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1
Program of the Course
• Syllabus
Review of classical physics and background of the
birth of SR, Postulates of Relativity and its
consequences. Minkowski space-time dan
Lorentz transformations. Relativistic dynamics and
applications. Some experiments supporting SR.
Covariant Formulations and force equation in
relativistic mechanics. Special topics on SR.
Introduction to general relativity
2
• References
– In principle, any textbooks on SR
– Suggested refs. by the curiculum:
• Rindler, W., Introduction to Special Relativity, 2nd Edition,
OUP, 1991.
• L D Landau, L. D., Lifshitz, E. M., The Classical Theory of
Fields, Pergamon Press, 1959.
• Schroder, U. E., Special Relativity, World Scientific, 1990.
• Naber, G. L., The Geometry of Minkowski Spacetime,
Springer-Verlag, 1992.
3
– Some other refs. suggested:
• A.P. French, Special relativity, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984
(main reference)
• B.F. Schutz, A First Course in General Relativity, Cambridge
University Press, 1986
• Relevant websites (Lecture course from Virginia Tech)
• Student Evaluation
– Mid semester exam
– End semester exam
– Homeworks
– Quizes 4
I. Background: Physics Before SR
• Newtonian Mechanics
• Maxwell’s electromagnetics
5
Newtonian Mechanics
• Natures of Newtonian Mechanics (mid 17th century)
– Objects regarded as point particles
– Motion of a particle is described by its position in
space as a function of time
– Position and velocity of a body is defined with respect
to the other:
concept of relativity
already defined in Newton theory
6
– Acceleration a of a body is an absolute/
fundamental quantity. This absolute value then
relates to forces F from the environment
Fa
Inertial mass m is defined as the propotionality
m=| F/a |
– Time t is also assumed to be an absolute/
fundamental quantity.
– Conservation of momentum for an isolated object
– Conservation of energy: work done by
environment changes kinetic energy of the object
7
• Newton’s 1st Law
Objects with no influence from its environment
(isolated objects) keep moving with constant
velocity (including zero velocity)
– The law implies that inertial frames of reference
(frames that move one with respect to the others
with constant velocity) should be taken into
account.
– The law does not work for non-inertial frames
8
v
S frame
9
v’
S’ inertial frame
(w.r.t. S)
10
V“
11
• Newton’s 2nd Law
Influence from the environment leads to
momentum change of an object
dp
F , p mv
dt
– F represents the influence of the environment to
the object.
– F =0 corresponds to isolated objects fulfilling the
1st law Inertial frame as the basis of the
Newton’s law.
12
dp
F
dt
Frame S
dp '
dp ' dp
F'
dt dt dt
F' F
Inertial frame S’
(w.r.t. S)
13
dp
F
dt
Frame S
dp ' dp
dp ' dt dt
F'
dt F' F
14
• Galileo transformations
(Relates inertial frames S and S’)
Along the motion of S’:
Initial condition:
x’(0) = x(0)
x’=x-Vt
x x=x’+Vt
Absolute time Frame S
t’ = t Perpendicular to the
motion of S’:
V
Vt
y’=y, z’=z
x’
Frame S’
15
• Invariance of Newton’s law under Galileo
transformation
dpx d 2x
Fx m 2
dt dt
2 2 2
d ( x ' Vt ) d x' d x'
m 2
m 2 m 2 Fx '
dt dt dt '
16
• Non-inertial frame
x’=x-f(t), f(t) non-linear
d 2x d 2 ( x ' f (t ))
Fx m 2 m
dt dt 2
2 2 2 2 2
d x' d f d x' d f d f
m 2 m 2 m 2 m 2 Fx ', 2
0
dt dt dt ' dt dt
d2 f Virtual force
Fx ' Fx m
dt 2
17
• Rule of velocity addition
x’=x-Vt
dx ' d ( x Vt ) d ( x Vt ) dx
V
dt ' dt ' dt dt
v ' v V
Speed can be infinite
18
• Can speed be infinite ?
An object moves from rest under the force that equal to
gravitational force at the surface of the Earth
(its acceleration is 9.8 m/s2)
v=9.8t
t (year) v (m/s) v/c
1 309052800 1.0301760
2 618105600 2.0603520
3 927158400 3.0905280
4 1236211200 4.1207040
19
• Data experiment on electron speed
(Linac apparatus)
Kinetic Energy, Flight time, t Speed, v v2 K/v2
K (MeV) (10-8 s) (108 m/s) (1016 m2/s2) (MeVs2/m2)
0.5 3.23 2.60 6.8 13.6
1.0 3.08 2.73 7.5 7.5
1.5 2.92 2.88 8.3 5.53
4.5 2.84 2.96 8.8 1.96
15 2.80 3.00 9.0 0.6
20
Maxwell’s Electromagnetics and
Photons
• Maxwell’s equations in empty space
E 0 Gauss'law
B 0 No magnetic monopole
1 B
E Faraday's law
c t
1 E
B Ampere's law
c t
1 2
2 E 2 2 E 0
c t E,B act as waves
analogously with speed of c at
1 2
empty space
2 B 2 2 B 0
c t 22
As all other waves need media to propagate it was
proposed that empty space as stated before should
contain a medium called aether. This enable sun light
propagates and reaches Earth
Waves Media
Sea waves Sea water
Sound waves Air
String waves Strings
Electromagnetic Ether
waves
23
• Michelson-Morley Experiment (1887)
Semitransparent
metal
l2
Mono- Source
chromatic
Light Mirror1
l1
source
Telescope
Telescope
24
Time needed for light to propagate from semi-transparent metal to
mirror 1 and back to semi-transparent
l1 l1 2cl1
t1 2 2
cv cv c v
Time needed for light to propagate from semi-transparent to mirror 2
and back to semi-transparent
2l2 2l2 / c
t2 2 2 1/2 2 2 1/2
.
(c v ) (1 v / c )
Time difference
2(v / c) 2
.
/l
26
Assume ether is stationary in the universe
28
Conclusion of M-M Experiment:
29
No Particle Model Wave/ether model
Light travels in straight lines Ok if << beam width
30
• Energy-Momentum relation for photon
– As particles lights are called photons
– As particles photons should have momenta (even
they have zero (rest) mass)
– What is the relationship between momentum and
energy of a photon?
– Experiment showed that the relationship is of the
form (Problem: find out from any references,
experiments that prove this expression)
E=pc
31
• Enertia of energy
– Matter has an inertia property through its mass
– How about photon that has no (rest) mass?
Einstein
Gedanken/Thought/hypothetical/Fictitious
Experiment (1906)
M
E
Einstein box
L
E
x
32
•Photon with energy E is emitted from the left
end of the Einstein’s box of mass M and
length L
•The box recoils from its initial to final position
(as a result of burst radiant energy) with
velocity v
E (derived from conservation
v of total momentum)
Mc
33
•After interval time t photon reaches and hits
right end of the box, with (approximately)
L
t
c
•During the interval time t the box moves to
the left through a distance x
EL
x vt 2
Mc
34
•The box and the radiating photon constitutes
an isolated system
•Initially the system is at rest, resulting to the
center of mass of the system is at rest.
•Recalling the concept in mechanics Einstein
postulated that the radiation has carried with
it the equivalent of a mass m, such that
EL
0 ( M m) R mxm M xM mL M
Mc 2
E=mc2
Energy has its inertia property
35
•Changing energy leads to changing the
inertia mass (inertia mass is no longer
constant)
E=(m)c2
36
•Consequences (examples)
•Moving ball has more mass than the same ball
when it is at rest
•Heated filament lamp more mass than the same
filament when cold
•As it radiates 1.35103 watt/m2 of energy
(according to observer on earth (earth-sun
distance is 1,51011 m) the sun loss of its mass
about
(1,35103 watt/m2)(4(1,51011)2m2)/( 3108)2
=4,24109kg/s.
37
• Energy, mass, and momentum relationship
– As energy is related to mass and also to
momentum it is interesting to combine the three
quantities into a single relationship.
– Consider a photon
E=cp, E=mc2
– These combine to give similar expression in
Newtonian mechanics p=mv:
p=mc
38
– Furthermore, assume E=mc2 is a universal
equivalence of energy and mass for any objects
c 2
p Ev
E mc 2
cp .
v c
– Change of (kinetic) energy is equal to work done
by total force
dp
dE Fdx dx vdp.
dt
c2 p
EdE vdp c 2 pdp
v
E 2 c 2 p 2 E0 2 .
E0: integration constant, energy of object at rest
39
Consequences of E 2 c 2 p 2 E0 2 .
( Ev ) 2
E0
E 2 2 E0 2 E (v ) .
c 2
1 v / c 2
v2 1 E0 2
E (v) E0 1 2 E (v) E0 2 v (v c).
2c 2 c
40
m0
m(v ) .
2 2
1 v / c
m0v
p m( v )v .
2 2
1 v / c
1 1
K E ( v ) E0 E 0 1 m0 c 2 1 .
2 2 2 2
1 v / c 1 v / c
41
m m0 ,
p m0v,
E m0 c ,
2
K m0 c ( 1).
2
1
(v ) 1
2 2
1 v / c
42
Obtained using excell
43
1.2
2 1 0.8
K m0 c 1 .
v2 /c2
0.6
2 2
1 v / c 0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
2 2 2 2 1
K / m0c v / c 1 {K / m0c 1} K/moc2
0.1 0.090909091
0.2 0.166666667
0.3 0.230769231
0.5 0.333333333
1.0 0.500000000
2.0 0.666666667
5.0 0.833333333
10.0 0.909090909
30.0 0.967741935
44
Linac
Experiment 10
6
Kinetic 5
2 16 2 2 Series1
Energy, K v 10 m /s 4
(MeV) 3
0.5 6.8 2
1
1 7.5 0
0 5 10 15 20
1.5 8.3
4.5 8.8
15 9
Theory of kinetic energy is
in accordance with
experiment
45
Example: Motion of an object with constant force
m0 v
Ft mv
(1 v 2 / c 2
v 2 m0 2 v 2 v 2 m0 2 c 2
1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2
c F t c F t
1/2
m0 c 2 2
v(t ) c 1 2 2
F t
46
Case Ft<<m0c (Weak force and at early times)
1/ 2
m0 c
2 2
F
v (t ) c 2 2 t In accordance with
F t m0 Newton’s
47
Detailed feature of speed
1.2
v(t)/c for motion with constant force (m0c/F1)
1
0.8
v/c
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
t (s)
48
II. Einstein Postulates and
Lorentz-Einstein Transformation
• Fitzgerald and Lorentz contraction
• Einstein Postulates
• Simultaneity is relative
• Space-time coordinates in two different frames
• Picture of synchronization in space-time diagram
• Lorentz-Einstein Transformations
• Space-time invariant
• Minkowski space-time
49
• Fitzgerald and Lorentz contraction
– the Michelson-Morley (M-M) experiment and others
experiments after it showed that nature yield up no
information about state of motion with respect to a
supposed fundamental frame of reference (ether).
– After the M-M experiment some physicists still
believed that the ether existed and the motion
through it was real. However, in order to be in
agreement with the M-M result compensating effects
would be introduced/should happen.
50
– Considering the above view G.F. Fitzgerald and
H.A. Lorentz (independently, 1892) tried to explain
the result of the M-M experiment by introducing a
hypothesis that contraction of a body takes place
when the body moves along the direction of ether
– Contraction by a factor (1-v2/c2)1/2 leads zero
fringe shift
51
– As has been discussed, the times for the light to
travel along its two possible path in the
Michelson-Morley experiment are
2cl1
t1 2 2 (parallel to ether velocity)
c v
2l2 / c
t2 (perpendicular to ether velocity)
(1 v 2 / c 2 )1/2
52
– When the initial length of the arms in the
apparatus is l10 and l20 the hypothesis of
contraction gives
2 2 1/2
l1 l10 (1 v / c ) l2 l20
Thus
2l10 / c 2l20 / c
t1 t2
(1 v 2 / c 2 )1/ 2 (1 v 2 / c 2 )1/ 2
53
2(l10 l20 ) / c
t1 t2 2 2 1/ 2
(1 v / c )
90 rotation exchanges the role of the two arms,
l10l20, and does not change the absolute value
of time different, and thus in accordance to the
M-M experiment.
54
• Einstein Postulates
– Even though Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction
hypothesis (where ether is kept to exist) is in
accordance with the M-M experiment, Einstein
disagrees with the appearance of special frame
(ether).
– The basic idea of the disagreement is that in
(Newtonian) mechanics all physical observables
depend only on relative motions
55
– (Considering that time is observable just like
position the dependence of observables with
relative motions leads to discarding the idea of
absolute time)
– Recalling that laws of (Newtonian that we have
discussed) mechanics are valid in all (inertial)
frames of reference Einstein suggests that laws of
electrodynamics and optics should also be valid in
all (inertial) frames of reference (this is a kind of
unification of physical theories (mechanics,
electrodynamics and optics))
56
– This leads to Einstein postulate:
Laws of physics should be valid in all (inertial)
frames of reference
– Einstein also introduce another postulate
Light is always propagated with definite speed c in
empty space, independent with the state of
motion of the emitting body.
57
The equivalent statements of Einstein’s postulates
are
58
Notes:
– Postulate 1 states the invariance of physical laws
with all inertial frames.
– Relationship between two inertial frames is given
by a set of transformations between coordinates
and times
– Thus physical laws is said to be invariant with
respect to the above set of transformations
– The quantitative values of physical quantities vary
(not invariant) but the laws (e.g Newton’s law) is
invariant. This is the essence of relativity
59
– Newtonian relativity only consider
dynamics/mechanics, and time is assumed to be
absolute. Accodingly, principle of Newtonian relativity
is associated with Galileo transformations as frames
connector.
– Einstein relativity consider all physics, not only
mechanics, and time is assume relative (no longer
absolute) like space coordinates. Accordingly, also by
considering the 2nd postulate, principle of Einstein
relativity cannot be associated with Galileo
transformations. It should be associated with other
set transformations (that is the Lorentz-Einstein,
simply the Lorentz, transformations)
60
• Synchronizing clocks at two different places
– Relativity of time leads to some aspects to be
considered
– All judgments in which time plays a part always
judgments of simultaneous events
61
Events at the
same place
Jojon
Meaning:
The pointing of Jojon’s watch to 7
and the arrival of the train are
simultaneous events
62
Events at the
different places
Average velocity of a body
Arrival the Arrival the r2 r1
body at r1 body at r2 v
t2 t1
A clock reading t1 and arrival
the body at r1 are two To compare these two set of
simultaneous events events we have to define the
meaning of sametime at
A clock reading t2 and arrival
the body at r2 are two different places.
another simultaneous events
63
Einstein definition of
same time at different places
(Synchronizing clocks at difference places).
Clock at A can
record time Universal speed of light c as the basics:
differences time required for a light signal to travel
between events
that occur in the
A from A to B = time required for a light
signal to travel from B to A
vicinity of A
Clock at B can
If signal start out from A at time t=0,
record time reflected by mirror at B and back to
B
differences A at time t=t0 then the time at which
between events signal reach at B is defined as
that occur in the being t0/2.
vicinity of B
64
• Simultaneity is relative (not absolute)
– This relativity of simultaneity is a consequence of
the prescription of synchronizing clocks at
different places
65
t
World lines
of A, B, C
A, B, C
at rest in S
xA, xB, xC
B sends signals to all
C1 constants
A1 direction at time t=0
Line BA1 is path of
x
O A B C signal that reaches A
Line BC1 is path of
signal that reaches C
x
O A B C
Curves of A, B, C
signals are
t1
A’1
move with speed
t2 as before
C’1 v (to +x) in S
x
O A B C
S’
B sends signals to all direction at time t=0 moves with speed
v w.r.t. S.
Line BA’1 is path of signal that reaches A:
x=xB-ct
A’1 is the arrival of signal at A
Line BC’1 is path of signal that reaches C: C’1 is the arrival of signal at C
x=xB+ct
68
t
A, B, C
World lines
of A, B, C at rest in S’
Curves of A, B, C
signals as
t1
A’1
move with speed
t2 before
C’1 v (to +x) in S
x
O A B C
S’
A’1C’1 is not parallel to x-axis, moves with speed
v w.r.t. S.
thus A’1 and C’1 are not simultaneous
according to S.
Signal reaches A is earlier than that reaches B
t1
A’1 A’1 C’1
t2 C’1
x x
O A B C O A B C
A, B, C A, B, C
Move in S at rest in S’
A’1 and C’1 are not simultaneous A’1 and C’1 are simultaneous
according to S. according to S’.
Signal reaches A is earlier than that Signal reaches A and B at the same
reaches B time
Simultaneity is relative
(frame dependent)
70
• Space-time coordinates in two different
inertial frames
A, B, C (x,t): coordinate axes in S
at rest in S’ t (x’,t’): coordinate axes in S’
t’
A, B, C Axis x’ parallel to lines
move with speed v (to of simultaneous events
+x) in S (lines t’=const)
Axis t’ = worldline of O
S’ (parallel to x’=const)
moves with speed v
w.r.t. S. C’1
A’1
x’
S and S’ coincides at
t=t’=0 x
O A B C
71
t Frame S
Simultaneous lines
of events
World lines of
objects at rest
72
Moving frame S’ in +x direction
Simultaneous lines
t t’ of events
(according to S’)
World lines of
objects at rest
x’ (according to S’)
73
Moving frame S’’ to -x direction
t
t’’
Simultaneous lines
of events
World lines of
objects at rest
x’’
74
•Picture of synchronization in space-time
diagram
Clocks synchronized in
the ground frame
75
Clocks synchronized in
the car frame
76
• Coordinates of an event in two different
inertial frames
(xP,tP): coordinates of P in S
(x’P,t’P): coordinates of P in S’
S’
moves with speed v t
w.r.t. S. Any event P can
t’
be characterized
S and S’ coincides at equivalently by
t=t’=0 (x,t) or (x’,t’)
tP P
Events: points in
t’P
space-time
coordinate system x’
x’P
x
Problem: sketch similar O xP
diagram when S’ moves to
the left (-x) 77
How to draw coordinate x and time t of an event?
xP is a point of intersection
tP P between axis x and a line parallel
to axis t that passing through P
t’P
x’ tP is a point of intersection
between axis t and a line parallel
x’P to axis x that passing through P
x
O xP
78
How to draw coordinate x and time t of an event?
t
t’ x’P is a point of intersection
between axis x’ and a line parallel
to axis t’ that passing through P
tP P
t’P is a point of intersection
t’P between axis t’ and a line parallel
to axis x’ that passing through P
x’
x’P
x
O xP
79
• Lorentz-Einstein transformations
x’P
x
O xP
80
Linear relationship
b a,b constant of coordinate and
x ax ' bt ' a x ' t ' time (can depend on speed of
a the moving frame (S’)
with
This condition is defined to make
b the relationship has a close
x ' ax bt a x t . possible form with the Galileo
a transformation and enabling the
transformation reduces to Galileo
transformation for low speeds.
The motion of the origin O of S as measured in S’ is
defined by putting x=0 in 1st equation
b b
0 x ' t ' x ' t '
a a
O moves to the left w.r.t. frame S’ with speed b/a
81
The motion of the origin O’ of S’ as measured in S is
defined by putting x’=0 in 2nd equation
b b
0 x t x t
a a
O’ moves to the right w.r.t. frame S with speed b/a
x a x ' vt '
x ' a x vt .
82
Consider light signal traveling in the +x direction from O
x=ct, x’=ct’
This can be used to eliminate x and x’ in
83
Eliminating t and t’:
2 2 2 2
c ( ac av )( ac av ) a (c v )
1
a (v )
1 v2 / c2
We obtain
x x ' vt '
x ' ( x vt ) t (t ' vx '/ c )2
t ' (t vx / c 2 )
As S’ moves parallel to x axis
we conclude that
y’=y, z’=z
84
Finally we have a complete set of Lorentz-
Einstein transformations
85
Example: Light burst
2 2 2 2 2
r ct x y z c t
Using Lorentz transformations, unprimedprimed
2 2 2 2 2
x ' y ' z ' c t ' r ' ct '
87
S frame: burst at t
S S’ r=ctx2+y2+z2=c2t2
S’ frame at t’,
r’=ct’ (universal speed c)
x’2+y’2+z’2=c2t’2
The burst form a sphere
according to both frames
89
s is defined as distance in space-time (not
distance in space) .
s2=x2+c2t20
90
• Minkowski space-time
Minkowski space-time
is a space-time graph
ct as depicted before but
ct’ light signal by changing the axis t
ct”
by axis ct.
ct”P Thus all the axes have
P dimension of distance.
ctP
If the scale of both axes
ct’P
is the same the world
x’ line of light starting out
at x=0, t=0 is bisector of
x’P the angle between the
x axes.
O xP
(This holds in all frames
All frames that coincide that coincide at
at t=t’=t”= =0 relate to x”P x” t=t’=t”= =0)
one another through the Lorentz transformations.
91
Scale, representing unit
distance, is not the same
along different axes x, x’,
ct
x”, .
ct’ light signal
ct” As distance s is invariant,
we can define unit
distance in all frames
through the hyperbolic
x2-c2t2=1 curve
ct’P x’2-c2t’2=1
x”’2-c2t’”2=1
x’ x2-c2t2=s2=1.
Intersection between the
B
A curve and the axes x, x’,
x x”, define the unit
O
C distances for the
corresponding frames.
x”
92
x2-c2t2=s2=1.
Hyperbolic curve in the graph can be
x’2-c2t’2=s2=1.
expressed by all the following equations:
x”2-c2t”2=s2=1.
ct
light signal etc.
ct ct’
” Points on x, x’, x” axes
correspond to t=0, t’=0, t”=0
… respectively.
x2-c2t2=1 Points A, B, C on the curve
correspond to
x’ xA=1, x’B=1, x”C=1
B
A
O
x OA = 1 unit distance for S
C
OB = 1 unit distance for S’
x” OC = 1 unit distance for S”
93
x2-c2t2=s2=-1.
Hyperbolic curve in the graph can be
x’2-c2t’2=s2=-1.
expressed by all the following equations:
x”2-c2t”2=s2=-1.
ct
light signal etc.
ct ct’
Points on ct, ct’, ct” axes
” correspond to x=0, x’=0,
x”=0 … respt’ly.
x2-c2t2=-1
x’2-c2t’2=-1
x”2-c2t”2=-1 Points E, F, G on the curve
correspond to
E x’
G F
ctE=1, ct’F=1, ct”G=1
O
x OE = 1 unit scale for axis ct
OF = 1 unit scale for axis ct’
94
III. Measurement of Length and
Time
• Relativity of separation of two events
• Length contraction
• Time dilation
• The twin paradox
• Causality
95
• Relativity of separation of two events
Frame S’ and S” move with
ct
velocities v and –V parallel to x
ct’ axis with respect to frame S
ct”
96
According to Lorentz transformation
97
x "P ( xP Vt P ) xP ( x ''P Vt ''P )
t ''P (t P VxP / c 2 ) t P (t ''P Vx ''P / c 2 )
98
Separation between P and Q
Frames
In space In time In space-time s
S x=xP-xQ t=tP-tQ s2=x2c2t2
S’ x’=x’P-x’Q t’=t’P-t’Q s’2=x’2c2t’2
S” x”=x”P-x”Q t”=t”P-t”Q s’’2=x’’2c2t’’2
99
In terms of unprimed coordinates
x xP xQ t t P tQ
x ' x 'P x 'Q [x vt ]
ds is path dependent
P
Path 1 t
t0 Q
Q Q 2
1 dx
P ds P cdt c 2 dt 1 x=x0
x=x0+v(t0-t)
t0 t0/2 M
cdt 1 1ct0
x=x0+vt
0
P
Path 2 x0 x
Q M 2 Q 2
1 dx 1 dx
P ds P cdt c 2 dt 1 M cdt c 2 dt 1
t0 /2 2 t0
v ( v ) 2 ct0
cdt 2 1 cdt 2
1 ct 0 1 1
0
c t0 /2
c 2
103
Consider two paths: PQ (path 1) and PMQ (path 2)
Path 1 t t’
t0 Q
According to S’ moving
with +V along +x, path PQ x=x0+v(t0-t)
is described by x=x0
x’
t0/2
x0=(x’+Vt’) dx’/dt’= V M
x=x0+vt
Q Q 2
1 dx '
P ds ' P cdt ' c 2 dt ' 1 P
x0 x
tQ '
V2 1
cdt ' 2 1 ct '
tP '
c
1 1
c (t V x / c )
2
c (t0 0) 1ct0
104
Example
In S: x=x2-x1= (50-10)m=40 m
In S’: x’=x’2-x’1= (x-vt)= (5/4)(40-(3/5 (3108)(110-7 )=27.5 m
x’<x
105
What is the time different between the two events as
measured in S and in S’?
t’<t
106
• Length contraction
From the last slide
107
Besides it is depending on separation in space calculated in rest
frame S, separation in space between two events calculated in
moving frame S’ depends also on separation in time calculated in S’
Thus separation in space calculated in any moving frames is time
dependent
108
Thus length of a rod according to S’ is
x
x ' vt ', t ' 0
Or
L0
L L : length according to observer at S’
L0: length according to observer at S
1 L L0
109
According to S,
the length is PQ
ct According to S’,
ct’ the length is P’Q’.
x
O P Q
110
Rod OP at rest in S According to S, the
length of rod:
ct OP=1 unit in S
ct’
According to S’, the
length of rod:
x’
OP’ < OP
P’
x
O P
111
• Time dilation
2’
2 T<T0
T0 T
1’
x’
1
x
O
1’ unit
1 unit
113
ct
ct’
T<T0
2’
2
The corresponding object
T0 T is at rest according to S’
1’ and is moving according
x’ to S.
1
114
• The twin paradox
115
• The twin paradox
• In the spaceship frame of reference, it is the Earth that is
moving at a very high speed, so time on Earth will be observed
to pass more slowly than on the spaceship.
• So the astronaut expects that the twin sibling waiting on the
Earth to be much younger of the two upon return.
116
117
The answer to this question is that for the astronaut to
return to the Earth, he/she must change direction and
thereby switch from one inertial frame to another, and
that breaks the symmetry between the two observers.
118
But let's for the sake of argument assume that the
acceleration process can be made as short as we like
and can be considered an instantaneous jump from
one inertial frame to another.
119
Proper time and proper length
x Spacelike: space-time
region where objects move
with speed v>c
(blue cone)
121
Timelike: region with t<0 and t>0 are separated
thus timelike has causality structure (cause-
effect structure)
Objects in this region have speed u<c
Bullet released at A with speed u<c and
hits object at B after t>0.
According to S:
Event of hitting object is later than event of releasing bullet.
124
IV. Relativistic Kinematics
125
• Relativistic addition of velocities
Lorentz transformation
(Frame S’ moves with speed V along +x direction)
x ' ( x Vt ), t ' (t Vx / c 2 ),
y' y
z' z
126
x-component of velocity according to S’
dx ' dx ' dt d d
vx ' ( x Vt ) (t ' Vx '/ c 2 )
dt ' dt dt ' dt dt '
(vx V ) (1 Vvx '/ c 2 )
127
(vx V)
2
vx ' 2
1 (vx V)V/ c2
(vx V) vx V
vx ' 2 2 2
2
(1V / c )(vx V)V / c 1vV x / c
vx V vx ' V
vx ' vx
1 vxV / c 2 1 v x 'V / c 2
128
y-component of velocity according to S’
dy ' dy ' dt d d
vy ' y (t ' Vx '/ c 2 )
dt ' dt dt ' dt dt '
v y (1 Vvx '/ c 2 )
vx V
vx '
1 vxV / c 2
129
We obtain
V vx V vxV V 2
v y ' v y 1 2 2 v y 1 2
c 1 v xV / c c v xV
c 2 vxV vxV V 2 c2 V 2
v y 2 v y 2
c vxV c v xV
1 V 2 / c2 vy /
v y 2
2
1 v xV / c 1 v xV / c
vy / v y '/
vy ' 2
vy
1 vxV / c 1 v x 'V / c 2
130
z-component of velocity according to S’
Similar derivation
vz / vz '/
vz ' vz
1 vxV / c 2 1 v x 'V / c 2
131
Rules of relativistic addition of velocities (summary)
vx V vx ' V
vx ' vx
1 vxV / c 2 1 v x 'V / c 2
vy / v y '/
vy ' 2
vy
1 vxV / c 1 v x 'V / c 2
vz / vz '/
vz ' vz
1 vxV / c 2 1 v x 'V / c 2
132
Rules of relativistic addition of velocities in
dimensionless velocities
V ux uy u
, x , y , z z
c c c c
ux ' uy ' u '
x ' , y ' , z ' z
c c c
vx ' vx / c V / c vx v x '/ c V / c
c 1 (vx / c )(V / c ) c 1 (v x '/ c )(V / c )
x x '
x ' x
1 x 1 x '
133
We have
x x '
x ' x
1 x 1 x '
y / y '/
y ' y
1 x 1 x '
z / z '/
z ' z
1 x 1 x '
c / n V c / n V
vx 2
1 (c / n)V / c 1 V / nc
135
For V<<c:
1
c / n V c nV V
vx 1 1
1 V / nc n c nc
c nV V
1 1
n c nc
c Vn V
1
n c nc
c nV V c 1
1 1 2 V
n c nc n n
Drag coeficient
136
Example: Stellar aberation
Star
Sun
Earth
138
From rules of velocity addition:
c cos V
c cos ' ,
1 ( c cos )V / c 2
( c sin ) /
c sin '
1 ( c cos )V / c 2
1st equation:
cos
cos '
1 cos
139
V=speed of Earth 30km/s 10-4c =10-4
cos
cos ' (cos )(1 cos )
1 cos
cos sin 2
140
cos
cos ' cos sin
1 cos
sin
141
• The Doppler Effect
S R
142
Acoustical Doppler Effect (Review)
1st pulse
t=0 S R
emitted
W S: sound pulse
source (e.g. horn)
143
W u1
'
W u2
1 W u1 1 W u2 1 u2 / W
' '
' W u2 W u1 1 u1 / W
Take the source (e.g. radar pulse transmitter) at the origin (x=0) of
frame S.
Receiver is at rest in frame S’, moves relative to S at velocity V.
Each pulse is transmitted at speed c and at period of starting at t=0.
The (n+1)th pulse is sent out at t=n.
Consider
t1 : time for 1st pulse to reach Receiver
t2 : time for the (n+1)th pulse to reach Receiver
x0: initial position of the Receiver.
x1: position of 1st pulse at time t1
=position of receiver at time t1.
x2: position of (n+1)th pulse at time t2
=position of receiver at time t2.
145
t
(x2,t2)
source
t=n
(x1,t1)
x
x0
Combining:
ct1=x0+Vt1t1=x0/(c-V)
c n
t 2 t1
c V
c n V
x2 x 1 V ( t 2 t1 )
c V 147
According to Receiver (frame S’), the time interval
between 1st and (n+1)th pulses when reaching the
Receiver is (using Lorentz transformation)
t 2 ' t1 ' [ ( t 2 t1 ) V ( x 2 x 1 ) / c 2 ]
c n V c n V
2
c V c c V
1 c n V 2
V
2 1 ( )
(1 V / c 2 )1/2 c V c 2
c
1/2
1 1 2
1
n n
(1 2
)1/2 1 1
148
The time interval between 1st and (n+1)th pulses is
equal to n times period: t2’-t1’=n’
1/2
1
' Source: stationary
1 receiver moving away
In frequency
1/2
1
'
Source: stationary
1
receiver moving away
149
1/2
1 Source: stationary
' Receiver: approaching
1
In frequency
1/2
1 Source: stationary
' Receiver: approaching
1
150
Case V<<c
for stationary source and approaching receiver
1/ 2
1
' (1 ) (1 )
1/ 2 1/ 2
1
(1 / 2 )(1 / 2 )
(1 )
151
Example: Doppler effect of satellite orbiting the Earth
x1 x2 X=0
V
Position satellite
at time t:
r1 r2 h
x=Vt, y=h
t=0 is choosen when
Earth’s surface O
satellite above O
152
Suppose satellite sends signals every second according
to satellite itself
If t1 and t2 are times when satellite at positions x1 and x2
respectively, and when a signal is sent at x1 and the next
signal is sent at x2, then according time dilation the time
interval between the released times of signals in Earth
frame is
t2t1 = = /
153
From the figure
(1 2 )1/2
'
[1 (V / c) cos ] [1 cos ]
154
Variation of received signals with time
(1 2 )1/2 h 2 V 2t 2
'
[1 (V / c) cos ] [ h 2 V 2t 2 Vt ]
h 2 V 2t 2
'
[ h 2 V 2t 2 Vt ]
Vt
1
2 2 2
h V t
155
Example: Doppler effect of rapidly moving atoms
1
'
[1 (V / c) cos ] 1 cos
V
First order Doppler effect: 1
c
( ) 2
Second order Doppler effect: 2 12 2 1
2
Second order effect cannot be detected using transverse emision.
157
Example
A proton accelerated through potential difference of
5 kV has a kinetic energy of 5000J giving 0.003
m0 c 2
K m0 c ( 1) K m0c
2 2
m0c 2 (1 12 2 ) K 12 2 m0c 2
1 192
2K 2(5000 J / C )(1.6 10 C )
2
1.06 10 5
3.26 10 3
158
• The twin paradox: Detailed analysis
Each person sends equally spaced time signals (of his own proper
time) to the other.
Cumulative counts of time signals for the whole trip are compared.
Each person transmits f pulses per unit time.
Interval times during accelerating and decelerating of are assumed
negligible (very short time compared to time for the whole trip
L: Distance between Earth and distant planet
Measured by B Measured by A
(the stay at home) (traveler)
Time of total trip T=2L/v T’=2L/v
Total number of fT=2fL/v fT’=2fL/v
signals sent
159
Measured by B Measured by A
(the stay at home) (traveler)
Time of detecting A Time for reaching Time for reaching
turnaround planet + time of planet
signal needed to
reach Earth from t1’= L/v
distant planet
t1=L/v+L/c
= (L/v)(1+)
Number of signals f’t1=(L/v) f[(1-2)]1/2 f’t1’=(L/v)
received during f[(1+)/(1-)]1/2
moving away (During moving
away Doppler effect =(fL/v) (1-)
gives
f’=f[(1-)/(1+)]1/2)
160
Measured by B Measured by A
(the stay at home) (traveler)
Time for returning Time for reaching Time for returning
to Earth planet -time of
signal needed to t2’= L/v
reach Earth from
distant planet
t2=L/v-L/c
= (L/v)(1+)
Number of signals f’’t2=(fL/v)[(1-2)]1/2 f’’t2‘=(fL/v)(1+)
received during
returning (During returning,
Doppler effect gives
f’=f[(1+)/(1-)]1/2)
161
Measured by B Measured by A
(the stay at home) (traveler)
Total number of f’t1+f’’t2 f’’t1’+f’’t2‘
signals received =(2fL/v)[(1-2)]1/2 =2fL/v
=(2fL/v)
Conclusion as to
the other man’s T’=2L/v T=2L/v
measure of time
taken
(Total number of
signals received
divided by (f’t1+f’’t2)/f (f’’t1’+f’’t2’)/f
frequency)
162
• Accelerated motions
vx V
vx '
1 vxV / c 2
163
t (t ' Vx '/ c 2 )
dt V dx '
1 2
dt ' c dt '
(1 vxV / c 2 ) (V / c 2 )(vx V )
1 vxV / c 2
1 V 2 / c2 1 1
1 vxV / c 2
1 vxV / c 2
1 dt
ax ' 2 a
2 2 x
(1 vxV / c ) dt '
1
3 a
2 3 x
(1 vxV / c )
164
vx ' V
vx
1 v x 'V / c 2
dvx 1 dvx ' vx 'V V
ax 2 2 1 2 (vx ' V ) 2
dt (1 vx 'V / c ) dt c c
1 dvx ' V 2 1 dvx ' dt '
1 2 2
2 2
(1 vx 'V / c ) dt c (1 v x ' V / c 2 2
) dt ' dt
1
ax 2 a
2 2 x
' (1 v xV / c 2
)
(1 vx 'V / c )
165
ax ' vx ' V V
ax 2 2
1 2
(1 vx 'V / c ) 1 vx 'V / c c 2
ax ' V V
2 3
1 vx ' 2 (vx ' V ) 2
(1 vx 'V / c ) c c
ax ' V2
2 3
1 2
(1 vx 'V / c ) c
ax '
3
(1 vx 'V / c )
2 3
166
1
ax ' 3 a
2 3 x
(1 vxV / c )
3
vx ' V V
a x (1 vxV / c ) a x ' a x ' 1
3 2 3 3
2 2
1 v x 'V / c c
3 3
1 V V
ax '
3
2
1 vx ' 2 (vx ' V ) 2
1 v x 'V / c c c
3 3
1 V 2
ax '
ax '
3
2
1 2 3
1 v x ' V / c c (1 v x ' V / c 2 3
)
167
vy / v y '/
vy ' 2
vy
1 vxV / c 1 v x 'V / c 2
vy ' 1 V dv y dvx V
ay ' 2 2
1 vx 2 vy 2
dt ' (1 vxV / c ) c dt ' dt ' c
2 2
(1 vxV / c )a y v y axV / c dt
ay '
(1 vxV / c 2 ) 2 dt '
(1 vxV / c 2 )a y v y axV / c 2
(1 vx 'V / c ) 2
(1 vxV / c )2 2
(1 vxV / c 2 )a y v y axV / c 2 vx V V
2 2 1 2 2
(1 vxV / c ) 1 vxV / c c
168
2 2
(1 vxV / c )a y v y a xV / c V V
ay ' 2 3 1 v x 2 (v x V ) 2
(1 vxV / c ) c c
(1 vxV / c 2 )a y v y a xV / c 2 V 2
2 3 1 2
(1 vxV / c ) c
2 2
(1 vxV / c )a y v y a xV / c
2 (1 vxV / c 2 )3
ay v y axV / c 2
(1 vxV / c )
2 2 2
2 (1 vxV / c 2 )3
169
ay v y axV / c 2
ay '
(1 vxV / c )
2 2 2
2 (1 vxV / c 2 )3
v y '/
axV / c 2
ay 1 v x 'V / c 2
2
3
vx ' V V vx ' V V
2 1 2 1
1 v x 'V / c 2 c 2 1 v x 'V / c 2 c 2
ay
2
1 vx 'V / c (vx ' V )V / c
2 2
2
2
1 v x ' V / c
v y '/ 2
a xV / c
1 v x 'V / c 2
3
1 vx 'V / c (vx ' V )V / c
2 2
2
2
1 v x ' V / c
170
v y '/
axV / c 2
ay 1 v x 'V / c 2
ay ' 2
3
1V / c 2 2
1V / c
2 2
2 2
2 2
1 v x ' V / c 1 v x ' V / c
2
V V
1 vx ' 2 2 a y v y ' 3 a x 2
c c
ay ' V
ay vy ' a
2 x
2 (1 vx 'V / c 2 ) 2 c
ay ' V ax '
2 vy ' 2 2
(1 vx 'V / c )
2 2
c (1 vx 'V / c 2 )3
171
1
ax ' 3 a
2 3 x
(1 vxV / c )
Formulae ay v y axV / c 2
for ay ' 2 2
(1 vxV / c ) (1 vxV / c )
2 2 2 3
acceleration az vz axV / c 2
az ' 2 2
(1 vxV / c ) (1 vxV / c )
2 2 2 3
ax '
ax 3
(1 vx 'V / c 2 )3
ay ' V ax '
ay 2 vy ' 2 2
(1 vx 'V / c )
2 2
c (1 vx 'V / c 2 )3
az ' V ax '
az 2 vz ' 2 2
(1 vx 'V / c )
2 2
c (1 vx 'V / c 2 )3
172
The formulae are quite complicated, but for V<<c they reduce to
173
V. Relativistic Dynamics 1
• Elastic collision
• Inelastic collision
174
• Elastic collision
Consider a collision between two identical particles A and B.
Conservation of momentum gives, in Newtonian mechanics,:
mAu A mB uB mAv A mB vB
u’s and v’s are velocities of particles before and after
collision, respectively; m’s are inertial masses. For identical
particles the masses are equal
As masses in relativistic case depend on velocities, the
above collision can be generalized to relativistic collision by
replacing the inertial masses with the velocity dependent
masses:
mA (u A )u A mB (uB )uB mA (v A )v A mB (vB )vB
In general the masses are not equal, even for identical particles.
175
For elastic collision, conservation of kinetic energy is also valid.
In Newtonian mechanics the conservation is given by
1
2 mAu A 2 12 mB uB 2 12 mAv A 2 12 mB vB 2
m c2 m c2
0A
m0 Ac 2 0B
m0 B c 2
1 u 2 / c2 1 u 2 / c2
A B
m c2 m c2
0A
m0 Ac
2 0B
m0 B c
2
1 v 2 / c2 1 v 2 / c2
A B
176
Consider frames S and S’, where S’ moves along x axis
with speed V relative to S
Suppose, before collision, that A moves with velocity u0
along y axis relative to S and B with velocity –u0 along y’
axis relative to S’.
Velocity of A before collision according to S : (0,u0,0)
Velocity of B before collision according to S’: (0,-u0,0)
178
Observed in S
Velocity of A before collision: (0,u0,0)
Velocity of B before collision: (V,-u0/,0)
Velocity of A after collision: (vxA, vyA,0)
Velocity of B after collision: (vxB, vyB,0) v A , vB ?
Observed in S’
Velocity of A before collision: (V,u0 /,0)
Velocity of B before collision: (0,-u0,0)
Velocity of A after collision: (vxA’, vyA’,0)
Velocity of B after collision: (vxB’, vyB’,0)
v A ', vB '?
179
We have 4 unknown quantities (vxA,vyA,vxB,vyB) and 3 equations
no unique solutions
Observed in S
Velocity of A before collision: (0,u0,0)
Velocity of B before collision: (V,-u0/,0)
Velocity of A after collision: (0,-v,0)
v A , vB ?
Velocity of B after collision: (vxB, vyB,0)
x component :
m0 m0
0 V 0 vxB
1 (V u0 / ) / c
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 (vxB v yB ) / c 2
y component :
m0 m0 u0
u0
1 u0 2 / c 2 1 (V 2 u0 2 / 2 ) / c 2
m0 m0
| v yA | | v yB |
2 2 2 2 2
1 v / c 1 (vxB v yB ) / c
181
From x-component
1 (vxB 2 v yB 2 ) / c 2
vxB V
1 (V u0 / ) / c
2 2 2 2
vxB 2 [1 (V 2 u0 2 / 2 ) / c 2 ] [1 (vxB 2 v yB 2 ) / c 2 ]V 2
vxB 2 [1 u0 2 / c 2 2 ] [1 v yB 2 / c 2 ]V 2
1 v yB 2 / c 2
vxB 2 V 2
1 u0 2 / c 2 2
182
Inserting to y-component
1 v yB 2 / c 2
vxB 2 V 2
1 u0 2 / c 2 2
1 1 u0
u0
2
1 u0 / c 2
1 (V 2 u0 2 / 2 ) / c 2
1 1
v | v yB |
2 2
1 v / c 1 v yB / c2 2
2 2
1
1 V v yB 2
1 u 2 / 2c 2 c
0
183
Conservation of kinetic energy
m0 c 2 m0 c 2
m0 c
2
m0 c
2
1 u 2 / c2 1 (V 2 u 2 / 2 ) / c 2
0 0
m0 c 2 m c 2
m0 c
2 0
m0 c This and previous
2
2
1 v / c
2
1 (vxB v yB ) / c
2 2 2 expressions give
the values of v
ans vyB and vxB
1 1 But so
1 u 2 / c2 1 (V u / ) / c
2 2 2 2 complicated to
0 0 obtain
1 1
2 2
1 v / c 1 v yB 2 / c 2 2 2
1
1 V v yB 2
1 u 2
/ 2 2
c c
0
184
Symmetry consideration
185
Using velocity addition formula as before we conclude
that
as observed in S
Velocity of A before collision: (0,u0,0)
Velocity of B before collision: (V,-u0/,0)
Velocity of A after collision: (0,-v,0)
Velocity of B after collision: (-V, v /,0)
186
Thus, as observed in S
Velocity of A before collision: (0,u0,0)
Velocity of B before collision: (V,-u0/,0)
Velocity of A after collision: (0,-u0,0)
Velocity of B after collision: (-V, u0 /,0)
u
y axis y axis
B B
u0
u
A A u=u0/
u0
Before collision After collision
187
Checking for consistency:
Expression obtained from momentum conservation
1 1 u0
u0
1 u0 2 / c 2 1 (V 2 u0 2 / 2 ) / c 2
1
v
2 2
1 v / c
1
| v yB |
V 2 (1 v yB 2 / c 2 ) v yB 2 (1 u0 2 / 2 c 2 ) 1
1 2
1 u0 / c
2 2 2
c
188
1
RHS u0
1 u0 2 / c 2
1
u0 /
V 2 (1 u0 2 / 2 c 2 ) (u0 2 / 2 )(1 u0 2 / 2 c 2 ) 1
1 2
1 u0 / c
2 2 2
c
1 1
u0 u0 / LHS
2
1 u0 / c 2
1 (V u0 / c )
2 2 2 2
189
What we have done:
We take the momentum conservation and energy
conservation for collision as in Newtonian
mechanics but by replacing the usual (Newtonian)
momentum and kinetic energy by the relativistic
momentum and relativistic kinetic energy
We take relativistic addition of velocities and take
symmetry consideration
The results are that combination of the above
considerations lead to consistent results proving
that relativistic momentum expression is valid
190
Checking for consistency:
Expression obtained from kinetic energy conservation
1 1
1 u 2 / c2
1 (V u / ) / c
2 2 2 2
0 0
1 1
2 2
1 v / c 1 v yB / c
2 2
2 2
1
1 V v yB
1 u 2
/ 2 2
c c 2
0
1 1
RHS
1 u 2 / c2
1 1 u0 / c V 2 u 2 / 2 1
2 2 2
0
0 2
1 u 0
2
/ 2 2
c c
1 1
LHS
1 V 2 u 2 / 2 / c 2
1 u 2 / c2
0 0 191
• Inelastic collision
Inelastic collision is a collision that fulfills the momentum
conservation, as in elastic collision, but does not fulfill the kinetic
energy conservation. If Q defines the discrepancy between the
kinetic energies after and before collision we have, for inelastic
collision between A and B. Conservation of total energy is valid. This
is equivalent to mass conservation.
mA (u A )u A mB (uB )uB mA (v A )v A mB (vB )vB
m c2 m c2
Q 0A
m0 Ac
2 0B
m0 B c
2
1 u 2 / c2 1 u 2 / c2
A B
m c2 m c2
0A
m0 Ac
2 0B
m0 B c
2
1 v 2 / c2 1 v 2 / c2
A B
mA (u A )c 2 mB (u B )c 2 mA (v A )c 2 mB (vB )c 2
192
Totally inelastic collision
Inelastic collision in which all the particles involved in the collision
are then stick together to form a composite particle.
mA (u A )u A mB (uB )uB [mA (v) mB (v)]v
m c2 m c2
Q 0A
m0 Ac
2 0B
m0 B c
2
1 u 2 / c2 1 u 2 / c2
A B
m0 Ac 2 2
m0 B c 2 2
m0 Ac m0 B c
2 2 2 2
1 v / c 1 v / c
mA (u A )c 2 mB (uB )c 2 mA (v)c 2 mB (v )c 2
193
Emission and Absorption
Emission and absorption can be thought of collision phenomena.
The particles involved are a massive particle and a photon.
The photon describes the emitted radiation (in emission) or
absorbed radiation (in absorption)
Emission
Sketch momentum Energy
Before collision m(u )u m(u )c 2
194
Annihilation
Annihilation is a collision between a particle and its anti-particle in
which after collision both particles disappear resulting a radiation
(photon)
mA (u A )u A mA (u A )c 2
Before collision
mB (u B )u B mB (u B )c 2
Eph ˆ E ph
After collision k
c
195
Pair production
Pair production is a phenomena of disappearing photon followed
by appearing a pair of particles (particle and its anti-particle)
196
Absorption
Sketch momentum Energy
• Four-vector
• Energy-momentum four-vector
• Forces in relativistic mechanics
• Electromagnetic forces
198
• Four-vector
Four-vector is defined as a vector in a four dimensional space,
thus has 4 components, in which under the Lorentz
transformation it transforms in the same way as the space-time
coordinates do.
ct ' (ct x ),
x ' ( x ct ), V /c
y ' y,
z ' z.
199
A four-vector (A0,A1,A2,A3) transforms under
the Lorentz transformation
A0 ' ( A0 A1 ),
A1 ' ( A1 A0 ), V /c
A2 ' A2 ,
A3 ' A 3 .
200
Relationship in terms of matrix equation
ct ' 0 0 ct
x ' 0 0 x
y' 0 0 1 0 y
z' 0 0 0 1 z
A0 ' 0 0 A0
1
A ' 0 0 A1
A2 ' 0 0 1 0 A2
3 3
A ' 0 0 0 1 A
201
Define
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
g
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Lorentz transformation matrix Metric in Minkowski spacetime
x 0 ct , x1 x, x 2 y , x 3 z
x0 ct , x1 x, x2 y , x3 z
x 0 x0 , x1 x1 , x 2 x2 , x 3 x3
A0 A0 , A1 A1 , A 2 A2 , A3 A3
202
3 3
x g x , x g x
0 0
3 3
A g A , A g A
0 0
3 3
x ' x , x ' x
Lorentz transformation
0 0
of coordinates and four
3 3
vector
A ' A , A ' A
0 0
203
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
( g ) ( g )
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
( ) ( )
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
204
3 3 3
0
x x
0
0
g x x ( x0 )2 ( x1 )2 ( x2 )2 ( x3 )2
3 3 3
0
A A
0
0
g A A ( A0 )2 ( A1 )2 ( A2 )2 ( A3 )2
( A0 )2 ( Ax )2 ( Ay )2 ( Az )2
205
3 3 3
0
x ' x ' x ' g x '
0 0
3 3 3 3
x g x
0
0 0 0
3
define the scalar product between
A B A B
the four-vector A and B
0
207
Invariant property of four-vectors
( A0 ) 2 ( A1 ) 2 ( A2 ) 2 ( A3 ) 2
is the same in all inertial frames
(ct ) 2 ( x ) 2 ( y ) 2 ( z ) 2 s 2
208
We can also write the Lorentz transformation
(ct ) 2 ( x ) 2 ( y ) 2 ( z ) 2 (ict ) 2 ( x ) 2 ( y ) 2 ( z ) 2
209
We define four-vectors (A0,A1,A2,A3) such that under the
Lorentz transformation it transforms according to
A0 ' ( A0 i A1 ),
A1 ' ( A1 i A0 ),
A2 ' A2 ,
A3 ' A 3 .
( A0 ') 2 2 [( A0 ) 2 2 ( A1 ) 2 2i A0 A1 ],
( A1 ') 2 2 [( A1 ) 2 2 ( A0 ) 2 2 A0 A1 ],
( A2 ') 2 ( A2 ) 2 , ( A3 ') 2 ( A3 ) 2 .
The invariance is
( A0 ) 2 ( A1 ) 2 ( A2 ) 2 ( A3 ) 2
210
We define four-vectors (A0,A1,A2,A3) such that under the
Lorentz transformation it transforms according to
A0 ' ( A0 i A1 ),
A1 ' ( A1 i A0 ),
A2 ' A2 ,
A3 ' A 3 .
( A0 ') 2 2 [( A0 ) 2 2 ( A1 ) 2 2i A0 A1 ],
( A1 ') 2 2 [( A1 ) 2 2 ( A0 ) 2 2 A0 A1 ],
( A2 ') 2 ( A2 ) 2 , ( A3 ') 2 ( A3 ) 2 .
The invariance is
( A0 ) 2 ( A1 ) 2 ( A2 ) 2 ( A3 ) 2
211
• Energy-momentum four-vector
Energy E and momentum p form a energy-momentum four
vector.
E (v ) m0 c 2
p (v ) m0 v
vx V vy / vz /
vx ' vy ' vz '
1 vxV / c 2 1 vxV / c 2 1 vxV / c 2
212
vx V vy / vz /
vx ' vy ' vz '
1 vxV / c 2 1 vxV / c 2 1 vxV / c 2
1 1
(v )
1 v2 / c2 1 (v x 2 v y 2 v z 2 ) / c 2
1 1
(v ')
2 2
1 v ' / c 1 ( v x '2 v y '2 v z '2 ) / c 2
213
v x '2 1 vx 2 V 2 2vxV
1 2 1 2
c c (1 vxV / c 2 ) 2
c 2 (1 vxV / c 2 ) 2 v x 2 V 2 2v xV
c 2 (1 vxV / c 2 ) 2
c 2 vx 2V 2 / c 2 2v xV v x 2 V 2 2v xV
c 2 (1 vxV / c 2 ) 2
(1 vx 2 / c 2 )(1 V 2 / c 2 )
(1 vxV / c 2 ) 2
v y , z '2 vy,z 2 / 2 (v y , z 2 / c 2 )(1 V 2 / c 2 )
2
2 2 2
c c (1 vxV / c ) (1 v xV / c 2 ) 2
214
v x '2 v y ' 2 v z ' 2 (1 vx 2 / c 2 v y 2 / c 2 v z 2 / c 2 )(1 V 2 / c 2 )
1 2
c (1 vxV / c 2 ) 2
(1 v 2 / c 2 )(1 V 2 / c 2 )
(1 vxV / c 2 ) 2
(v ) 2 (V 2 ) 2
(v ') 2
(1 vxV / c 2 ) 2
215
The transformed energy
E ' (v ') m0 c 2
216
The transformed momentum
p ' (v ') m0 v '
vx V
p x ' (v ) (V )(1 v xV / c )m0 2
(1 vxV / c 2 )
(v ) (V )(vx V ) m0
[ (v ) m0 vx (v )m0 c 2V / c 2 ] [ p x EV / c 2 ]
v y , z / (v )
p y , z ' (v ) (V )(1 vxV / c )m0
2
(1 vxV / c 2 )
(V ) m0 v y , z p y , z
217
The transformed energy-momentum
E ' [ E p xV ]
p x ' [ p x EV / c 2 ]
py ' py
pz ' pz (V )
Or
E '/ c [( E / c ) p x ]
p x ' [ p x ( E / c )]
py ' py
pz ' pz (V ), V / c
218
Define p0=E/c, p1=px, p2=py, p3=pz
p 0 ' [ p 0 p1 ]
p1 ' [ p1 p 0 ]
p2 ' p2
p3 ' p3
The above transformations have the Lorentz transformation
forms. Thus
( p 0 , p1 , p 2 , p 3 ) ( E / c, p x , p y , p z )
dp d ( mv ) m0
F , m
dt dt 1 v2 / c2
dp x ' dp x V dE
p x ' [ p x EV / c ]
2
2
dt dt c dt
V dt ' V
t ' t 2 x 1 2 vx
c dt c
dp x ' dp x V dE V
Fx ' 2 / 1 2 vx
dt ' dt c dt c
Fx (V / c 2 ) dE / dt
1 (V / c 2 )v x
222
E c p E0 c p p E 0 2
2 2 2 2 2
dE 2 dp 2
2E 2c p 2c p F
dt dt
2
dE c p
2
F F v
dt mc
2
Fx (V / c ) F v
Fx '
1 (V / c 2 )vx
223
dp y , z '
dp y , z ' dt dp y , z '/ dt
Fy , z '
dt ' dt dt ' dt '/ dt
dp y , z ' dp y , z
py,z ' py,z
dt dt
V dt ' V
t ' t 2 x 1 2 vx
c dt c
dp y , z V Fy , z
Fy , z ' / 1 2 vx
dt c [1 (V / c 2
)v x ]
224
The inverse
Fy , z
Fy , z '
[1 (V / c 2 )vx ]
V V vx ' V
Fy , z Fy , z ' 1 2 vx Fy , z ' 1 2 2
c c 1 Vv x '/ c
1 Vvx '/ c 2 (v x ' V )V / c 2
Fy , z ' 2
1 Vvx '/ c
1 V 2 / c2 Fy , z '/
Fy , z ' 2 2
1 Vv x '/ c 1 Vv x '/ c
225
2
Fx (V / c ) F v
Fx '
1 Vvx / c 2
Fx [1 Vvx / c 2 ] (V / c 2 )[ Fy v y Fz v z ]
[1 Vvx / c 2 ]
(V / c 2 )[ Fy v y Fz v z ]
Fx
[1 Vvx / c 2 ]
(V / c 2 )[ Fy v y Fz v z ]
Fx
[1 Vvx / c 2 ]
226
(V / c 2 )[ Fy v y Fz v z ]
Fx ' Fx
[1 Vvx / c 2 ]
(V / c 2 )[ Fy ' v y ' Fz ' v z '] / 2 [1 Vv x '/ c 2 ]2
Fx
2 vx ' V
1 (V / c )
1 Vvx '/ c 2
(V / c 2 )[ Fy ' v y ' Fz ' v z '] / 2 [1 Vv x '/ c 2 ]2
Fx
1 V 2 / c2
1 Vvx '/ c 2
(V / c 2 )[ Fy ' v y ' Fz ' v z ']
Fx
1 Vvx '/ c 2
(V / c 2 )[ Fx ' vx ' Fx ' vx ' Fy ' v y ' Fz ' v z ']
Fx
1 Vvx '/ c 2 227
(V / c 2 )[ Fx ' v x ' Fx ' v x ' Fy ' v y ' Fz ' v z ']
Fx ' Fx
1 Vvx '/ c 2
2
(V / c )[ Fx ' v x ' F ' v ']
Fx
1 Vvx '/ c 2
(V / c )[ F ' v '] (V / c 2 )( Fx ' v x ')
2
Fx 2
1 Vvx '/ c 1 Vv x '/ c 2
2
2
(V / c )[ F ' v '] ( V / c )( Fx ' v x ')
Fx Fx ' 2
1 Vvx '/ c 1 Vv x '/ c 2
2 2 2
Fx '[1 Vvx '/ c Vv x '/ c ] (V / c )[ F ' v ']
1 Vvx '/ c 2
2
Fx ' (V / c )[ F ' v ']
1 Vvx '/ c 2 228
Summary: Transformation law for forces
2
Fx (V / c ) F v 2
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v '
Fx ' Fx
1 Vvx / c 2 1 Vvx '/ c 2
Fy Fy '
Fy ' Fy
[1 Vvx / c 2 ] [1 Vvx '/ c 2 ]
Fz Fz '
Fz ' Fz
[1 Vvx / c 2 ] [1 Vvx '/ c 2 ]
230
Fx (1 Vvx / c ) [ Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ']
2 2 2
2 Fx (V / c ) F v
2
(1 Vvx / c )
2
2
2
(V / c ) F ' v '
1 Vvx / c
[ Fx (V / c ) F v ] (1 Vv x / c ) (V / c ) F ' v '
2 2 2 2 2
Fx (1 ) (V / c ) F v (1 Vv x / c ) (V / c ) F ' v '
2 2 2 2 2 2
c Fx (1 ) (V / c ) F v
2 2 2 2
F ' v '
V 2 1 Vvx / c 2
FxV F v
1 Vvx / c 2
231
2
Fx (V / c ) F v
Fx '
1 Vvx / c 2
2
2
2 2 2
2 ( Fx ) (V / c ) ( F v ) 2(V / c ) F vFx
( Fx ')
(1 Vvx / c 2 ) 2
Fy ( Fy ) 2 (1 V 2 / c 2 )
Fy ' ( Fy ') 2
[1 Vvx / c ]
2
[1 Vv x / c ]2 2
2 2 2
Fz 2 ( F ) (1 V / c )
Fz ' ( Fz ') z
[1 Vvx / c ]
2
[1 Vv x / c 2 ]2
2
FxV F v 2 Fx V ( F v ) 2 FxV ( F v )
2 2
F ' v ' 2
( F ' v ')
1 Vvx / c (1 Vv x / c 2 ) 2
232
F ' v ' 2
( ) ( Fx ') 2 ( Fy ') 2 ( Fz ') 2
c
2 2
Fx V / c ( F v ) / c 2 FxV ( F v ) / c 2
2 2 2
Vvx
2
2 2 2
2 2
1 c 2 [( Fx ) (V / c ) ( F v ) 2(V / c ) F vFx ]
( Fy ) 2 (1 V 2 / c 2 ) ( Fz ) 2 (1 V 2 / c 2 )
F v 2
2
(1 V / c )
2
c
2
Vvx 2 2 2
1 2 ( Fx ) (1 V / c )
c
( Fy ) 2 (1 V 2 / c 2 ) ( Fz ) 2 (1 V 2 / c 2 )
233
F ' v ' 2
( ) ( Fx ') 2 ( Fy ') 2 ( Fz ') 2
c
2
2
1V / c F v
2
( Fx ) ( Fy ) ( Fz )
2 2 2
Vvx c
1 2
c
234
• Electromagnetic Forces
Coulomb’s law
Consider a source charge q1 and a test charge q2. When the
test charge is at rest a force exerted by q1 on q2 is given by
kq1q2 r
F F
r3 q2
r
q1
235
Magnetic force on a moving charge
A test charge q2 passing a point in space at velocity v will
experience a magnetic force
Fmag q2 v B (MKSsystem)
236
Coulomb’s law on a stationary charge (in frame S)
Case 1: Relative to S
Source charge q1 be moving with constant velocity (V,0,0)
Source charge is at origin of S at time t=0
Test charge q2 is stationary at (x,0,0)
237
Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (0,0,0) (x2=x0,0,0) At any time
q1 q2 q1 q2
V -V
At rest At rest
Frame S Frame S’
238
Lorentz transformation
ct ' (ct x ), vx V
vx '
x ' ( x ct ), 1 vxV / c 2
Source charge q1
ct1 ' (ct1 x1 ) ct1 ' (ct1 x1 )
x1 ' ( x1 ct1 ) 0 ( x1 ct1 )
Test charge q2
ct2 ' (ct 2 x2 ) ct1 ' (ct 2 x20 )
x2 ' ( x2 ct2 ) x2 ' ( x20 ct 2 )
239
Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)
x2 ' x1 ' x ' 0 x '
x ' x2 ' ( x2 ct2 ) ( x2 ct1 ) ( x20 x1 ) x
kq1q2 kq1q2
Fx ' 2 2 , Fy ' Fz ' 0
x' 2
x The force at
time t’
240
Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S is
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx ' (V / c 2 ) Fx ' v x '
2
Fx 2
1 Vvx '/ c 1 Vv x '/ c 2
Fy '
Fy 0
(1 Vvx '/ c )2
Fx '(1 V 2 / c 2 ) kq1q2
Fx Fx ' 2 2 , Fy Fz 0
1V / c2 2
x
241
Case 2: Relative to S
Source charge q1 be moving with constant velocity (V,0,0)
Source charge is at origin of S at time t=0
Test charge q2 is stationary at (0,y,0)
242
Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (0,0,0) (0,y,0) At any time
q1 q1 -V
At rest
V
At rest
Frame S Frame S’
243
Lorentz transformation
ct ' (ct x ), vx V
vx '
x ' ( x ct ), 1 vxV / c 2
Source charge q1
ct1 ' (ct1 x1 ) ct1 ' (ct1 x1 )
x1 ' ( x1 ct1 ) 0 ( x1 ct1 )
y1 ' y1 0
Test charge q2
ct2 ' (ct2 x2 ) ct ' (ct 2 x20 )
x2 ' ( x2 ct2 ) x2 ' ( x20 ct 2 )
y2 ' y2
244
Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)
kq 1 q 2 y ' kq 1 q 2 y
Fy ' , Fz ' 0
2
( x2 ' y ' )2 3/2
( x y )
2 2 2 3/2
245
Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S is
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx ' (V / c 2 ) Fx ' v x '
2
Fx 2
1 Vvx '/ c 1 Vv x '/ c 2
Fy ' Fz '
Fy , Fz 0
(1 Vvx '/ c )2
(1 Vv x '/ c )
2
Fx '(1 V 2 / c 2 ) kq1q2 x
Fx Fx ' 2 2 , The force at
2
1V / c 2
( x y ) 2 3/ 2
time t
Fy ' kq1q2 y
Fy 2 2 , Fz 0
(1 V / c ) ( x y )
2 2 2 3/ 2
246
At initial time t=0 the charges are at y axisx=0
Fx (t 0) 0,
kq1q2 y kq1q2
Fy (t 0) 3
2
, Fz 0
y y
kq 1 q 2 x 2 '
Fx ' 2 2 3/2
0,
( x2 ' y ' )
kq 1 q 2 y ' kq 1 q 2 kq 1 q 2
Fy ' 2 2 3/2
2
2
, Fz ' 0
( x2 ' y ' ) y' y
247
Case 3: Relative to S
Source charge q1 be moving with constant velocity (V,0,0)
Source charge is at origin of S at time t=0
Test charge q2 is stationary at (x,y,z)
248
Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (0,0,0) (x,y,z) At any time
249
Lorentz transformation
ct ' (ct x ),
x ' ( x ct ),
Source charge q1
ct1 ' (ct1 x1 ) ct1 ' (ct1 x1 )
x1 ' ( x1 ct1 ) 0 ( x1 ct1 )
y1 ' y1 0, z1 ' z1 0
Test charge q2
ct2 ' (ct2 x2 ) ct ' (ct 2 x20 )
x2 ' ( x2 ct2 ) x2 ' ( x20 ct 2 )
y2 ' y ' y2 y , z 2 ' z ' z 2 z
250
Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)
x2 ' ( x2 ct2 ) ( x2 ct1 ) ( x x1 )
Coulomb force acting on test charge according to S’
kq 1 q 2 ( x x1 )
Fx ' ,
( ( x x1 ) y z )
2 2 2 2 3/2
The force at
kq 1 q 2 y
Fy ' , time t’
( ( x x1 ) y z )
2 2 2 2 3/2
kq 1 q 2 z
Fz '
( 2 ( x x1 ) 2 y 2 z 2 ) 3 / 2 251
Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S is
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx ' (V / c 2 ) Fx ' v x '
2
Fx 2
1 Vvx '/ c 1 Vv x '/ c 2
Fy '
Fy ,
(1 Vvx '/ c )2
Fz '
Fz .
(1 Vvx '/ c )
2
252
Velocity of test charge according to S’ is vx’=-V, vy’=vz’=0
Fx '(1 V 2 / c 2 ) kq1q2 ( x x1 )
Fx Fx ' 2 ,
1V / c2 2
( ( x x1 ) y z )
2 2 2 3/ 2
Fy ' kq1q2 y
Fy ,
(1 V / c )
2 2
( ( x x1 ) y z )
2 2 2 2 3/ 2
Fz ' kq1q2 z
Fz 2
(1 V / c ) ( ( x x1 ) 2 y 2 z 2 )3/ 2
2 2
253
The force at time t=0 (x1=0)
Fx '(1 V 2 / c 2 ) kq1q2 x
Fx Fx ' 2 2 ,
2
1V / c 2
( x y z )
2 2 3/ 2
Fy ' kq1q2 y
Fy 2 2 ,
(1 V / c ) ( x y z )
2 2 2 2 3/ 2
Fz ' kq1q2 z
Fz 2 2
(1 V / c ) ( x y 2 z 2 )3/ 2
2 2
kq1q2 r
F , r ( x, y , z )
( x y z )
2 2 2 2 3/2
kq1 r
E 2 2 , Electric field
( x y z )
2 2 3/2
254
Coulomb’s law on a moving charge (in frame S)
Case 1: Relative to S
Source charge q1 and test charge q2 be moving with
constant velocity (V,0,0)
Position of the source charge is at (x1,0,0)
Position of test charge q2 is at (x2,y2=y,0)
At time t=0 both charges are at y axis, thus x2=x1=x
x2=x1=x y2=y
x(0)=0, y constant
(x,0,0)
q2 q2 (0,y’,0)
V
V (0,0,0)
q1 q1
(x,0,0)
At rest
Frame S Frame S’
256
Lorentz transformation
ct ' (ct x ),
x ' ( x ct ),
Source charge q1
ct1 ' (ct1 x1 ) ct ' (ct x )
x1 ' ( x1 ct1 ) 0 ( x ct )
y1 ' y1 0, z1 ' z1 0
Test charge q2
ct2 ' (ct2 x2 ) ct ' (ct x )
x2 ' ( x2 ct2 ) 0 ( x ct )
y2 ' y ' y2 y , z 2 ' z 2 0
257
Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)
x2 ' x1 ' 0
distance =y
y2 ' y1 ' y2 ' y
z2 ' z1 ' 0
Coulomb force acting on test charge according to S’
kq 1 q 2 (0 ) kq 1 q 2 (0 )
Fx ' 2
0, F z ' 2
0
y y The force at
time t’
kq 1 q 2 y kq 1 q 2
Fy ' 3
y y2
258
Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S is (v’=0)
2
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v '
Fx 2
Fx ' 0
1 Vvx '/ c At any time
Fy ' Fy '
kq1q2 (since y is
Fy , a constant)
(1 Vvx '/ c )
2
y 2
Fz '
Fz 0.
(1 Vvx '/ c )
2
259
Case 2: Relative to S
Source charge q1 and test charge q2 be moving with
constant velocity (V,0,0) and (ux,0,0) respectively
Position of the source charge is at (x1,0,0)
Position of test charge q2 is at (x2,y2=y,0)
At time t=0 both charges are at y axis, thus x2(0)=x1(0)=0
260
Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (ux,0,0) (x2,y2,0) At any time
(x,0,0) (x2’,y’,0)
q2 q2 ux’
ux
V (0,0,0)
q1 q1
(x,0,0)
Frame S Frame S’
261
Lorentz transformation
ct ' (ct x ),
x ' ( x ct ),
Source charge q1
ct1 ' (ct1 x1 ) ct ' (ct x1 )
x1 ' ( x1 ct1 ) 0 ( x1 ct )
y1 ' y1 0, z1 ' z1 0
Test charge q2
ct2 ' (ct2 x2 ) ct ' (ct x2 )
x2 ' ( x2 ct2 ) x2 ' ( x2 ct ) ( x2 x1 )
y2 ' y ' y2 y , z 2 ' z 2 0
262
Velocity of test charge according to S’
vx V ux V
vx ' 2
2
, v y ' vz ' 0
1 vxV / c 1 u xV / c
kq 1 q 2 y kq 1 q 2 y
Fy '
2
( x2 ' y ) 2 3/2
( 2 ( x 2 x1 ) 2 y 2 ) 3 / 2
kq 1 q 2 (0 )
Fz ' 2 2 3/2
0
( x2 ' y )
At time t’=0
Fx ' 0, Fz ' 0,
kq 1 q 2 y kq 1 q 2 y kq 1 q 2
Fy '
( ( x 2 x1 ) y )
2 2 2 3/2 2 3/2
(y ) y2
264
Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S is
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx '(1 (V / c 2 )v x ')
2
Fx 2
2
Fx '
1 Vvx '/ c 1 Vv x '/ c
Fy '
Fy Fy ' (1 Vu x / c 2 ),
(1 Vvx '/ c 2 )
Fz '
Fz Fz ' (1 Vu x / c 2
).
(1 Vvx '/ c )
2
Vvx ' V ux V
1 1
c2 c 2 1 u xV / c 2
c 2 (1 u xV / c 2 ) Vu x V 2 1
c 2 (1 u xV / c 2 ) 2 (1 u xV / c 2 ) 265
The force at time t according to S
kq 1 q 2 ( x 2 x1 )
Fx Fx ' ,
( ( x 2 x1 ) y )
2 2 2 3/2
kq q y (1 V u / c 2
)
F y F y '(1 V u x / c )
2 1 2 x
( 2 ( x 2 x1 ) 2 y 2 ) 3 / 2
F z F z '(1 V u x / c 2 ) 0
The force at time t=0 according to S
F x 0,
kq 1 q 2 y (1 V u x / c 2 ) kq 1 q 2 (1 V u x / c 2 )
Fy
( ( x 2 x1 ) y )
2 2 2 3/2
y2
F z F z '(1 V u x / c 2 ) 0
266
Case 3: Relative to S
Source charge q1 and test charge q2 be moving with
constant velocity (V,0,0) and (0,uy,0) respectively.
Position of the source charge is at (x1,0,0), x1(0)=0.
Position of test charge q2 is at (0,y2=y,0)
267
Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (0,uy,0) (0,y2,0) At any time
x1(0)=0
y2=y(t)=uyt+y0.
uy y‘=uy’ t’+y0.
(x2’,y’,0)
q2 (0,y,0) q2
V (0,0,0)
q1 q1
(x,0,0)
Frame S Frame S’
268
Lorentz transformation
ct ' (ct x ),
x ' ( x ct ),
Source charge q1
ct1 ' (ct1 x1 ) ct ' (ct x1 )
x1 ' ( x1 ct1 ) 0 ( x1 ct )
y1 ' y1 0, z1 ' z1 0
Test charge q2
ct2 ' (ct2 x2 ) ct ' (ct x2 ) ct
x2 ' ( x2 ct2 ) x2 ' (0 ct ) x1
y2 ' y ', z2 ' z2 0
269
Velocity of test charge according to S’
vx V ux V
u x ' vx ' 2
2
V ,
1 vxV / c 1 u xV / c
v y / (V ) u y / (V ) uy
u y ' vy ' ,
1 vxV / c 2
1 u xV / c 2
(V )
u z ' vz ' 0.
Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)
x2'x1' x1
distance= 2x12 y2
y2'y1' y2' y' uy 't'y0 (uy /)ty0 y
z2'z1' 0
270
Coulomb force acting on test charge according to S’
at time t’
kq 1 q 2 x1
Fx ' ,
( x1 y )
2 2 2 3/2
kq 1 q 2 y
Fy '
( 2 x1 2 y 2 ) 3 / 2
Fz ' 0
F x ' 0, F z ' 0,
kq 1 q 2 y kq 1 q 2
Fy ' 2 3/2
(y ) y2
271
Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S at time t is
2 2
2
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx '(1 (V / c ) v x ') (V / c ) Fy ' v y '
Fx 2
1 Vvx '/ c 1 Vv x '/ c 2
(V / c 2 ) Fy ' v y ' (V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y /
Fx ' 2
Fx '
1 Vvx '/ c (1 Vv x '/ c 2 )
(V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y /
Fx ' Fx ' (V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y
(1 V 2 / c 2 )
kq1q2 x1 kq1q2 y Vu y
2 2 2 2
( x1 y )
2 3/ 2
( x1 y 2 )3/ 2 c 2
272
Fy ' Fy ' kq1q2 y
Fy 2 2 ,
(1 Vvx '/ c ) (1 V / c ) ( x1 y )
2 2 2 2 3/ 2
Fz '
Fz Fz ' 0.
(1 Vvx '/ c )
2
kq1q2 Vu y
Fx
y2 c2
kq1q2
Fy 2
,
y
Fz 0.
273
Case 4: Relative to S
Source charge q1 and test charge q2 be moving with
constant velocity (V,0,0) and (0,uy,0) respectively.
Position of the source charge is at (x1,0,0), x1(0)=0.
Position of test charge q2 is at (x2,y2=y,0)
274
Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (0,uy,0) (x2,y,0) At any time
uy
(x2’,y’,0)
q2 (x2,y,0) q2
V (0,0,0)
q1 q1
(x,0,0)
Frame S Frame S’
275
Lorentz transformation
ct ' (ct x ),
x ' ( x ct ),
Source charge q1
ct1 ' (ct1 x1 )
x1 ' ( x1 ct1 ) 0 ( x1 ct )
y1 ' y1 0, z1 ' z1 0
Test charge q2
ct2 ' (ct2 x2 )
x2 ' ( x2 ct2 ) x2 ' ( x2 ct ) ( x2 x1 )
y2 ' y ', z2 ' z2 0
276
Velocity of test charge according to S’ (equal to
the previous case)
uy
u x ' V , uy ' , u z ' 0.
(V )
Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)
277
Coulomb force acting on test charge according to S’
at time t’
kq 1 q 2 ( x 2 x1 )
Fx ' ,
( ( x 2 x1 ) y ' )
2 2 2 3/2
kq 1 q 2 y '
Fy '
( 2 ( x 2 x1 ) 2 y ' 2 ) 3 / 2
Fz ' 0
kq 1 q 2 x 2
Fx ' ,
( x 2 y 0 )
2 2 2 3/2
kq 1 q 2 y 0
Fy ' , Fz ' 0
( x 2 y 0 )
2 2 2 3/2
278
Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S at time t is
2 2
2
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx '(1 (V / c ) v x ') (V / c ) Fy ' v y '
Fx 2
1 Vvx '/ c 1 Vv x '/ c 2
(V / c 2 ) Fy ' v y ' (V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y /
Fx ' 2
Fx '
1 Vvx '/ c (1 Vv x '/ c 2 )
(V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y /
Fx ' Fx ' (V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y
(1 V 2 / c 2 )
kq1q2 ( x2 x1 ) kq1q2 y ' Vu y
2 2
( ( x2 x1 ) y ' )
2 2 3/ 2
( ( x2 x1 ) 2 y '2 )3/ 2 c 2
279
Fy ' Fy '
Fy
(1 Vvx '/ c ) 2
(1 V 2 / c 2 )
kq1q2 y '
Fy ' ,
( ( x2 x1 ) y ' )
2 2 2 3/ 2
Fz '
Fz Fz ' 0.
(1 Vvx '/ c )
2
280
Magnetic forces a moving charge (in frame S)
282
Stationary Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0
kq 1 q 2 (1 V u x / c 2 )
Fy
y2
283
Difference between forces acting on moving
and stationary test charges at time t=0
kq 1 q 2 (1 V u x / c 2 ) kq 1 q 2 ˆ V u x kq 1 q 2 ˆ
F ˆ
j j 2 j
2 2 2
y y c y
284
Stationary Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0
kq1q2 Vu y kq q kq q kq q Vu y
F 2 2
iˆ 1
2
2 ˆj 1
2
2 ˆj 1
2
2
2
iˆ
y c y y y c
286
Stationary Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0
kq1q2 y
Fy
( 2 x2 2 y 2 )3/ 2
288
Summary: Magnetic force on moving test charge
due to a source charge at time t=0
289
Moving Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0
kq 1 q 2 (1 V u x / c 2 ) ˆ kq 1 q 2 ˆ V u x kq 1 q 2 ˆ
2
j 2
j 2 2
j
y y c y
290
Moving Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0
291
Moving Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0
292
Magnetic field produced by moving point
source charge
Case 2 V u x kq 1 q 2 ˆ
M ag n etic fo rce F m a g 2 2
j
c y
ux
Test charge q2 q 2 u x iˆ B
V
Source charge q1
V kq 1 ˆ
M ag n etic field B 2 2
k
c y
kq1 V
Magnetic field B ˆ
k
y2 c2
q2u y ˆj B
kq1 y V ˆ
Magnetic field B k
( x2 y ) c
2 2 2 3/2 2
V kq 1 ˆ kq1 V
ˆ
kq1 y V ˆ
B 2 k B k B k
c y 2
y2 c2 ( x2 y ) c
2 2 2 3/2 2
1 1 1
ˆ
B 2 Vi ˆ
B 2 Vi ˆ
B 2 Vi
c c c
kq 1 ˆ kq1 ˆ kq1 y
2 j 2 j 2 2 ˆ
i
y y ( x2 y )2 3/2
kq1 y ˆj
Electric field due to source charge ( 2 x2 2 y 2 )3/2
296
Direction of velocity of source charge V iˆ
ˆj
Direction of electric field
V B V
297
From previous results
FLorentz = q2 + q2u B
298
Magnetic field produced by line of point
charges moving with velocity V
case 2
Stationary Stationary t
test charge q2 est charge q2
V
299
Coulomb force at time t acting on stationary charge q2 on
(0,y,0) due to moving charge q1 along x axis with velocity V
(obtained from case 2 with ux=0) is
kq 1 q 2 ( x 2 x1 ) kq 1 q 2 x1
Fx ,
( ( x 2 x1 ) y )
2 2 2 3/2
( x1 y )
2 2 2 3/2
kq 1 q 2 y (1 V u x / c 2 ) kq 1 q 2 y
Fy
( ( x 2 x1 ) y )
2 2 2 3/2
( 2 x1 2 y 2 ) 3 / 2
Fz 0
As q2 is stationary, no magnetic force acts on charge q2 and
accordingly the electric field at the point (0,y,0) due to charge
q1 is just obtained by dividing the above force with q2:
kq 1 x1 kq 1 y
x 2 2 , y , Fz 0
( x1 y ) 2 3/2
( x1 y )
2 2 2 3/2
300
Learning from previous
result, we conclude that the Stationary t
electric field at the position of est charge q2 dq
q2, that is at point (0,y,0) due
to charge element dq located
in the vicinity of point x1 on Line of moving charges V
the x axis is given by
kd q x1 kd q y
d x , d y , d z 0
( x1 y )
2 2 2 3/2
( x1 y )
2 2 2 3/2
k x1 d x1 k y d x1
d x , d y , d z 0
( x1 y )
2 2 2 3/2
( x1 y )
2 2 2 3/2
301
The electric field due to all
moving charges is then Stationary t
obtained by integrating d est charge q2 dq
with respect to x1 from - to
+
Line of moving charges V
k x1 d x1 k d ( 2 x1 2 y 2 )
x
( x1 y )
2 2 2 3/2
x1
2 ( x1 y )
2 2 2 3/2
0
k yd x1 k d x1
y
( x1 y )
2 2 2 3/2
y 2 ( 2 x1 2 / y 2 1) 3 / 2
z 0
302
Write
x1 d
tan d x1 y ,
y co s
2
2 x1 2 1
1 tan 1
2
y 2
co s 2
/ 2 / 2
/2
k co s d 2k
y
/2
y
y
303
/2
k co s d 2k
x z 0, y
/2
y
y
1
ˆ
B 2 Vi
c
304
VII. Introduction to Einstein’s
General Relativity
305
Newtonian Mechanics
•Newtonian mekanika only valid in
inertial frames
(Newton’s law is invariant under Electromagnetism
Galileo’s transformation) Speed of e.m. wave is c in vacuum
•Newton’s law is not valid in non-
inertial frames
•Time is absolute in inertial frames
Einstein’s gravitation
General Relativity Theory
307
General Relativity
– Einstein assumes that, because its dependence on
masses, inertial force is also a gravitation force, like Newton
gravitational force.
– Einstein modfies the law of gravitation theory of
General relativity
– Gravitational force, according to Einstein, besides its
dependence on position, it also depends on the velocity
other objects, relative to a reference frame.
– Inertial forces represent movement of other objects,
relative to our reference frame
– Gravitational force (that includes inertial force) defines
space-time geometry
–Space-time geometry describes gravitational force
308
– Space-time around massive objects curves. More
massive more curved.
– Space-time in special relativity (Minkowski relativity) is a
flat space-time
–Equation of motions in a uniformly accelerated coordinate
system are identical to that under the constant gravitational
acceleration g (with g is equal to negative of the
acceleration of the coordinate system).
309
Einstein generalized this fact to all physical laws
in his equivalence principle:
310
– Gravitational acceleration around massive object (e.g.
Earth) is not uniform, but depends on distance and direction
w.r.t the object. A gravitation cannot be replace by an
accelerated coordinate system. Thus for non-uniform
gravitational field the equivalence principle is:
In a small free-fall laboratory, the physical
laws are the same with that in special
relativity without gravitational field.
311
Some consequences of GR
312
Einstein Field Equations
Newton’s gravitational force acting on a point mass m at r
due to a point mass M at origin O:
mM
F G 2 rˆ
r
Gravitational field potential at r due to a point mass M at origin O:
M
G
r
Gravitational field potential at r due to a distribution of masses
fulfils:
2 4 G
: mass density
* 313
Gravitational field at any point in space is given by the
solution of (*)
Principle of energy-mass equivalence leads is equivalent
to energy density
Energy (p0) depends on the chosen frame
(*) changes with frames
(*) does not in accordance to the Einstein postulate
(invariance law)
(*) should be modified
314