RF 100

A
A Technical
Technical Introduction
Introduction
to
to Wireless
Wireless and
and CDMA
CDMA
July, 2008 Introduction to Wireless & CDMA -- RF100 v3.0 - (c) 2008 Scott Baxter RF100 - 1
How Did We Get Here?
Days before radio.....

• 1680 Newton first suggested
concept of spectrum, but for
visible light only
• 1831 Faraday demonstrated that
N S light, electricity, and magnetism
U are related
• 1864 Maxwell’s Equations:
LF HF VHF UHF MW IR UV XRAY spectrum includes more than light
• 1890’s First successful demos of
radio transmission
Telegraphy
Q Samuel F.B. Morse had the idea of the telegraph on a
sea cruise in the 1833. He studied physics for two years,
and In 1835 demonstrated a working prototype, which he
patented in 1837.
Q Derivatives of Morse’ binary code are still in use today
Q The US Congress funded a demonstration line from
Washington to Baltimore, completed in 1844.
Q 1844: the first commercial telegraph circuits were coming
into use. The railroads soon were using them for train
dispatching, and the Western Union company resold idle
time on railroad circuits for public telegrams, nationwide Samuel F. B. Morse
at the peak of his career
Q 1857: first trans-Atlantic submarine cable was installed
Submarine Cable Installation Field Telegraphy

news sketch from the 1850’s during the US Civil War, 1860’s
Telephony
Q By the 1870’s, the telegraph was in use all over the world and largely taken for
granted by the public, government, and business.
Q In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented his telephone, a device for carrying
actual voices over wires.
Q Initial telephone demonstrations sparked intense public interest and by the late
1890’s, telephone service was available in most towns and cities across the USA
Alexander Graham Bell and his phone

from 1876 demonstration Telephone Line Installation Crew
1880’s
Radio Milestones
Q 1888: Heinrich Hertz, German physicist, gives lab demo of
existance of electromagnetic waves at radio frequencies
Q 1895: Guglielmo Marconi demonstrates a wireless radio
telegraph over a 3-km path near his home it Italy
Q 1897: the British fund Marconi’s development of reliable
radio telegraphy over ranges of 100 kM
Q 1902: Marconi’s successful trans-Atlantic demonstration
Q 1902: Nathan Stubblefield demonstrates voice over radio
Guglielmo Marconi
Q 1906: Lee De Forest invents “audion”, triode vacuum tube radio pioneer, 1895
• feasible now to make steady carriers, and to amplify signals
Q 1914: Radio became valuable military tool in World War I
Q 1920s: Radio used for commercial broadcasting
Q 1940s: first application of RADAR - English detection of
incoming German planes during WW II
MTS, Q 1950s: first public marriage of radio and telephony - MTS,
IMTS
Mobile Telephone System
Q 1961: transistor developed: portable radio now practical
Q 1961: IMTS - Improved Mobile Telephone Service Lee De Forest
Q 1970s: Integrated circuit progress: MSI, LSI, VLSI, ASICs vacuum tube inventor
Q 1979, 1983: AMPS cellular demo, commercial deployment
Frequencies Used by Wireless Systems
Overview of the Radio Spectrum
AM LORAN Marine
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.0 MHz
3,000,000 i.e., 3x106 Hz
Short Wave -- International Broadcast -- Amateur CB

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 MHz
7
30,000,000 i.e., 3x10 Hz
VHF LOW Band VHF TV 2-6 FM VHF VHF TV 7-13

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 300 MHz
300,000,000 i.e., 3x108 Hz
Cellular DCS, PCS
UHF UHF TV 14-69 GPS
0.3 0.4 0.5 0/6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.0 GHz
3,000,000,000 i.e., 3x109 Hz
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 GHz
10
30,000,000,000 i.e., 3x10 Hz
Broadcasting Land-Mobile Aeronautical Mobile Telephony
Terrestrial Microwave Satellite
Development of North American Cellular
Q In the late 1970’s, the FCC (USA Federal Communications Commission)
and the Canadian government allocated 40 MHz. of spectrum in the 800
MHz. range for public mobile telephony.
Q FCC adopted Bell Lab’s AMPS (Advanced
Mobile Phone System) standard,
creating cellular as we know it today 333 MSAs
• The USA was divided into 333 MSAs
(Metropolitan Service Areas) and over
300+ RSAs
300 RSAs (Rural Service Areas)
Q By 1990, all MSAs and RSAs had competing licenses granted and at least
one system operating. Canadian markets also developed.
Q In 1987, the FCC allocated 10 mHz. of expanded spectrum
Q In the 1990’s, additional technologies were developed for cellular
• TDMA (IS-54,55,56, IS-136) (also, GSM in Europe/worldwide)
• CDMA (IS-95)
Q US Operators did not pay for their spectrum, although processing fees
(typically $10,000’s) were charged to cover license administrative cost
North American Cellular Spectrum
Uplink Frequencies Downlink Frequencies
(“Reverse Path”) (“Forward Path”)
824 835 845 849

Frequency, MHz 870 880 890 894
A B Paging, ESMR, etc. A B

825 846.5 869 891.5
Frequencies used by “A” Cellular Operator

Ownership and Initial ownership by Non-Wireline companies
Licensing Frequencies used by “B” Cellular Operator
Initial ownership by Wireline companies
Q In each MSA and RSA, eligibility for ownership was restricted

• “A” licenses awarded to non-telephone-company applicants only
• “B” licenses awareded to existing telephone companies only
• subsequent sales are unrestricted after system in actual operation
Development of North America PCS
Q By 1994, US cellular systems were seriously
overloaded and looking for capacity relief
• The FCC allocated 120 MHz. of spectrum
around 1900 MHz. for new wireless telephony 51 MTAs
493 BTAs
known as PCS (Personal Communications
Systems), and 20 MHz. for unlicensed services
• allocation was divided into 6 blocks; 10-year
licenses were auctioned to highest bidders
Q PCS Licensing and Auction Details
• A & B spectrum blocks licensed in 51 MTAs (Major Trading Areas )
• Revenue from auction: $7.2 billion (1995)
• C, D, E, F blocks were licensed in 493 BTAs (Basic Trading Areas)
• C-block auction revenue: $10.2 B, D-E-F block auction: $2+ B (1996)
• Auction winners are free to choose any desired technology
PCS SPECTRUM ALLOCATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA

unlic. unlic.
A D B E F C data voice A D B E F C
15 5 15 5 5 15 15 5 15 5 5 15
1850 1910 1930 1990
MHz. MHz. MHz. MHz.
Global and US Wireless Subscribers 1Q 2008
Global USA
Total 3,051,659,279 252,018,131
GSM 2,571,563,279 84.3% 102,200,000 40.6%
CDMA 451,400,000 14.8% 132,243,131 52.5%
IDEN 28,696,000 0.9% 17,575,000 7.0%
Q Total Worldwide Wireless customers surpassed total worldwide landline

customers at year-end 2002, with 1,00,080,000 of each.
Q 4/5 of worldwide wireless customers use the GSM technology
Q CDMA is second-most-prevalent with 14.8%
Q In the US, CDMA is the most prevalent technology at 52.5% penetration
Q Both CDMA and GSM are growing in the US
• IS-136 TDMA systems were converted to GSM + GPRS + EDGE
Chapter 2
Wireless
Wireless Systems:
Systems:
Modulation
Modulation and
and Signal
Signal Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Q axis b
fc
a
Lower Upper
1 0 1 0
Sideband Sideband φ
c I axis
fc QPSK
1 0 1 0 Q axis
r
b
a
fc
φ
c I axis
1 0 1 0 p v
π/4 shifted DQPSK
fc
Characteristics of a Radio Signal
SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
Q The purpose of telecommunications is to
The complete, time- Natural Frequency
varying radio signal of the signal
send information from one place to another
Q Our civilization exploits the transmissible
nature of radio signals, using them in a
S (t) = A cos [ ωc t + ϕ ] sense as our “carrier pigeons”
Q To convey information, some characteristic
Amplitude (strength)
Phase of the signal of the radio signal must be altered (I.e.,
of the signal
‘modulated’) to represent the information
Q The sender and receiver must have a
Compare these Signals: consistent understanding of what the
variations mean to each other
Different Q RF signal characteristics which can be
Amplitudes varied for information transmission:
• Amplitude
Different • Frequency
Frequencies • Phase
Different
Phases
Modulation and Occupied Bandwidth
Time-Domain Frequency-Domain
(as viewed on an (as viewed on a Q The bandwidth occupied by a signal
Oscilloscope) Spectrum Analyzer) depends on:
Voltage Voltage • input information bandwidth
• modulation method
Q Information to be transmitted, called
“input” or “baseband”
Time 0 Frequency • bandwidth usually is small, much
lower than frequency of carrier
Q Unmodulated carrier
• the carrier itself has Zero bandwidth!!
fc Q AM-modulated carrier
Lower Upper
Sideband Sideband • Notice the upper & lower sidebands
• total bandwidth = 2 x baseband
fc Q FM-modulated carrier
• Many sidebands! bandwidth is a
complex mathematical function
fc Q PM-modulated carrier
• Many sidebands! bandwidth is a
complex mathematical function
fc
The Emergence of AM: A bit of History
Q The early radio pioneers first used binary transmission, turning their
crude transmitters on and off to form the dots and dashes of Morse
code. The first successful demonstrations of radio occurred during
the mid-1890’s by experimenters in Italy, England, Kentucky, and
elsewhere.
Q Amplitude modulation was the first method used to transmit voice
over radio. The early experimenters couldn’t foresee other methods
(FM, etc.), or today’s advanced digital devices and techniques.
Q Commercial AM broadcasting to the public began in the early
1920’s.
Q Despite its disadvantages and antiquity, AM is still alive:
• AM broadcasting continues today in 540-1600 KHz.
• AM modulation remains the international civil aviation standard,
used by all commercial aircraft (108-132 MHz. band).
• AM modulation is used for the visual portion of commercial
television signals (sound portion carried by FM modulation)
• Citizens Band (“CB”) radios use AM modulation
SSB
• Special variations of AM featuring single or independent
sidebands, with carrier suppressed or attenuated, are used for
marine, commercial, military, and amateur communications
LSB USB
Frequency Modulation (“FM”)
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW Q Frequency Modulation (FM) is a type of
angle modulation
• in FM, the instantaneous frequency
of the signal is varied by the
modulating waveform
Q Advantages of FM
t • the amplitude is constant
[
sFM(t) =A cos ωc t + mω m(x)dx+ϕ0 ] – simple saturated amplifiers can
t0
be used
where: – the signal is relatively immune
A = signal amplitude (constant) to external noise
ωc = radian carrier frequency
– the signal is relatively robust;
mω = frequency deviation index required C/I values are typically
m(x) = modulating signal 17-18 dB. in wireless
ϕ0 = initial phase applications
Q Disadvantages of FM
FREQUENCY-DOMAIN VIEW • relatively complex detectors are
LOWER UPPER required
Voltage
SIDEBANDS SIDEBANDS • a large number of sidebands are

SFM(t)
produced, requiring even larger
bandwidth than AM
0 Frequency fc
The Digital Advantage
Q The modulating signals shown in previous

transmission
slides were all analog. It is also possible to
quantize modulating signals, restricting them
to discrete values, and use such signals to
perform digital modulation. Digital
demodulation-remodulation modulation has several advantages over
analog modulation:
Q Digital signals can be more easily
transmission regenerated than analog
• in analog systems, the effects of noise
and distortion are cumulative: each
demodulation-remodulation
demodulation and remodulation
introduces new noise and distortion,
added to the noise and distortion from
previous demodulations/remodulations.
transmission
• in digital systems, each demodulation
and remodulation produces a clean
output signal free of past noise and
demodulation-remodulation distortion
Q Digital bit streams are ideally suited to many
flexible multiplexing schemes
Theory of Digital Modulation: Sampling
m(t) Q Voice and other analog signals first must
be sampled (converted to digital form) for
digital modulation and transmission
Sampling Q The sampling theorem gives the criteria
p(t) necessary for successful sampling,
digital modulation, and demodulation
• The analog signal must be band-
limited (low-pass filtered) to contain
m(t) no frequencies higher than fM
Recovery • Sampling must occur at least twice
as fast as fM in the analog signal.
This is called the Nyquist Rate
Q Required Bandwidth for p(t)
The Sampling Theorem: Two Parts • If each sample p(t) is expressed as
•If the signal contains no frequency higher an n-bit binary number, the
than fM Hz., it is comletely described by bandwidth required to convey p(t) as
specifying its samples taken at instants of a digital signal is at least N*2* fM
time spaced 1/2 fM s. • this follows Shannon’s Theorem: at
•The signal can be completely recovered least one Hertz of bandwidth is
from its samples taken at the rate of 2 fM required to convey one bit per
samples per second or higher. second of data
Sampling Example: the 64 kb/s DS-0
Band-Limiting Q Telephony has adopted a world-wide PCM
standard digital signal employing a 64 kb/s
C-Message Weighting stream derived from sampled voice data
0 dB
Q Voice waveforms are band-limited
-10dB
-20dB
• upper cutoff between 3500-4000 Hz. to
avoid aliasing
-30dB
• rolloff below 300 Hz. to minimize
-40dB
100 300 1000 3000 10000 vulnerability to “hum” from AC power mains
Frequency, Hz
Q Voice waveforms sampled at 8000/second rate
• 8000 samples x 1 byte = 64,000 bits/second
16 16 Companding • A>D conversion is non-linear, one byte per
15 15
14
sample, thus 256 quantized levels are
µ-Law
13
ln(1+ μ| x|)
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
8 8 t y = sgn(x) possible
ln(1 + μ)
5
4 4 4
3 3
3
2 • Levels are defined logarithmically rather
1 1 (whereμ = 255)
0
than linearly to accommodate a wider range
of audio levels with minimum distortion
A-LAW A|x|
y = sgn(x) for 0 ≤ x ≤
1
– μ-law companding (popular in North
ln(1+ A) A
America & Japan)
ln(1+ A|x)| 1
y = sgn(x) for < x ≤1 – A-law companding (used in most other
ln(1+ A) A
(where A = 87. 6) countries)
Q A>D and D>A functions are performed in a
x = analog audio voltage CODEC (coder-decoder) (see following figure)
y = quantized level (digital)
Digital
Digital Modulation
Modulation
Modulation by Digital Inputs
Our previous modulation examples used continuously-variable
analog inputs. If we quantize the inputs, restricting them to
digital values, we will produce digital modulation.
Q For example, modulate a signal with this
Voltage digital waveform. No more continuous
analog variations, now we’re “shifting”
1
Time
0 1 0 between discrete levels. We call this “shift
keying”.
• The user gets to decide what levels
mean “0” and “1” -- there are no
inherent values
Q Steady Carrier without modulation
1 0 1 0 Q Amplitude Shift Keying
ASK applications: digital microwave
Q Frequency Shift Keying
1 0 1 0 FSK applications: control messages in

AMPS cellular; TDMA cellular
Q Phase Shift Keying
PSK applications: TDMA cellular,
1 0 1 0 GSM & PCS-1900
Claude Shannon:
The “Einstein” of Information Theory and Signal Science
Q The core idea that makes CDMA

possible was first explained by
Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs
research mathematician
Q Shannon's work relates amount
of information carried, channel
bandwidth, signal-to-noise-ratio,
and detection error probability
• It shows the theoretical
upper limit attainable
In 1948 Claude Shannon published his landmark paper on information theory,

A Mathematical Theory of Communication. He observed that "the
fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point
either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point." His
paper so clearly established the foundations of information theory that his
framework and terminology are standard today.
Shannon died Feb. 24, 2001, at age 84.
Modulation Techniques of 1xEV Technologies
Q 1xEV, “1x Evolution”, is a family of alternative QPSK

fast-data schemes that can be implemented on a CDMA IS-95,
1x CDMA carrier. IS-2000 1xRTT,
and lower rates
Q 1xEV DO means “1x Evolution, Data Only”, of 1xEV-DO, DV
originally proposed by Qualcomm as “High Data
Rates” (HDR).
• Up to 2.4576 Mbps forward, 153.6 kbps
reverse
• A 1xEV DO carrier holds only packet data,
and does not support circuit-switched voice 16QAM
1xEV-DO
• Commercially available in 2003 at highest
Q 1xEV DV means “1x Evolution, Data and Voice”. rates
• Max throughput of 5 Mbps forward, 307.2k
reverse
• Backward compatible with IS-95/1xRTT
voice calls on the same carrier as the data
• Not yet commercially available; work
continues 64QAM
1xEV-DV
Q All versions of 1xEV use advanced modulation at highest
techniques to achieve high throughputs. rates
Digital Modulation Systems
Modulation Shannon Limit,
Q Each symbol of a digitally Scheme BitsHz
modulated RF signal conveys BPSK 1 b/s/hz
a number of bits of information QPSK 2 b/s/hz
• determined by the number 8PSK 3 b/s/hz
of degrees of modulation 16 QAM 4 b/s/hz
freedom
32 QAM 5 b/s/hz
Q More complex modulation 64 QAM 6 b/s/hz
schemes can carry more bits
per symbol in a given 256 QAM 8 b/s/hz
bandwidth, but require better
signal-to-noise ratios SHANNON’S
Q The actual number of bits per CAPACITY EQUATION
second which can be S
conveyed in a given bandwidth C = Bω log2 [ 1+ ]
N
under given signal-to-noise
Bω = bandwidth in Hertz
conditions is described by
C = channel capacity in bits/second
Shannon’s equations
S = signal power
N = noise power
Digital Modulation Schemes
Q There are many different schemes for digital modulation, each a
compromise between complexity, immunity to errors in transmission,
required channel bandwidth, and possible requirement for linear amplifiers
Q Linear Modulation Techniques
• BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying
• DPSK Differential Phase Shift Keying
• QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying IS-95 CDMA forward link
– Offset QPSK IS-95 CDMA reverse link
– Pi/4 DQPSK IS-54, IS-136 control and traffic channels
Q Constant Envelope Modulation Schemes
• BFSK Binary Frequency Shift Keying AMPS control channels
• MSK Minimum Shift Keying
• GMSK Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying GSM systems, CDPD
Q Hybrid Combinations of Linear and Constant Envelope Modulation
• MPSK M-ary Phase Shift Keying
• QAM M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• MFSK M-ary Frequency Shift Keying FLEX paging protocol
Q Spread Spectrum Multiple Access Techniques
• DSSS Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum IS-95 CDMA
• FHSS Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum
Error Vulnerabilities of
Higher-Order Modulation Schemes
Q Normal 64QAM Q Distortion
Q Higher-Order Modulation (Gain Compression)
Schemes (16PSK, 32QAM,
64QAM...) are more
vulnerable to transmission
errors than the simpler, more
rugged schemes (BPSK, I I
QPSK)
• Closely-packed
constellations leave little
room for vector error
Q Non-linearities (gain
compression, clipping, Q Noise Q Interference
reflections within antenna
system) “warp” the
constellation
Q Noise and long-delayed
echoes cause “scatter” I I
around constellation points
Q Interference blurs
constellation points into
“rings” of error
Error Vector Magnitude and ρ (“Rho”)
Q A common measurement of
overall error is Error Vector
Magnitude “EVM”
• usually a small fraction of
total vector amplitude, ~0.1
Q EVM is usually averaged over
a large number of symbols
• Root-mean-square (RMS)
Q Commercial test equipment
for BTS maintenance
measures EVM
Q Signal quality is often
expressed as 1-EVM
• normally called ρ (“Rho”)
• typically 0.89-0.96
Modulation used in IS-95 CDMA Systems
Mobiles: OQPSK
Q CDMA mobiles use offset Q Axis
QPSK modulation Short
PN I cos ωt
• the Q-sequence is
delayed half a chip, so User’s
Σ
that I and Q never chips
I Axis
change simultaneously
and the mobile TX never Short 1/2
PN Q chip sin ωt
passes through (0,0)
Q CDMA base stations use
QPSK modulation Base Stations: QPSK
Q Axis
• every signal (voice, pilot, Short
PN I cos ωt
sync, paging) has its own
amplitude, so the
transmitter is unavoidably User’s
Σ
going through (0,0) chips
I Axis
sometimes; no reason to
include 1/2 chip delay Short
PN Q sin ωt
CDMA Base Station Modulation Views
Q The view at top right shows the

actual measured QPSK phase
constellation of a CDMA base
station in normal service
Q The view at bottom right shows
the measured power in the code
domain for each walsh code on a
CDMA BTS in actual service
• Notice that not all walsh codes
are active
• Pilot, Sync, Paging, and
certain traffic channels are in
use
Chapter 3
Wireless
Wireless Systems:
Systems:
Multiple
Multiple Access
Access Technologies
Technologies &
& Standards
Standards
Multiple Access Methods
FDMA FDMA: AMPS & NAMPS

•Each user occupies a private Frequency,
Power protected from interference through physical
y
nc separation from other users on the same
q ue
T im e
e Fr frequency
TDMA: IS-136, GSM
TDMA •Each user occupies a specific frequency but
only during an assigned time slot. The
Power frequency is used by other users during
nc
y other time slots.
e
Ti m qu
F re
e
CDMA
CDMA •Each user occupies a signal on a particular
frequency simultaneously with many other
DE
CO
users, but is uniquely distinguishable by
Power
correlation with a special code used only by
y
nc this user
Tim ue
e F req
A Quick Survey of Wireless Data Technologies
US CDMA ETSI/GSM MISC/NEW
FOURTH
Flarion OFDM
GENERATION WiMAX LTE 1500 – 900 kb/s
12000 – 6000 kb/s 12000 – 6000 kb/s
WCDMA HSDPA
12000 – 6000 kb/s
1xEV-DV
THIRD 5000 - 1200 DL
307 - 153 UL WCDMA 1
GENERATION 1xEV-DO A
2000 - 800 kb/s
3100 – 800 DL WCDMA 0

1800 – 600 UL
384 – 250 kb/s
1xRTT RC4 EDGE TD-SCDMA

307.2 – 144 kb/s 200 - 90 kb/s DL In Development
“2.5G” 45 kb/s UL
IDEN
1xRTT RC3 GPRS
153.6 – 90 kb/s 40 – 30 kb/s DL CELLULAR 19.2 – 19.2 kb/s
15 kb/s UL
IS-95B IS-136 TDMA
GSM HSCSD
SECOND 64 -32 kb/s
32 – 19.2 kb/s
19.2 – 9.6 kb/s
GENERATION IS-95 GSM CSD

CDPD
19.2 – 4.8 kb/s
Mobitex
9.6 – 4.8 kb/s
14.4 – 9.6 kb/s 9.6 – 4.8 kb/s discontinued obsolete
Q This summary is a work-in-progress, tracking latest experiences and reports from all the
high-tier (provider-network-oriented) 2G, 3G and 4G wireless data technologies
Q Have actual experiences to share, latest announced details, or corrections to the above?
Email to Scott@ScottBaxter.com. Thanks for your comments!
The CDMA2000 Family of Technologies
CDMAone CDMA2000 / IS-2000
Generation 1G 2G 2G 2.5G? 3G 3G 3G
IS-95A/ IS-2000: IS-2000: 1xEV-DO 1xEV-DO 1xEV-DV
Technology AMPS IS-95B Rev. 0 Rev. A
J-Std008 1xRTT 3xRTT IS-856 IS-856 1xTreme
Spectrum RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL
Signal 1250 kHz. F: 3x 1250k 1250 kHz. 1250 kHz. 1250 kHz.
30 kHz. 1250 kHz. 1250 kHz. R: 3687k
Bandwidth, 50-80 voice 120-210 per 59 active 123 active Many packet
1 20-35 25-40 users users users
#Users and data 3 carriers
None, 153K 2.4 Mb/s 3.1 Mb/s
Data DL
Capabilities 2.4K by 14.4K 64K 307K 1.0 Mb/s 153DL
Kb/s 1.8 Mb/s 5 Mb/s
modem 230K UL UL
Higher High data

First Faster High data
Features: First •Improve •Enhanced data rates rates on
System, data rates rates on
Incremental CDMA, d Access Access on data- Data-Voice
Capacity on shared data-only
Capacity, •Smarter •Channel only shared
Progress & 3-carrier CDMA
Quality Handoffs Structure CDMA CDMA
Handoffs bundle carrier
carrier carrier
The GSM/ETSI Family of Technologies
Generation 1G 2G 2.5G or 3? 3G 3G
UMTS
various
Technology GSM GPRS EDGE UTRA
analog
WCDMA
Signal 200 kHz. 200 kHz. 3.84 MHz.
200 kHz. up to 200+
Bandwidth, various Many fast data voice users
7.5 avg.
#Users Pkt. users many users and data
9-160 Kb/s
Data 384 Kb/s 2Mb/s
various none (conditions mobile user
Capabilities static user
determine)
•Packet IP Integrated
8PSK for voice/data
Features: Europe’s access
3x Faster (Future rates
Incremental various first Digital •Multiple
data rates to 12 MBPS
Progress wireless attached
than GPRS using adv.
users modulation?)
The American TDMA Migration Path to 3G
the familiar GSM path!
Generation 1G 2G 2G 2G 2.5G or 3? 3G 3G
TDMA UMTS
Technology AMPS CDPD IS-54 GSM GPRS EDGE UTRA
IS-136 WCDMA
Signal 30 kHz. 200 kHz. 200 kHz. 3.84 MHz.
30 kHz. 30 kHz. 200 kHz. up to 200+
Bandwidth, Many Many fast data voice users
1 3 users 7.5 avg.
#Users Pkt Usrs Pkt. users many users and data
None, 9-160 Kb/s
Data 19.2 384 Kb/s 2Mb/s
2.4K by none none (conditions mobile user
Capabilities kbps static user
modem determine)
First •Packet IP Integrated

US USA’s Europe’s 8PSK for voice/data
Features: System, access
Packet first first 3x Faster (Future rates
Incremental Capacity •Multiple
Data Digital Digital data rates to 12 MBPS
Progress & attached
Svc. wireless wireless than GPRS using adv.
Handoffs users modulation?)
Spectrum Usage Capacity Considerations:
Signal Bandwidth, C/I and Frequency Reuse
AMPS, D-AMPS, N-AMPS
Each wireless technology 1 3 1 Users 2
(AMPS, NAMPS, D-AMPS, 7 3
1
GSM, CDMA) uses a specific Vulnerability:
6
5
4
modulation type with its own C/I ≅ 17 dB
unique signal characteristics 30 30 10 kHz Bandwidth
Q Signal Bandwidth Typical Frequency Reuse N=7
GSM
determines how many RF
signals will “fit” in the
operator’s licensed Vulnerability: 2
8 Users C/I ≅ 6.5-9 dB 1
spectrum 3
4
Q Robustness of RF signal 200 kHz
determines tolerable level of Typical Frequency Reuse N=4
interference and necessary
physical separation of CDMA Vulnerability: 1
EbNo ≅ 6 dB 1 1
cochannel cells 1
1 1
Q Number of users per RF 22 Users 1 1
1 1
signal directly affects 1
capacity 1 1
1250 kHz 1
Typical Frequency Reuse N=1
Comparison of Wireless System Capacities
TDMA CDMA IS-2000 IS-2000
Technology AMPS IS136 GSM IDEN IS95 RC3 RC4
Available Spectrum, KHz. 12,500 12,500 12,500 12,500 12,500 12,500 12,500
Req'd. C/I +17 db +17 db +9 db +21 db +6 db +5 db +3 db
Freq. Reuse Factor N 7 7 3 7 1 1 1
Signal Bandwidth, KHz. 30 30 200 25 1229 1229 1229
How Many Signals in BW 416.7 416.7 62.5 500.0 10.2 10.2 10.2
Signals per Cell due to reuse 59.5 59.5 20.8 71.4 10.2 10.2 10.2
" Adjusted for Guard Band needs 59.5 59.5 20.8 71.4 9.0 9.0 9.0
How Many Sectors Per Cell 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Signals Per Sector 19.8 19.8 6.9 23.8 9.0 9.0 9.0
Control Ch. Signals Per Sector 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
Traffic Ch. Signals Per Sector 18.8 18.8 6.9 23.8 9.0 9.0 9.0
Voice Conversations per Signal 1 3 7.5 6 35 50 100
Voice Conversations per Sector 18.8 56.5 52.1 142.9 315.0 450.0 900.0
SH Avg Sectors per User 1 1 1 1 1.8 1.8 1.8

SH Diluted Conversations/Sector 18.8 56.5 52.1 142.9 175.0 250.0 500.0
Blocking Target % (GOS) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Carried Erlangs Per Sector 11.5 45.9 42.1 128.9 161.4 235.8 486.4
Total P.02 Erlangs per Site 34.5 137.6 126.4 386.8 484.3 707.5 1459.3
Capacity Comparison 1 3.99 3.67 11.22 14.05 20.53 42.34
Capacity of Multicarrier CDMA Systems
CDMA Carrier Frequencies
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011
Fwd/Rev Spectrum kHz. 12,500 1,800 3,050 4,300 5,550 6,800 8,050 9,300 10,550 11,800 13,050 14,300
Technology AMPS CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA
Req'd C/I or Eb/No, db 17 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Freq Reuse Factor, N 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
RF Signal BW, kHz 30 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250
Total # RF Carriers 416 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
RF Sigs. per cell @N 59 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
# Sectors per cell 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
#CCH per sector 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
RF Signals per sector 18 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Voicepaths/RF signal 1 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22
SH average links used 1 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66
Unique Voicepaths/carrier 1 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3
Voicepaths/Sector 18 22 44 66 88 110 132 154 176 198 220 242
Unique Voicepaths/Sector 18 13 26 39 53 66 79 92 106 119 132 145
P.02 Erlangs per sector 11.5 7.4 18.4 30.1 43.1 55.3 67.7 80.2 93.8 105.5 119.1 130.9
P.02 Erlangs per site 34.5 22.2 55.2 90.3 129.3 165.9 203.1 240.6 281.4 316.5 357.3 392.7
Capacity vs. AMPS800 1 0.64 1.60 2.6 3.7 4.8 5.9 7.0 8.2 9.2 10.4 11.4
Chapter 4
Physical
Physical Principles
Principles of
of
Propagation
Propagation
Introduction to Propagation
Q Propagation is a key process within every radio link. During propagation, many
processes act on the radio signal.
• attenuation
– the signal amplitude is reduced by various natural mechanisms; if there is
too much attenuation, the signal will fall below the reliable detection
threshold at the receiver. Attenuation is the most important single factor
in propagation.
• multipath and group delay distortions
– the signal diffracts and reflects off irregularly shaped objects, producing a
host of components which arrive in random timings and random RF
phases at the receiver. This blurs pulses and also produces intermittent
signal cancellation and reinforcement. These effects are combatted
through a variety of special techniques
• time variability - signal strength and quality varies with time, often dramatically
• space variability - signal strength and quality varies with location and distance
• frequency variability - signal strength and quality differs on different
frequencies
Q Effective mastery of propagation relies on
• Physics: understand the basic propagation processes
• Measurement: obtain data on propagation behavior in area of interest
• Statistics: characterize what is known, extrapolate to predict the unknown
• Modelmaking: formalize all the above into useful models
Influence of Wavelength on Propagation
Q Radio signals in the atmosphere
λ=C/F
propagate at almost speed of light
λ = wavelength
C = distance propagated in 1 second
F = frequency, Hertz
for AMPS: F= 870 MHz
λ = 0.345 m = 13.6 inches Q The wavelength of a radio signal
determines many of its propagation
for PCS-1900: F = 1960 MHz
characteristics
λ = 0.153 m = 6.0 inches • Antenna elements size are
typically in the order of 1/4 to 1/2
wavelength
λ/2 • Objects bigger than a wavelength
can reflect or obstruct RF energy
• RF energy can penetrate into a
building or vehicle if they have
apertures a wavelength in size, or
larger
Dominant Mechanisms of Mobile Propagation
Most propagation in the mobile
Free Space environment is dominated by these
d
three mechanisms:
A D Q Free space
B
• No reflections, no obstructions
– first Fresnel Zone clear
• Signal spreading is only mechanism
Reflection • Signal decays 20 dB/decade
with partial cancellation
Q Reflection
• Reflected wave 180°out of phase
• Reflected wave not attenuated much
• Signal decays 30-40 dB/decade
Knife-edge
Q Knife-edge diffraction
Diffraction
• Direct path is blocked by obstruction
• Additional loss is introduced
• Formulae available for simple cases
Q We’ll explore each of these further...
Free-Space Propagation
Q The simplest propagation mode
• Antenna radiates energy which spreads in space
r
• Path Loss, db (between two isotropic antennas)
= 36.58 +20*Log10(FMHZ)+20Log10(DistMILES )
• Path Loss, db (between two dipole antennas)
= 32.26 +20*Log10(FMHZ)+20Log10(DistMILES )
Free Space • Notice the rate of signal decay:
“Spreading” Loss • 6 db per octave of distance change, which is
20 db per decade of distance change
energy intercepted
Q Free-Space propagation is applicable if:
by receiving
• there is only one signal path (no reflections)
antenna is
• the path is unobstructed (i.e., first Fresnel zone
proportional to 1/r2
is not penetrated by obstacles)
d
1st Fresnel Zone
A D
B First Fresnel Zone =
{Points P where AP + PB - AB < λ/2 }
Fresnel Zone radius d = 1/2 (λD)^(1/2)
Reflection With Partial Cancellation
Q Mobile environment characteristics:
Heights Exaggerated
for Clarity • Small angles of incidence and reflection
• Reflection is unattenuated (reflection coefficient =1)
HTFT
HTFT • Reflection causes phase shift of 180 degrees
Q Analysis
• Physics of the reflection cancellation predicts signal
decay of 40 dB per decade of distance
DMILES
Path Loss [dB ]= 172 + 34 x Log (DMiles )
- 20 x Log (Base Ant. HtFeet)
- 10 x Log (Mobile Ant. HtFeet)
SCALE PERSPECTIVE
Comparison of Free-Space and Reflection Propagation Modes

Assumptions: Flat earth, TX ERP = 50 dBm, @ 1950 MHz. Base Ht = 200 ft, Mobile Ht = 5 ft.
DistanceMILES 1 2 4 6 8 10 15 20
Received Signal in
Free Space, DBM -52.4 -58.4 -64.4 -67.9 -70.4 -72.4 -75.9 -78.4
Received Signal in
Reflection Mode -69.0 -79.2 -89.5 -95.4 -99.7 -103.0 -109.0 -113.2
Signal Decay Rates in Various Environments
Signal Level vs. Distance We’ve seen how the signal decays
0
with distance in two basic modes
of propagation:
-10 Q Free-Space
• 20 dB per decade of distance
-20 • 6 db per octave of distance
Q Reflection Cancellation
-30
• 40 dB per decade of distance
-40 • 12 db per octave of distance
1 2 3.16
Distance, Miles
5 6 7 8 10 Q Real-life wireless propagation
decay rates are typically
One Decade
One Octave of distance (10x)
somewhere between 30 and 40
of distance (2x) dB per decade of distance
Knife-Edge Diffraction
Q Sometimes a single well-defined
obstruction blocks the path, introducing
additional loss. This calculation is fairly
H easy and can be used as a manual tool
to estimate the effects of individual
R1 R2 obstructions.
Q First calculate the diffraction parameter
ν from the geometry of the path
2 ( R1 + R2)
ν = -H
λ R1 R2 Q Next consult the table to obtain the
obstruction loss in db
0 Q Add this loss to the otherwise-
-5 determined path loss to obtain the total
atten -10 path loss.
dB -15
-20 Q Other losses such as free space and
-25 reflection cancellation still apply, but
computed independently for the path as
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
ν if the obstruction did not exist
Combating Rayleigh Fading: Space Diversity
D
Q Fortunately, Rayleigh fades are
very short and last a small
percentage of the time
Q Two antennas separated by
several wavelengths will not
generally experience fades at the
same time
Signal received
Q “Space Diversity” can be
by Antenna 1 obtained by using two receiving
antennas and switching instant-
by-instant to whichever is best
Signal received
by Antenna 2 Q Required separation D for good
decorrelation is 10-20λ
Combined • 12-24 ft. @ 800 MHz.
Signal
• 5-10 ft. @ 1900 MHz.
Types Of Propagation Models And Their Uses
Examples of various model types
Q Simple Analytical models Q Simple Analytical

• Used for understanding and • Free space (Friis formula)
predicting individual paths and • Reflection cancellation
specific obstruction cases • Knife-edge diffraction
Q General Area models
Q Area
• Primary drivers: statistical • Okumura-Hata
• Used for early system • Euro/Cost-231
dimensioning (cell counts, etc.) • Walfisch-Betroni/Ikegami
Q Point-to-Point models
Q Point-to-Point
• Primary drivers: analytical • Ray Tracing
• Used for detailed coverage - Lee’s Method, others
analysis and cell planning • Tech-Note 101
Q Local Variability models • Longley-Rice, Biby-C
• Primary drivers: statistical Q Local Variability
• Characterizes microscopic level • Rayleigh Distribution
fluctuations in a given locale, • Normal Distribution
confidence-of-service probability • Joint Probability Techniques
General Principles Of Area Models
-50 +90
-60 +80 Q Area models mimic an average

-70 +70
path in a defined area
-80 +60 Field Q They’re based on measured data
RSSI, Strength, alone, with no consideration of
-90 +50 dBµV/m
dBm individual path features or
-100 +40 physical mechanisms
-110 +30 Q Typical inputs used by model:
-120 +20 • Frequency
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33
• Distance from transmitter to
Distance from Cell Site, km
receiver
• Actual or effective base
Q Green Trace shows actual measured signal station & mobile heights
strengths on a drive test radial, as determined • Average terrain elevation
by real-world physics. • Morphology correction loss
Q Red Trace shows the Okumura-Hata (Urban, Suburban, Rural, etc.)
prediction for the same radial. The smooth
curve is a good “fit” for real data. However, Q Results may be quite different
the signal strength at a specific location on the than observed on individual paths
radial may be much higher or much lower in the area
than the simple prediction.
The Okumura Model: General Concept
70
Urban Area 35
100
(dB)
30
area
Median Attenuation A(f,d), dB
80 Open
Correction factor, Garea

25 area
50 70 io pen
Q ua s
d, km
20
40 r ea
15 an a
30 uburb
10 S
26
5 9 dB
2 5
1 850 MHz
850
10
100 500 3000 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000
Frequency f, MHz Frequency f, (MHz)
The Okumura model is based on detailed analysis of exhaustive drive-test measurements

made in Tokyo and its suburbs during the late 1960’s and early 1970’s. The collected
date included measurements on numerous VHF, UHF, and microwave signal sources,
both horizontally and vertically polarized, at a wide range of heights.
The measurements were statistically processed and analyzed with respect to almost every
imaginable variable. This analysis was distilled into the curves above, showing a
median attenuation relative to free space loss Amu (f,d) and correlation factor Garea
(f,area), for BS antenna height ht = 200 m and MS antenna height hr = 3 m.
Okumura has served as the basis for high-level design of many existing wireless
systems, and has spawned a number of newer models adapted from its basic
concepts and numerical parameters.
Structure of the Okumura Model
Path Loss [dB] = LFS + Amu(f,d) - G(Hb) - G(Hm) - Garea
Free-Space
Path Loss
Morphology Gain
Amu(f,d) Additional Mobile Station 0 dense urban
Median Loss Height Gain 5 urban
from = 10 x Log (Hm/3) 10 suburban
Okumura’s Curves 17 rural
35
70
Urban Area
Base Station area
Correction factor, Garea (dB)

30
Open
Height Gain
Median Attenuation A(f,d), dB
100 25 a rea
pen
si o
Qua
80
20
= 20 x Log (Hb/200)
50
d, km
70
15 a
are
an
urb
Sub
40 10
30
26 5
5
2 850 MHz
1 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000

Frequency f, MHz 850 Frequency f, (MHz)
10
100 500 3000
Q The Okumura Model uses a combination of terms from basic physical

mechanisms and arbitrary factors to fit 1960-1970 Tokyo drive test data
Q Later researchers (HATA, COST231, others) have expressed Okumura’s
curves as formulas and automated the computation
Examples of Morphological Zones
Q Suburban: Mix of
residential and business
communities. Structures
include 1-2 story houses
Suburban Suburban 50 feet apart and 2-5
story shops and offices.
Q Urban: Urban residential
and office areas (Typical
structures are 5-10 story
Urban Urban buildings, hotels,
hospitals, etc.)
Q Dense Urban: Dense
business districts with
skyscrapers (10-20 stories
Dense Urban and above) and high-rise
Dense Urban
apartments
Although zone definitions are arbitrary, the examples and definitions illustrated above
are typical of practice in North American PCS designs.
Example Morphological Zones
Rural - Highway Rural - Highway
Q Rural - Highway:
Highways near open
farm land, large
open spaces, and
sparsely populated
residential areas.
Typical structures
are 1-2 story
houses, barns, etc.
Rural Rural Q Rural - In-town:
Open farm land,
large open spaces,
and sparsely
populated residential
areas. Typical
structures are 1-2
story houses, barns,
Suburban Suburban etc.
Notice how different zones may abruptly adjoin one another. In the case immediately
above, farm land (rural) adjoins built-up subdivisions (suburban) -- same terrain, but
different land use, penetration requirements, and anticipated traffic densities.
Typical Model Results
Including Environmental Correction
COST-231/Hata Tower
EIRP C, Range,
Height,
f =1900 MHz. (watts) dB km
m
Dense Urban 30 200 0 2.52
Urban 30 200 -5 3.50
Suburban 30 200 -10 4.8
Rural 50 200 -17 10.3
Okumura/Hata Tower
EIRP C, Range,
Height,
f = 870 MHz. (watts) dB km
m
Dense Urban 30 200 -2 4.0
Urban 30 200 -5 4.9
Suburban 30 200 -10 6.7
Rural 50 200 -26 26.8
Propagation at 1900 MHz. vs. 800 MHz.
Q Propagation at 1900 MHz. is similar to 800 MHz., but all effects are
more pronounced.
• Reflections are more effective
• Shadows from obstructions are deeper
• Foliage absorption is more attenuative
• Penetration into buildings through openings is more effective,
but absorbing materials within buildings and their walls
attenuate the signal more severely than at 800 MHz.
Q The net result of all these effects is to increase the “contrast” of hot
and cold signal areas throughout a 1900 MHz. system, compared
to what would have been obtained at 800 MHz.
Q Overall, coverage radius of a 1900 MHz. BTS is approximately
two-thirds the distance which would be obtained with the same
ERP, same antenna height, at 800 MHz.
Walfisch-Betroni/Walfisch-Ikegami Models
Q Ordinary Okumura-type models do work in

this environment, but the Walfisch models
attempt to improve accuracy by exploiting
the actual propagation mechanisms
involved
Path Loss = LFS + LRT + LMS
LFS = free space path loss (Friis formula)
LRT = rooftop diffraction loss
Area View
LMS = multiscreen reflection loss
Q Propagation in built-up portions of cities is
Signal
Level
-20 dBm
-30 dBm dominated by ray diffraction over the tops of
Legend
-40 dBm
-50 dBm buildings and by ray “channeling” through
-60 dBm
-70 dBm multiple reflections down the street canyons
-80 dBm
-90 dBm
-100 dBm
-110 dBm
-120 dBm
Elements of Typical Measurement Systems
Main Features
Q Field strength measurement
• Accurate collection in real-time
• Multi-channel, averaging
capability
Q Location Data Collection Methods:
Wireless
• Global Positioning System (GPS) Receiver GPS
• Dead reckoning on digitized map Receiver
database using on-board
compass and wheel revolutions PC or Dead
sensor Collector Reckoning
• A combination of both methods is
recommended for the best results
Q Ideally, a system should be calibrated
in absolute units, not just raw
received power level indications
• Record normalized antenna gain,
measured line loss
Typical Test Transmitter Operations
Q Typical Characteristics
• portable, low power needs
• weatherproof or weather resistant
• regulated power output
• frequency-agile: synthesized
Q Operational Concerns
• spectrum coordination and proper
authorization to radiate test signal
• antenna unobstructed
• stable AC power
• SAFETY:
– people/equipment falling due to
wind, or tripping on obstacles
– electric shock
– damage to rooftop
Chapter 5
Antennas
Antennas for
for
Wireless
Wireless Systems
Systems
Dipole
Isotropic
Typical Wireless
Omni Antenna
Understanding Antenna Radiation
The Principle Of Current Moments
Zero current Q An antenna is just a passive
at each end conductor carrying RF current
each tiny
imaginary “slice” • RF power causes the current
of the antenna flow
does its share
of radiating • Current flowing radiates
TX Maximum current RX electromagnetic fields
at the middle
Current induced in • Electromagnetic fields cause
receiving antenna current in receiving antennas
is vector sum of
contribution of every Q The effect of the total antenna is the
tiny “slice” of sum of what every tiny “slice” of the
radiating antenna
antenna is doing
Width of band • Radiation of a tiny “slice” is
denotes current
magnitude proportional to its length times
the magnitude of the current in
it, at the phase of the current
Antenna Gain
Q Antennas are passive devices: they do not produce

power
Omni-directional
• Can only receive power in one form and pass Antenna
it on in another, minus incidental losses
• Cannot generate power or “amplify”
Q However, an antenna can appear to have “gain”
compared against another antenna or condition. This
gain can be expressed in dB or as a power ratio. It
applies both to radiating and receiving
Q A directional antenna, in its direction of maximum
radiation, appears to have “gain” compared against a
non-directional antenna
Q Gain in one direction comes at the expense of less
radiation in other directions
Q Antenna Gain is RELATIVE, not ABSOLUTE
• When describing antenna “gain”, the
comparison condition must be stated or
implied Directional
Antenna
Reference Antennas
Defining Gain And Effective Radiated Power
Q Isotropic Radiator
• Truly non-directional -- in 3 dimensions
• Difficult to build or approximate physically, Isotropic
Antenna
but mathematically very simple to describe
• A popular reference: 1000 MHz and above
– PCS, microwave, etc.
Q Dipole Antenna
• Non-directional in 2-dimensional plane only
• Can be easily constructed, physically
practical
• A popular reference: below 1000 MHz
– 800 MHz. cellular, land mobile, TV & FM
Quantity Units Dipole Antenna
Gain above Isotropic radiator dBi
Notice that a dipole
Gain above Dipole reference dBd has 2.15 dB gain
Effective Radiated Power Vs. Isotropic (watts or dBm) EIRP compared to an
Effective Radiated Power Vs. Dipole (watts or dBm) ERP isotropic antenna.
Radiation Patterns
Key Features And Terminology
An antenna’s directivity is Typical Example

expressed as a series of patterns
Horizontal Plane Pattern
Q The Horizontal Plane Pattern graphs Notice -3 dB points
the radiation as a function of azimuth
(i.e..,direction N-E-S-W) 0 (N)
Q The Vertical Plane Pattern graphs the 0

10 dB
radiation as a function of elevation (i.e.., -10 points
up, down, horizontal) -20
Q Antennas are often compared by noting Main
-30 dB Lobe
specific landmark points on their
patterns: 270 90
(W) (E)
• -3 dB (“HPBW”), -6 dB, -10 dB nulls or a Minor
minima Lobe
points
Front-to-back Ratio
• Front-to-back ratio
• Angles of nulls, minor lobes, etc.
180 (S)
How Antennas Achieve Their Gain
Quasi-Optical Techniques (reflection, focusing)

• Reflectors can be used to concentrate
radiation
– technique works best at microwave frequencies,
where reflectors are small
• Examples:
– corner reflector used at cellular or higher
frequencies
– parabolic reflector used at microwave
frequencies
– grid or single pipe reflector for cellular
Array techniques (discrete elements) In phase

• Power is fed or coupled to multiple
antenna elements; each element radiates
• Elements’ radiation in phase in some Out of
directions phase
• In other directions, a phase delay for each
element creates pattern lobes and nulls
Types Of Arrays
Q Collinear vertical arrays

• Essentially omnidirectional in
horizontal plane
• Power gain approximately
equal to the number of
elements
• Nulls exist in vertical pattern,
unless deliberately filled
Q Arrays in horizontal plane
• Directional in horizontal RF
power
plane: useful for sectorization
• Yagi
– one driven element, parasitic
coupling to others
• Log-periodic RF
– all elements driven power
– wide bandwidth
Q All of these types of antennas are
used in wireless
Omni Antennas
Collinear Vertical Arrays
The family of omni-directional wireless

antennas: Typical Collinear Arrays
Q Number of elements determines Number of
Elements
Power
Gain
Gain,
dB
Angle
θ
• Physical size 1 1 0.00 n/a
2 2 3.01 26.57°
• Gain 3 3 4.77 18.43°
4 4 6.02 14.04°
• Beamwidth, first null angle 5 5 6.99 11.31°
6 6 7.78 9.46°
Q Models with many elements have 7 7 8.45 8.13°
8 8 9.03 7.13°
very narrow beamwidths 9 9 9.54 6.34°
• Require stable mounting and 10
11
10
11
10.00
10.41
5.71°
5.19°
careful alignment 12
13
12
13
10.79
11.14
4.76°
4.40°
• Watch out: be sure nulls do 14 14 11.46 4.09°
not fall in important coverage

Vertical Plane Pattern
areas beamwidth
Q Rod and grid reflectors are
sometimes added for mild directivity -3
d
θ
Examples: 800 MHz.: dB803, PD10017, B
BCR-10O, Kathrein 740-198 Angle

of
1900 MHz.: dB-910, ASPP2933 first
null
Sector Antennas
Reflectors And Vertical Arrays
Vertical Plane Pattern

Q Typical commercial sector Up
antennas are vertical combinations
of dipoles, yagis, or log-periodic
elements with reflector (panel or
grid) backing
• Vertical plane pattern is
determined by number of
vertically-separated Down
elements
– varies from 1 to 8, affecting Horizontal Plane Pattern
mainly gain and vertical plane N
beamwidth
• Horizontal plane pattern is
determined by: W E
– number of horizontally-spaced
elements
– shape of reflectors (is reflector
folded?) S
Example Of Antenna Catalog Specifications
Electrical Data
Antenna Model ASPP2933 ASPP2936 dB910C-M
Frequency Range, MHz. 1850-1990 1850-1990 1850-1970
Gain - dBd/dBi 3/5.1 6/8.1 10/12.1
VSWR <1.5:1 <1.5:1 <1.5:1
Beamwidth (3 dB from maximum) 32° 15° 5°
Polarization Vertical Vertical Vertical
Maximum power input - Watts 400 400 400
Input Impedance - Ohms 50 50 50
Lightning Protection Direct Ground Direct Ground Direct Ground
Termination - Standard N-Female N-Female N-Female
Jumper Cable Order Sep. Order Sep. Order Sep.
Mechanical Data
Antenna Model ASPP2933 ASPP2936 dB910C-M
Overall length - in (mm) 24 (610) 36 (915) 77 (1955)
Radome OD - in (mm) 1.1 (25.4) 1.0 (25.4) 1.5 (38)
Wind area - ft2 (m2) .17 (.0155) .25 (.0233) .54 (.05)
Wind load @ 125 mph/201 kph lb-f (n) 4 (17) 6 (26) 14 (61)
Maximum wind speed - mph (kph) 140 (225) 140 (225) 125 (201)
Weight - lbs (kg) 4 (1.8) 6 (2.7) 5.2 (2.4)
Shipping Weight - lbs (kg) 11 (4.9) 13 (5.9) 9 (4.1)
Clamps (steel) ASPA320 ASPA320 Integral
Example Of Antenna Catalog Radiation Pattern
Q Vertical Plane Pattern

• E-Plane (elevation plane)
• Gain: 10 dBd
• Dipole pattern is superimposed at
scale for comparison (not often
shown in commercial catalogs)
• Frequency is shown
• Pattern values shown in dBd
• Note 1-degree indices through
region of main lobe for most
accurate reading
• Notice minor lobe and null detail!
Other
Other Parts
Parts of
of
Antenna
Antenna Systems
Systems
Antenna Systems
Q Antenna systems include more
Antenna
than just antennas
Q Transmission Lines
• Necessary to connect
transmitting and receiving
equipment
Jumper Q Other Components necessary to
achieve desired system function
Transmission Line
• Filters, Combiners,
Duplexers - to achieve
desired connections
• Directional Couplers,
wattmeters - for
measurement of
performance
Directional Q Manufacturer’s system may
Coupler D include some or all of these
u TX
p Combiner items
l TX
F R e • Remaining items are added
x
Jumpers e individually as needed by
r BPF RX system operator
Types of Transmission Lines
Physical Characteristics Typical coaxial cables

Q Type of line Used as feeders in wireless applications
• Coaxial, stripline, open-
wire
• Balanced, unbalanced
Q Physical configuration
• Dielectric:
– air
– foam
• Outside surface
– unjacketed
– jacketed
Q Size (nominal outer diameter)
• 1/4”,1/2”, 7/8”, 1-1/4”, 1- Foam Air
7/8”, 2-1/4”, 3” Dielectric Dielectric
Attenuation, Impedance, Velocity, Power Handling
Electrical Characteristics
Q Attenuation
• Varies with frequency, size, dielectric D d
characteristics of insulation
• Usually specified in dB/100 ft and/or
dB/100 m
Q Characteristic impedance Z0 (50 ohms is the
usual standard; 75 ohms is sometimes used) Characteristic Impedance
of a Coaxial Line
Zo = ( 138 / ( ε 1/2 ) ) Log10 ( D / d )
• Value set by inner/outer diameter ratio
and dielectric characteristics of
insulation ε = Dielectric Constant
= 1 for vacuum or dry air
• Connectors must preserve constant
impedance (see figure at right)
Q Velocity factor
• Determined by dielectric characteristics
of insulation.
Q Power-handling capability
• Varies with size, conductor materials,
dielectric characteristics
Transmission Lines
Important Installation Practices
Q Respect specified minimum

bending radius!
• Inner conductor must
remain concentric,
otherwise Zo changes
• Dents, kinks in outer
conductor change Zo
Q Don’t bend large, stiff lines (1-
5/8” or larger) to make direct
connection with antennas Observe
Minimum
Q Use appropriate jumpers, Bending
weatherproofed properly. Radius!
Q Secure jumpers against wind
vibration.
Transmission Lines
Important Installation Practices, Continued
Q During hoisting
• Allow line to support its own
weight only for distances
approved by manufacturer
• Deformation and stretching
may result, changing the Zo 200 ft 3-6 ft
• Use hoisting grips, ~60 m
messenger cable Max.
Q After mounting
• Support the line with proper
mounting clamps at
manufacturer’s
recommended spacing
intervals
• Strong winds will set up
damaging metal-fatigue-
inducing vibrations
RF Filters
Types And Applications
Q Filters are the basic building

blocks of duplexers and more
complex devices
Typical RF Bandpass Filter
Q Most manufacturers’ network
equipment includes internal ∼λ/4
bandpass filters at receiver input
and transmitter output
Q Filters are also available for
special applications
Q Number of poles (filter elements)
and other design variables
determine filter’s electrical Notice construction: RF input
characteristics excites one quarter-wave
element and electromagnet
• Bandwidth rejection fields propagate from element
to element, finally exciting the
• Insertion loss last element which is directly
coupled to the output.
• Slopes Each element is individually set
• Ripple, etc. and forms a pole in the filter’s
overall response curve.
RF Filters
Basic Characteristics And Specifications
Typical RF bandpass filter

insertion passband ripple
Q Types of Filters 0 loss
• Single-pole:
Attenuation, dB
-3 dB passband
– pass width
– reject (notch)
• Multi-pole:
– band-pass
– band-reject
Frequency, megaHertz
Q Key electrical characteristics
• Insertion loss Typical bandpass filters have
insertion loss of 1-3 dB. and
• Passband ripple passband ripple of 2-6 dB.
Bandwidth is typically 1-20% of
• Passband width center frequency, depending on
– upper, lower cutoff frequencies application. Attenuation slope
and out-of-band attenuation
• Attenuation slope at band edge depend on # of poles & design
• Ultimate out-of-band attenuation
Basics Of Transmitting Combiners
Typical tuned combiner

Q Allows multiple transmitters to feed single application
antenna, providing
Antenna
• Minimum power loss from
transmitter to antenna
• Maximum isolation between
transmitters TX TX TX TX TX TX TX TX
Q Combiner types
• Tuned
– low insertion loss ~1-3 dB Typical hybrid combiner
– transmitter frequencies must be application
significantly separated Antenna
• Hybrid
– insertion loss -3 dB per stage ~-3 dB
– no restriction on transmitter
frequencies ~-3 dB
• Linear amplifier ~-3 dB

– linearity and intermodulation are
major design and operation issues TX TX TX TX TX TX TX TX
Duplexer Basics
Q Duplexer allows simultaneous

transmitting and receiving on one Antenna
antenna Duplexer
• Nortel 1900 MHz BTS RFFEs
include internal duplexer fR fT
• Nortel 800 MHz BTS does not
include duplexer but commercial
units can be used if desired RX TX
Q Important duplexer specifications
Principle of operation
• TX pass-through insertion loss
Duplexer is composed of individual
• RX pass-through insertion loss
bandpass filters to isolate TX from
• TX-to-RX isolation at TX RX while allowing access to antenna
frequency (RX intermodulation for both. Filter design determines
issue) actual isolation between TX and RX,
• TX-to-RX isolation at RX and insertion loss TX-to-Antenna
frequency (TX noise floor issue) and RX-to-Antenna.
• Internally-generated IMP limit
specification
Directional Couplers
Q Couplers are used to measure Typical directional coupler

forward and reflected energy in a
transmission line; it has 4 ports:
• Input (from TX),
Output (to load)
• Forward and Reverse Samples
Q Sensing loops probe E& I in line Principle of operation
• Equal sensitivity to E & H fields
RT Reverse Sample
• Terminations absorb induced
current in one direction, Input
leaving only sample of other
direction ZLOAD=
Forward Sample RT 50Ω
Q Typical performance specifications
• Coupling factor ~20, ~30, Main line’s E & I induce equal signals in
~40 dB., order as appropriate sense loops. E is direction-independent,
for application but I’s polarity depends on direction and
• Directivity ~30-~40 dB., f($) cancels sample induced in one direction.
Thus sense loop signals are directional.
– defined as relative One end is used, the other terminated.
attenuation of unwanted
direction in each sample
Testing
Testing Antenna
Antenna Systems
Systems
Testing Communications Feedlines and Antennas
Q AC power wiring and voice telephone wiring do not

require extremely critical wiring practices
• just make sure the connections and insulation are
good, heat is not allowed to build up, and you’ll have
good results
• AC power frequencies and audio signal frequencies
have wavelengths of many miles
– a few feet of wire won’t radiate much energy
Q High frequency RF wiring practice is much more critical
since signal wavelengths are only a few inches or feet
• any bend or protruding bit of wire can serve as an
unintentional antenna, “leaking” energy
• even splices and connections can leak energy unless
their shape and dimensions are closely controlled
• abrupt changes in cable shape “reflect” energy back
down the transmission line, causing many problems
Q Precisely shaped cables and connectors, careful
installation and accurate testing are required to avoid
significant antenna system performance problems
Forward and Reflected Energy
Antenna
50Ω
Transmitter 50Ω Transmission Line 50Ω

Forward Power
Virtually no reflected power
Q In a perfect antenna system, the transmission line and the

antenna have the same impedance
• we say they are “impedance matched”
Q All the energy from the transmitter passes through and is radiated
from the antenna
• virtually no energy is reflected back to the transmitter
Forward and Reflected Energy
Antenna
42-j17Ω
dent or kink
Transmitter 50Ω Transmission Line 37Ω
Forward Power
Significant Reflected Power
Q In a damaged antenna system, the impedance match is not good

• there could be a dent, kink, or a spot with water in the transmission
line
– the different impedance in the line at this spot will cause some of
the energy to be reflected backwards
• the antenna could be damaged or dangling, causing it to have an
altered impedance
– the antenna’s different impedance will reflect some of the energy
backwards down the line
Q The Site Master® Distance-To-Fault mode will be helpful in finding the
location of the damage
How Much Reflection? Four Ways to Say It
Q There are four ways of expressing how
much energy is being reflected SWR: Standing Wave Ratio
• different users like different methods
= Vmax/ Vmin
Q Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
(used by hobbyists and consumers) Vmin
Vmax
• the reflected voltage is in phase with the
incident voltage at some places and out Reflected Power (%)
of phase at others RevPwr
• VSWR is the ratio of Vmax/Vmin FORWARD = 100 x
FwdPwr
Q Reflected Power as % of Forward Power REFLECTED
(used by field personnel in some industries)
• just divide Rev by Fwd, use percent Return Loss (db)
Q Return Loss (used by field personnel) RevPwr
FORWARD = 10 x Log10
• how many db weaker is the reflected FwdPwr
energy than the forward energy REFLECTED
Q Reflection Coefficient (academic users)

• vector ratio of reflected/incident voltage Reflection Coefficient (vector ratio)
or current FORWARD Vreflected
=
• usually expressed as a polar vector, with Vincident
magnitude and phase REFLECTED
Comparing Reflection Reports in Different Forms
Q Reflection expressed in one form can be
converted and expressed in the other forms SWR: STANDING WAVE RATIO
= Vmax/ Vmin
Q For example, consider a VSWR of 1.5 : 1
1+ Reflected Power
• this is 4% reflected power =
Forward Power
Vmin 1- Reflected Power
• this is a return loss of 14 db Vmax Forward Power
• to calculate the reflection coefficient, the

phase of the reflection is also needed Reflected Power (%)
RevPwr
FORWARD = 100 x
VSWR vs. Return Loss FwdPwr
50 REFLECTED
40
Return Loss (db)
RevPwr
30 FORWARD = 10 x Log10
FwdPwr
REFLECTED
20
10 Reflection Coefficient (vector ratio)

FORWARD Vreflected
0 =
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Vincident
REFLECTED
VSWR
The Anritsu®/Wiltron Site Master®
Q The Site Master® is one of the

most convenient and popular
“combination” instruments for
testing communications
feedlines and antennas
Q Built Into a Site Master® are:
• sweep signal generator
• directional coupler
• signal detector
• processing software to
The Site Master® is a “combination”
instrument not much larger than a cigar box.
display return loss and
In the field, it provides the functions of a
distance to fault
spectrum analyzer with tracking sweep • Optional: Spectrum
generator, directional coupler, and power Analyzer
meter. In the past, a trunk full of instruments
were required to test communications • Optional: Power Meter
antenna systems. Today, a Site Master® can
even be carried to the tower top if needed.
• Battery and charging circuit
Estimating Isolation Between Antennas
Often multiple antennas are needed at a

site and interaction is troublesome
Q Electrical isolation between antennas
• Coupling loss between isotropic
antennas one wavelength apart is
22 dB
• 6 dB additional coupling loss with
each doubling of separation
• Add gain or loss referenced from
horizontal plane patterns
• Measure vertical separation
between centers of the antennas
– vertical separation usually is very
effective
Q One antenna should not be mounted in
main lobe and near-field of another
• Typically within 10 feet @ 800 MHz
• Typically 5-10 feet @ 1900 MHz
Types Of Downtilt
Q Mechanical downtilt
• Physically tilt the antenna
• The pattern in front goes
down, and behind goes up
• Popular for sectorization
and special omni
applications
Q Electrical downtilt
• Incremental phase shift is
applied in the feed network
• The pattern “droops” all
around, like an inverted
saucer
• Common technique when
downtilting omni cells
Chapter 6
Traffic
Traffic Engineering
Engineering
Typical Traffic Distribution
on a Cellular System
80%
100%
90% SUN
Efficiency %
80%
MON
41
70%
60% TUE
50% WED
40%
30%
THU Capacity,
20%
FRI
Erlangs
10% SAT
0%
1 # Trunks 50
Hour
A Game of Avoiding Extremes
The traffic engineer must walk a fine line

between two problems:
Q Overdimensioning
• too much cost
• insufficient resources to construct
• traffic revenue is too low to
support costs
• very poor economic efficiency!
Q Underdimensioning
• blocking
• poor technical performance
(interference)
• capacity for billable revenue is low
• revenue is low due to poor quality
• users unhappy, cancel service
• very poor economic efficiency!
Basics of Traffic Engineering
Terminology & Concept of a Trunk
Q Traffic engineering in telephony is focused on the voice paths

which users occupy. They are called by many different names:
• trunks
• circuits
• radios (AMPS, TDMA), transceivers (“TRXs” in GSM),
channel elements (CDMA)
Q Some other common terms are:
• trunk group
– a trunk group is several trunks going to the same
destination, combined and addressed in switch
translations as a unit , for traffic routing purposes
• member
– one of the trunks in a trunk group
Units of Traffic Measurement
Traffic is expressed in units of Circuit Time
General understanding of telephone traffic engineering began

around 1910. An engineer in the Danish telephone system,
Anger K. Erlang, was one of the first to master the science of
trunk dimensioning and publish the knowledge for others. In his
honor, the basic unit of traffic is named the Erlang.
Q An Erlang of traffic is one circuit continuously used during an
observation period one hour long.
Other units have become popular among various users:
Q CCS (Hundred-Call-Seconds)
Q MOU (Minutes Of Use)
Q It’s easy to convert between traffic units if the need arises:
1 Erlang = 60 MOU = 36 CCS
How Much Traffic Can One Trunk Carry?
Q Traffic studies are usually for periods of one hour
Q In one hour, one trunk can carry one hour of traffic -- One Erlang
Q If nothing else matters, this is the limit!
Q If anyone else wants to talk -- sorry!
Absolute Maximum Capacity

of One Trunk
One Trunk
Constant One Erlang

Talker
Q We must not plan to keep trunks busy all the time. There must be
a reserve to accommodate new talkers! How much reserve? next!
Traffic Engineering And Queuing Theory
Ticket counter analogy Q Traffic engineering is an application of a

Servers science called queuing theory
• Queuing theory relates user arrival
statistics, number of servers, and
various queue strategies, with the
Queue probability of a user receiving service
• If waiting is not allowed, and a blocked
call simply goes away, Erlang-B
User population formula applies (popular in wireless)
• If unlimited waiting is allowed before a
call receives service, the Erlang-C
Queues we face in formula applies
everyday life • If a wait is allowed but is limited in
1) for telephone calls time, Binomial & Poisson formulae
2) at the bank apply
3) at the gas station • Engset formulae apply to rapid,
4) at the airline counter packet-like transactions such as
paging channels
Offered And Carried Traffic
PSTN or other Q Offered traffic is what users attempt to
Wireless user originate
Q Carried traffic is the traffic actually
successfully handled by the system
Q Blocked traffic is the traffic that could
Carried not be handled
Traffic • Since blocked call attempts never
materialize, blocked traffic must be
MTXBSC estimated based on number of
blocked attempts and average
duration of successful calls
BTS BTS BTS BTS BTS BTSBlocked
Traffic Offered Traffic =

Carried Traffic + Blocked Traffic
Offered
Traffic
TOff = NCA x TCD
TOff = Offered traffic
NCA = Number of call attempts
TCD = Average call duration
Principles of Traffic Engineering
Blocking Probability / Grade of Service
Q Blocking is inability to get a circuit when one is needed
Q Probability of Blocking is the likelihood that blocking will
happen
Q In principle, blocking can occur anywhere in a wireless system:
• not enough radios, the cell is full
• not enough paths between cell site and switch
• not enough paths through the switching complex
• not enough trunks from switch to PSTN
Q Blocking probability is usually Typical Wireless System
expressed as a percentage Design Blocking Probabilities
using a “shorthand” notation: PSTN Office
• P.02 is 2% probability, etc. Cell
• Blocking probability sometimes Cell
is called “Grade Of Service” P.005

DMS-MTX Cell
Q Most blocking in cellular systems
occurs at the radio level. P.02
• P.02 is a common goal at the P.001 P.005
radio level in a system
Number of Trunks
vs. Utilization Efficiency
Q Imagine a cell site with just one voice channel. At a P.02
Grade of Service, how much traffic could it carry?
• The trunk can only be used 2% of the time, otherwise the
blocking will be worse than 2%.
• 98% availability forces 98% idleness. It can only carry
.02 Erlangs. Efficiency 2%!
Q Adding just one trunk relieves things greatly. Erlang-B P.02 GOS
Now we can use trunk 1 heavily, with trunk 2 Trks Erl Eff%
handling the overflow. Efficiency rises to 11% 1 0.02 2%
2 0.22 11%
The Principle of Trunking Efficiency 80%

Q For a given grade of service, trunk Efficiency %
41
utilization efficiency increases as the
number of trunks in the pool grows larger.
• For trunk groups of several hundred, Capacity,
utilization approaches 100%. Erlangs
1 # Trunks 50
Number of Trunks,
Capacity, and Utilization Efficiency
Q The graph at left illustrates

Capacity and Trunk Utilization the capacity in Erlangs of a
Erlang-B for P.02 Grade of Service given number of trunks, as
well as the achievable
90 45
utilization efficiency
80 40
70 35 Q For accurate work, tables of
60 30 traffic data are available
50 25
40 20 • Capacity, Erlangs
30 15 • Blocking Probability
20 10 (GOS)
10 5
0 0 • Number of Trunks
0 10 20 30 40 50
Utilization Trunks Capacity,
Q Notice how capacity and
Efficiency Erlangs utilization behave for the
Percent
numbers of trunks in typical
cell sites
Traffic Engineering & System Dimensioning
Using Erlang-B Tables to determine Number of Circuits Required

Probability
E of blocking
n 0.0001 0.002 0.02 0.2
1
2
7 2.935
Number of
Capacity
available
in Erlangs
circuits
300
A = f (E,n)
Erlang-B Traffic Tables
Abbreviated - For P.02 Grade of Service Only
Wireless Traffic Variation with Time:
A Cellular Example
Q Peak traffic on cellular systems
is usually daytime business-
Typical Traffic Distribution related traffic; on PCS systems,
on a Cellular System evening traffic becomes much
100% more important and may actually
90% SUN contain the system busy hour
80%
MON Q Evening taper is more gradual
70%
TUE
than morning rise
60%
50% WED
Q Wireless systems for PCS and
40%
LEC-displacement have peaks
THU
30% of residential traffic during early
20%
FRI evening hours, like wireline
10% SAT systems
0% Q Friday is the busiest day,
Hour
followed by other weekdays in
backwards order, then Saturday,
then Sunday
Q There are seasonal and
Actual traffic from a cellular system in the annual variations, as well as
mid-south USA in summer 1992. This long term growth trends
system had 45 cells and served an area
of approximately 1,000,000 population.
Busy-Hour
Q In telephony, it is customary to collect and analyze traffic in hourly
blocks, and to track trends over months, quarters, and years
• When making decisions about number of trunks required, we
plan the trunks needed to support the busiest hour of a normal
day
• Special events (disasters, one-of-a-kind traffic tie-ups, etc.)
are not considered in the analysis (unless a marketing-
sponsored event)
Q Which Hour should be used as the Busy-Hour?
• Some planners choose one specific hour and use it every day
• Some planners choose the busiest hour of each individual day
(“floating busy hour”)
• Most common preference is to use “floating (bouncing)” busy
hour determined individually for the total system and for each
cell, but to exclude special events and disasters
• In the example just presented, 4 PM was the busy hour every
day
Where is the Traffic?
Q Wireline telephone systems have a big

advantage in traffic planning.
• They know the addresses where
their customers generate the traffic!
Q Wireless systems have to guess where
the customers will be next
• on existing systems, use
measured traffic data by sector and
cell
Existing System
Traffic In Erlangs – analyze past trends
8
5 11
7
7 10
– compare subscriber forecast
2
6 11
5 16 19
7
8 7
16 7 – trend into future, find overloads
6
3 9
9 • for new systems or new cells,
we must use all available clues
Traffic Clues
27 mE/Sub in BH Q Subscriber Profiles:

103,550 Subscribers • Busy Hour Usage, Call Attempts, etc.
1,239,171 Market Population
Q Market Penetration:
adding 4,350 subs/month
• # Subscribers/Market Population
Population Density • use Sales forecasts, usage forecasts
Q Population Density
• Geographic Distribution
Q Construction Activity
new Q Vehicular Traffic Data
Shopping Center
• Vehicle counts on roads
Vehicular Traffic • Calculations of density on major
920
Land Use
5110 roadways from knowledge of vehicle
4215
Databases 22,100 movement, spacing, market
3620
1230
6620 penetration
Q Land Use Database: Area Profiles
Q Aerial Photographs: Count Vehicles!
Traffic Density Along Roadways
Vehicles per mile Q Number of lanes and speed are the main
variable determining number of vehicles on
Vehicle Vehicle Vehicles major highways
Speed, Spacing, per mile,
MPH feet per lane • Typical headway ~1.5 seconds
0 20 264 • Table and figure show capacity of 1
10 42 126
lane
20 64 83
30 86 61 Q When traffic stops, users generally increase
45 119 44 calling activity
60 152 35 Q Multiply number of vehicles by percentage
Vehicle spacing 20 ft. @stop penetration of population to estimate number
Running Headway 1.5 seconds of subscriber vehicles
Vehicle Spacing At Common Roadway Speeds

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 feet
0 MPH
10 MPH
20 MPH
30 MPH
40 MPH
50 MPH
Chapter 7
Planning
Planning &
& Growing
Growing
Networks
Networks
Link Budgets
Performance Measurements
Re-Radiators
Basic Network Objectives
Q The basic basic objectives of a wireless system are:

• COVERAGE: provide sufficient cells to deliver RF coverage of the
entire desired area
• BUILDING/VEHICLE PENETRATION: deliver sufficient signal levels
to adequately penetrate buildings and vehicles where appropriate
• TRAFFIC: ensure that no cell captures more traffic than it can handle
at the desired grade of service (i.e., blocking percentage)
• SCHEDULE: construct the network and bring it to successful
commercial launch at a date which will prevent significant loss of
potential customers to competitors
• PERFORMANCE: design, construct, and adjust the network to deliver
reliable service free from excessive origination and call delivery
failures, dropped calls, quality impairments, and service outages
• ECONOMICS: provide return on investment sufficient to support
operating and capital expenses, expand the network to take
advantage of growth opportunities, and retire costs of construction
prior to depreciation of the network equipment
General Design Considerations and Examples
Q Network design impacts every network objective listed on the

previous page. The first three items actually drive successful
network designs, while the final three are largely results of a good
network design.
Q The following design example in a typical large market shows the
high-level planning and decision-making that goes into successful
network design, and provides data to illustrate the tradeoffs
involved.
Q A spreadsheet file will be provided on diskette by your instructor
for your own interactive use in exploring a test network design for
your own market
Link
Link Budgets
Budgets
Link Budget Example:
Usage Model and Service Assumptions
Interactive Initial System Design Example v1.2

fill in GREEN fields
YELLOW fields calculate automatically
Q This section Step 1. Basic Business Plan Details
outlines the number
Year Launch 1 2 3 4 5
of subscribers and Population 3,886,000 3,949,350 4,012,700 4,076,050 4,139,400 4,202,750
amount of traffic by Penetration, %
#Customers
0.05%
1,781
1.85%
72,933
3.72%
149,453
5.64%
229,941
7.60%
314,451
9.57%
402,360
year BH Erl/Cust 0.1 0.05 0.045 0.05 0.05 0.05
Total BH erl 178.1 3,646.7 6,725.4 11,497.0 15,722.6 20,118.0
Q This section shows 2. Enter building penetration loss and standard deviations from measurements.
the variability of
Composite Probability Of Service & Required Fade Margin
outdoor and indoor Environment Building Building Outdoor Composite Fade
signals, and the Type Median Std. Dev, Std. Dev, Standard Desired Reliability at Margin,
("morphology") Loss, dB dB dB. Deviation Cell Edge, % dB.
building penetration Dense Urban 20 8 8 11.31 75.0% 7.63
Urban 15 8 8 11.31 75.0% 7.63
loss Suburban 15 8 8 11.31 75.0% 7.63
Rural 10 8 8 11.31 75.0% 7.63
Highway 8 6 8 10.00 75.0% 6.74
Reverse Link Budget Example
3. Construct Link Budgets
Reverse Link Budget

Dense
Term or Factor Given Urb. Urban Suburban Rural Highway Formula
MS TX Power (dbm) (+) 23
MS antenna gain and body loss (+/-) 0
MS EIRP (dBm) (+) 23.00 23.00 23.00 23.00 23.00 A
Fade Margin, (dB) (-) -7.63 -7.63 -7.63 -7.63 -6.74 B
Soft Handoff Gain (dB) (+) 4 4 4 4 4 C
Receiver Interf. Margin (dB) (-) -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 D
Building Penetration Loss (dB) (-) -20.00 -15.00 -15.00 -10.00 -8.00 E
BTS RX antenna gain (dBi) (+) 17 17 17 17 17 F
BTS cable loss (dB) (-) -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 G
kTB (dBm/14.4 KHz.) -132.4 H
BTS noise figure (dB) 6.5 I
Eb/Nt (dB) 5.9 J
BTS RX sensitivity (dBm) (-) -120.0 -120.0 -120.0 -120.0 -120.0 H+I+J
A+B+C+D+E
+F+G-
Survivable Uplink Path Loss (dB) (+) 130.4 135.4 135.4 140.4 143.3 (H+I+J)
Q The Reverse Link Budget describes how the energy from the
phone is distributed to the base station, including the major
components of loss and gain within the system
Forward Link Budget Example
Forward Link Budget
Dense
Term or Factor Given Urb. Urban Suburban Rural Highway Formula
BTS TX power (dBm) (+) 45 45 45 45 45
BTS TX power (watts) 31.62 31.62 31.62 31.62 31.62
% Power for traffic channels 74.0% 74.0% 74.0% 74.0% 74.0%
Number of Traffic Channels in use 19 19 19 19 19
BTS cable loss (dB) (-) -3 -3 -3 -3 -3
BTS TX antenna gain (dBi) (+) 17 17 17 17 17
BTS EIRP/traffic channel (dBm) (+,-) 44.9 44.9 44.9 44.9 44.9 A
Fade margin (dB) (-) -7.63 -7.63 -7.63 -7.63 -6.74 B
Receiver interference margin (db) (-) -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 C
Building Penetration Loss (dB) (-) -20.0 -15.0 -15.0 -10.0 -8.0 D
MS antenna gain & body loss (dB) (+,-) 0 0 0 0 0 E
kTB (dBm/14.4 KHz.) -132.4
Subscriber RX noise figure (dB) 10.5
Eb/Nt (dB) 6
Subscriber RX sensitivity (dBm) (-) -115.9 -115.9 -115.9 -115.9 -115.9 F
A+B+C+D
Survivable Downlink Path Loss, dB (+) 130.2 135.2 135.2 140.2 143.1 +E-F
Forward/Reverse Link Balance Dense

Urban Urban Suburban Rural Highway
Which link is dominant? Reverse Reverse Reverse Reverse Reverse
What advantage, dB? 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Q This section shows the forward link power distribution, and

compares the relative balance of the forward and reverse links
Link Budgets: What is the Radius of a Cell?
4. Explore propagation model to figure coverage radius of cell.
Frequency, MHz. 870

Subscriber Antenna Height, M 1.5
Dense
Base Station Antenna Height, M 20 20 30 50 50
Dense
Environmental Correction, dB -2 -5 -10 -17 -17
Coverage Radius, kM 1.30 2.17 6.87 20.86 25.40
Coverage Radius, Miles 0.81 1.35 4.27 12.96 15.78
Q This section uses the Okumura-Hata/Cost-231 model to describe

the frequency, antenna heights, and environmental factors, and
their relationship on the cell’s coverage distance
Link Budgets: Putting It All Together
5. Calculate number of cells required for coverage, ignoring traffic considerations.
Q Step 4 Dense Total
estimates Urban Urban Suburban Rural Highway # Cells
Covered Area of this type, kM^2 55 450 1700 3400 1400 Required
the number One cell's coverage in this zone, kM^2 5.35 14.73 148.46 1367.34 2026.72 for System
10.3 30.6 11.5 2.5 0.7 55.5
of cells # Cells required to cover zone
required to 6. What is the traffic capacity (in erlangs) of your chosen BTS configuration, year-by-year?
serve each Year Launch 1 2 3 4 5

Erlangs which one BTS can carry 18.3 18.3 90 90 450 450
distinct
environment 7, 8. What is the total busy-hour erlang traffic on your system? How many BTS are required?
within the Year Launch 1 2 3 4 5

Total System Busy-Hour Erlangs 178.1 3,646.7 6,725.4 11,497.0 15,722.6 20,118.0
system Capacity of One BTS, erlangs 18.3 18.3 90 90 450 450
# BTS required to handle all the traffic 9.7 199.3 74.7 127.7 34.9 44.7
Q Steps 5, 6,
9. Examine your market, #BTS required for coverage and capacity; estimate total
and 7 number of BTS required.
estimate the Year Launch 1 2 3 4 5
RF coverage #BTS req'd just to achieve coverage 55.5 55.5 55.5 55.5 55.5 55.5
#BTS required just to carry traffic 9.7 199.3 74.7 127.7 34.9 44.7
from each Estimated total #BTS required 56.3 206.8 206.8 206.8 206.8 206.8
cell, and the
number of
cells
required
Operational
Operational Measurements
Measurements
Some
Some Capacity
Capacity Considerations
Considerations
Total Blocked Call Percentage Example
Percent Total Block Call Percentage
8.0%
7.5%
7.0% Blkd
6.5%
6.0%
5.5%
5.0%
4.5%
4.0%
3.5%
3.0%
2.5%
2.0%
1.5%
1.0%
Date
Q This is an example of a cumulative system-wide total blocked call

percentage chart maintained by one PCS system
Dropped Call Percentage Tracking Example
Percent
Total Drop Call Percentage
5.0%
4.5% %Drops
4.0%
3.5%
3.0%
2.5%
2.0%
1.5%
1.0%
0.5%
0.0%
Date
Q Dropped call percentage tracking by a PCS system.
Total System Daily MOU Example
Daily Total System MOU

MOU
300000 Daily Total System MOU
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
Date
Q Total system daily MOU plotted by a PCS system
“Top Ten” Performance Tracking Example
Call Attempts
Eng MSC Call %Call Block %Blck Acc %Acc Drop %Drop
Site Site Call Att Succ Succ Calls Calls Fail Fail Calls Calls Call Attempts
6.1 13X 2561 2234 87.2 130 5.1 130 5.1 145 5.7 3000
2.1 2X 2244 2017 89.9 101 4.5 101 4.5 93 4.1
2500
1.2 1Y 1922 1743 90.7 83 4.3 83 4.3 66 3.4
2000
64.3 93Z 1833 1549 84.5 137 7.5 136 7.4 110 6.0
108.2 30Y 1740 1589 91.3 46 2.6 45 2.6 83 4.8 1500
1.3 1Z 1630 1495 91.7 31 1.9 31 1.9 81 5.0 1000

63.2 57Y 1623 1486 91.6 49 3.0 49 3.0 66 4.1 500
102.2 4Y 1615 1495 92.6 18 1.1 18 1.1 70 4.3
Calls
0
108.1
108.2
102.2
108.1
64.3
63.2
43.3
6.1
2.1
1.2
1.3
30X 1490 1387 93.1 27 1.8 27 1.8 54 3.6
Sector
43.3 42Z 1488 1410 94.8 4 0.3 4 0.3 53 3.6
% Blocked Calls September 5, 1997

Eng MSC Call %Call Block %Blck Acc %Acc Drop %Drop
Site Site Call Att Succ Succ Calls Calls Fail Fail Calls Calls % Blocked Calls
64.3 93Z 1833 1549 84.5 137 7.5 136 7.4 110 6.0 8.0
6.1 13X 2561 2234 87.2 130 5.1 130 5.1 145 5.7 7.0
63.3 57Z 1282 1098 85.7 65 5.1 65 5.1 90 7.0 6.0
2.1 2X 2244 2017 89.9 101 4.5 101 4.5 93 4.1 5.0
4.0
1.2 1Y 1922 1743 90.7 83 4.3 83 4.3 66 3.4
3.0
63.2 57Y 1623 1486 91.6 49 3.0 49 3.0 66 4.1 2.0
64.1 93X 1027 926 90.2 30 2.9 30 2.9 58 5.7 1.0
26.3 35Z 855 698 81.6 24 2.8 24 2.8 112 13.1 0.0
108.2
64.3
63.3
63.2
64.1
26.3
6.1
2.1
1.2
1.3
108.2 30Y 1740 1589 91.3 46 2.6 45 2.6 83 4.8 Sector
1.3 1Z 1630 1495 91.7 31 1.9 31 1.9 81 5.0
Q Many operators use scripts or spreadsheet macros to produce

ranked lists of sites with heavy traffic, performance problems, etc.
Nortel Operational Capacity Considerations
MTX BSC-BSM BTS

DISCO has
192 ports One T-1 can carry all
Typical CM processor
GPS
max. Each traffic originated by a
one-carrier BTS; special
capacity considerations
BTS uses 1,
consideration required if
GPS
SBS shelf 1,
LPP CIU 1, daisy-chaining
CDMA LPP:
GPSR
Link 2, Ctrl. 2,
One pair SLM CM BSM GPSR
4.
CIUs and BSM
One pair CDSU CDSU DISCO TFU
Sufficient channel
CAUs per elements required for
approx. 600 DMS-BUS TFU1 CDSU traffic of all sectors:
erlangs one CE per link; 20
Ch. Card ACC CE per Channel Card
CDSU DISCO 1 CDSU
LPP ENET LPP CDSU Σα64 Walsh
Txcvr
A
RFFE
Codes/sector
A
CDSU DISCO 2
CDSU Σβ64 Walsh
Txcvr
B
RFFE
Codes/sector
B
DTCs CDSU Σχ64 Walsh
Txcvr
C
Codes/sector
RFFE
C
DTC & ENET: SBS Forward RF Capacity:

One port per IOC links use available
Vocoders BTS TX power
Vocoder plus
one port per Selectors Sufficient vocoders/selectors
outgoing trunk. required in BSC SBS, one per
Reverse RF Capacity:
simultaneous call on the system.
links cause noise floor
8 Vocoders per SBS card, 12
rise, use mobile power
cards per shelf, 4 shelves per
SBS cabinet.
PSTN •1-2001 Current Product Capabilities:
PSTN trunk groups must
be dimensioned to
•Each BSC can have up to 4 DISCO shelves
support erlang load. •About 240 sites, roughly 6000 erlangs capacity
•Each MTX can have up to 2 BSCs
Reradiators
Reradiators
Wireless Reradiators
Q Reradiators (also called “boosters”,
“repeaters”, “cell enhancers”) are amplifying
devices intended to add coverage to a cell site
or service inside a large building
Q Reradiators are transparent to the host Cell RR
Wireless system
• A reradiator amplifies RF signals in both
directions, uplink and downlink
• The system does not control reradiators and
has no knowledge of anything they do to the
signals they amplify, on either uplink or
downlink
Q Careful attention is required when using Reradiators are a
reradiators to solve coverage problems ‘“crutch” with
• to achieve the desired coverage definite application
improvement restrictions. Many
operators prefer not
• to avoid creating interference to use re-radiators at
• to ensure the active search window is large all. However,
enough to accommodate both donor signal reradiators are a
and reradiator signal as seen by mobiles cost-effective
solution for some
problems.
Q Two types of Reradiators commonly are

applied to solve two types of situations:
• “filling in” holes within the Cell RR
coverage area of a cell site -- valleys
and other obstructed locations,
convention centers, etc.
– Low-Power broadband
reradiators are used for this
purpose (AMPS, TDMA, GSM,
CDMA)
RR
• expanding the service area of a
cell to large areas beyond its natural Cell
coverage area
– High-Power, channelized
frequency-translating reradiators
are used for this purpose
– Only used in AMPS, TDMA; not
currently feasible for CDMA
Propagation Path Loss Considerations
Q To solve a coverage problem using a reradiator, path loss and link
budget must be considered
• how much reradiator gain is required?
• how much reradiator output power is required?
• what type of antennas would be best?
• how much antenna isolation is needed?
• how big will the reradiator footprint be?
• how far can the reradiator be from the cell?
• will the reradiator interfere with the cell in other areas?
• What is the propagation delay through the reradiator, in chips?
• Will search windows need to be adjusted for compensation?
Path Loss Gain RR
Cell Gain
(free space
ERP usually applies) Line Loss Path Loss (free space??)
RR
Gain Signal Level
in target area
Search Window Considerations
Q A reradiator introduces additional PN delay
• typically 5 to 30 chips
• the energy seen by the mobile and by the base station is
spread out over a wider range of delays
DON’T FORGET THE WINDOWS! Reference PN
Search Windows must be widened by Donor Energy Reradiator Energy
approximately 2 x reradiator delay to
ensure capture of both donor and rerad
energy by mobile and base station.
•Srch_Win_A, Srch_Win_R, Srch_Win_N
•Base station Acquisition & Demodulation
search windows
Donor Direct Signal from

Cell Donor Cell
RR
Delay = ? chips Reradiator

Signal
Passive Wireless Reradiators
Typical Link Budget
Q In a few special cases, it is possible to
reradiate useful Wireless coverage without Passive Reradiator
any amplifiers involved! Link Budget Example
Donor cell EIRP +52 dBm
Q Link budget is marginal Path Loss Donor<>RR -102 dB
• donor cell must be nearby RR Donor Ant. Gain +22 dBi
• high-gain antenna required toward Signal Level into Line -28 dBm
donor cell RR Line Loss -6 dB
• distance from RR to user must be RR Serving Ant. Gain +12 dBi
small Path Loss RR<>User -69 dB
– ≅100 feet feasible w/omni Signal Level @ User -91 dBm
antenna
– ≅500 feet w/directional antenna
Donor Path Loss

Cell (2.1 miles,
ERP free space)
Basement Auditorium, etc.
Line Loss Path Loss
-6 db (250 ft., free space)
Broadband Low-Power Wireless Reradiators
Q Used mainly for filling

small “holes” in coverage
area of a cell Broadband
Reradiator
Q Input and output on same
frequency Cell
• usable gain: must be Unavoidable
Coupling
less than isolation
between antennas, or C
o
BPF:
Uplink
C
o
oscillation occurs m
b
m
b
i i
n BPF: n
• this gain restriction e
r Downlink e
r
seriously limits
available coverage
• Typically achievable Wireless Spectrum
isolations: 70-95 dB
• Good point: every
Frequency
channel in donor cell is
re-radiated
Broadband Low-Power Wireless Reradiators
Typical Link Budget
Broadband Reradiator
Q Broadband low-power reradiators can Link Budget Example
deliver useful signal levels over Donor cell EIRP +52 dBm
footprints up to roughly 1 mile using Path Loss Donor<>RR -111 dB
nearby donor cells RR Donor Ant. Gain +12 dBi
RR Line Loss -3 dB
Q Link budget is usually very “tight” Signal Level into RR -50 dBm
• paths can’t be seriously obstructed RR Gain +50 dB
• antenna isolation must be at least RR Power Output +0 dBm
10 db more than desired RR gain RR Line Loss -3 dB
RR Serving Ant. Gain +12 dBi
• can’t overdrive reradiator 3rd. Path Loss RR<>User -89.4 dB
order IM Signal Level @ User -80.4 dBm
Donor
Path Loss Gain RR
Cell Gain
ERP
(6 miles,
Line Loss Path Loss
free space) (1/2 mile,
RR free space)
Gain Signal Level
in target area
Other Reradiator Issues
Q Amplification of Undesired Signals

• The reradiator is a broadband device capable of amplifying
other signals near the intended CDMA carrier, both on uplink
and downlink. Will these signals capture unwanted traffic,
cause unwanted interference, or overdrive CDMA handsets or
the base station?
Q Linearity
• CDMA reradiators must be carefully adjusted to ensure they
are not overdriven. Overdriving would produce clipping or
other nonlinearities, resulting in code interference
Q Traffic Capacity
• Re-radiators may introduce enough new traffic to create
overloads in the donor cell
Q Alarms
• Separate arrangements must be made for integrating alarms
and surveillance reports from reradiators into the system
Chapter 8
Technical
Technical
Introduction
Introduction to
to CDMA
CDMA
IS-95, CDMA2000 and a glimpse of 1xEV
CDMA: Using A New Dimension
Q All CDMA users occupy the same frequency CDMA

at the same time! Frequency and time are
not used as discriminators
Q CDMA operates by using CODING to
discriminate between users
Q CDMA interference comes mainly from
nearby users
Q Each user is a small voice in a roaring
crowd -- but with a uniquely recoverable Figure of Merit: C/I
code (carrier/interference ratio)
AMPS: +17 dB
TDMA: +14 to +17 dB
GSM: +7 to 9 dB.
CDMA: -10 to -17 dB.
CDMA: Eb/No ~+6 dB.
Two Types of CDMA
There are Two types of CDMA:
Frequency Hopping CDMA Q Frequency-Hopping
User 1 User 2 User 3 User 4
• Each user’s narrowband signal hops
among discrete frequencies, and the
User 3 User 4 User 1 unused User 2 receiver follows in sequence
• Frequency-Hopping Spread
User 1 User 4 User 3 User 2 unused Spectrum (FHSS) CDMA is NOT
currently used in wireless systems,
unused User 1 User 2 User 4 User 3
although used by the military
Q Direct Sequence
Frequency
• narrowband input from a user is
Direct Sequence CDMA
coded (“spread”) by a user-unique
broadband code, then transmitted
Time Frequency
User 1
• broadband signal is received;
receiver knows, applies user’s code,
+ Code 1 recovers users’ data
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
= Composite (DSSS) CDMA IS the method used
in IS-95 commercial systems
DSSS Spreading: Time-Domain View
Input A: User’s Data Originating Site
At Originating Site: 1
Q Input A: User’s Data @ Input B: Spreading Code
XOR
Exclusive-OR
19,200 bits/second Gate
Q Input B: Walsh Code #23

@ 1.2288 Mcps Spread Spectrum Signal
Q Output: Spread
spectrum signal
via air interface Input A: Received Signal Destination Site
At Destination Site: XOR

Input B: Spreading Code Exclusive-OR
Gate
Q Input A: Received
spread spectrum signal
Q Input B: Walsh Code #23 Output: User’s Original Data
@ 1.2288 Mcps 1
Q Output: User’s Data @
19,200 bits/second just
as originally sent Drawn to actual scale and time alignment
Spreading from a Frequency-Domain View
TRADITIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

Spread Spectrum
Narrowband
Q Traditional technologies try Slow Signal Slow
to squeeze signal into Information Information
Sent Recovered
minimum required TX RX
bandwidth
Q CDMA uses larger SPREAD-SPECTRUM SYSTEM
bandwidth but uses Wideband
resulting processing gain to Slow
Signal
Slow
increase capacity Information
Sent
Information
Recovered
TX RX
Fast Fast
Spreading Spreading
Sequence Sequence
Spread Spectrum Payoff:

Processing Gain
The CDMA Spread Spectrum Payoff:
Would you like a lump-sum, or monthly payments?
Q Shannon's work suggests that a certain CDMA Spreading Gain

bit rate of information deserves a Consider a user with a 9600
certain bandwidth bps vocoder talking on a
CDMA signal 1,228,800 hz
Q If one CDMA user is carried alone by a wide. The processing gain is
CDMA signal, the processing gain is 1,228,800/9600 = 128, which
is 21 db. What happens if
large - roughly 21 db for an 8k vocoder. additional users are added?
• Each doubling of the number of
users consumes 3 db of the # Users Processing Gain
processing gain 1 21 db
• Somewhere above 32 users, the 2 18 db
signal-to-noise ratio becomes 4 15 db
undesirable and the ultimate
8 12 db
capacity of the sector is reached
16 9 db
Q Practical CDMA systems restrict the
number of users per sector to ensure 32 6 db
processing gain remains at usable 64…..Uh, Regis, can I just
levels take the money I've already
won, and go home now?
CDMA Uses Code Channels
Building a
Q A CDMA signal uses many chips to convey just CDMA Signal
one bit of information
Q Each user has a unique chip pattern, in effect a Bits
code channel from User’s Vocoder
Q To recover a bit, integrate a large number of chips

interpreted by the user’s known code pattern Forward Error
Correction
Q Other users’ code patterns appear random and
integrate in a random self-canceling fashion, don’t Symbols
disturb the bit decoding decision being made with
the proper code pattern
Coding and
Spreading
Chips
CDMA’s Nested Spreading Sequences
ORIGINATING SITE DESTINATION

Spread-Spectrum Chip Streams
X+A X+A+B X+A+B+C X+A+B X+A
Input Recovered
Data Data
X X
Spreading Spreading Spreading Spreading Spreading Spreading

Sequence Sequence Sequence Sequence Sequence Sequence
A B C C B A
Q CDMA combines three different spreading sequences to create
unique, robust channels
Q The sequences are easy to generate on both sending and receiving
ends of each link
Q “What we do, we can undo”
One of the CDMA Spreading Sequences:
The Family of Walsh Codes
WALSH CODES
# ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
Q 64 “Magic” Sequences, each 64 chips long 3

4
5
0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
6 0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
Q Each Walsh Code is precisely Orthogonal 7

8
9
10
0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
with respect to all other Walsh Codes 11

12
13
0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
14 0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
• it’s simple to generate the codes, or 15

16
17
0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
• they’re small enough to use from ROM 19

20
21
22
0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
24 0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
26 0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
27 0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
28 0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
Unique Properties:
29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
Mutual Orthogonality
33 0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
34 0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
35 0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
36 0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
37 0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
40 0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
42 0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
EXAMPLE: 43
44
45
0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
46 0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
47 0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
Correlation of Walsh Code #23 with Walsh Code #59 48

49
50
0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
#23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110 53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
#59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001 55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
56 0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
Sum 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111 57 0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
60 0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
Correlation Results: 32 1’s, 32 0’s: Orthogonal!! 61

62
0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
In CDMA2000, user data comes at various speeds, and different lengths of walsh codes can exist.
See Course 332 for more details on CDMA2000 1xRTT fast data channels and additional Walsh codes.
The Other Two Spreading Sequences:
The Pseudo-random Noise (PN) codes
An Ordinary Shift Register
Q Other CDMA sequences are
generated in shift registers
Sequence repeats every N chips,
Q Plain shift register: no fun, where N is number of cells in register
sequence = length of register
A Tapped, Summing Shift Register
Q Tapped shift register generates a
wild, self-mutating sequence 2N-1
chips long (N=register length) Sequence repeats every 2N-1 chips,
• Such sequences match if where N is number of cells in register
compared in step (no-brainer,
A Special Characteristic of Sequences
any sequence matches itself) Generated in Tapped Shift Registers
• Such sequences appear Compared In-Step: Matches Itself
approximately orthogonal if Sequence:
Self, in sync:
compared with themselves not Sum: Complete Correlation: All 0’s
exactly matched in time
Compared Shifted: Little Correlation
• false correlation typically <2% Sequence:
Self, Shifted:
Sum: Practically Orthogonal: Half 1’s, Half 0’s
Another CDMA Spreading Sequence:
The Short PN Code, used for Scrambling
Original IS-95 CDMA PN Scrambling
RF: cos ωt
I-sequence
32,768 chips long
26-2/3 ms. Walsh QPSK-
(75 repetitions in 2 sec.) user’s modulated
Σ RF
I symbols Output
Q Same
information
duplicated Q-sequence
Short PN
RF: sin ωt
on I and Q
Q The short PN code consists of Scrambling
two PN Sequences, I and Q, each New CDMA2000 1x Complex Scrambling
32,768 chips long
RF:
• Generated in similar but cos ωt
differently-tapped 15-bit shift I-sequence +
Output
Serial to
Parallel
registers user’s
Walsh Σ
• the two sequences scramble symbols
- Σ
the information on the I and Q +
QPSK
phase channels Different Σ
Information +
Q Figures to the right show how one on I and Q Q-sequence
sin ωt
user’s channel is built at the bTS Complex Scrambling
RF
Another CDMA Spreading Sequence:
The PN Long Code
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER dynamic contents, zero timing shift clock
MASK REGISTER unique steady contents cause unique timing shift
SUMMER holds dynamic modulo-2 sum of LC State and Mask registers
Each clock cycle, all the Summer bits are

added into a single-bit modulo-2 sum
The shifted Long Code emerges, chip by chip!
Q Every phone and every BTS channel element has a Long Code generator
• Long Code State Register makes long code at system reference timing
• A Mask Register holds a user-specific unique pattern of bits
Q Each clock pulse drives the Long Code State Register to its next state
• State register and Mask register contents are added in the Summer
• Summer contents are modulo-2 added to produce just a single bit output
Q The output bits are the Long Code, but shifted to the user’s unique offset
Different Masks Produce
Different Long PN Offsets
TRAFFIC CHANNEL – NORMAL
USING THE PUBLIC LONG CODE MASK Q Ordinary mobiles use their ESNs and
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER
the Public Long Code Mask to
produce their unique Long Code PN
fixed PERMUTED ESN offsets
SUMMING REGISTER
• main ingredient: mobile ESN
Q Mobiles needing greater privacy use
the Private Long Code Mask
TRAFFIC CHANNEL – PRIVATE
USING THE PRIVATE LONG CODE MASK • instead of 32-bit ESN, the mask
value is produced from SSD
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER
Word B in a calculation similar to
calculated PRIVATE LONG CODE MASK
authentication
Q Each BTS sector has an Access
SUMMING REGISTER
Channel where mobiles transmit for
registration and call setup
ACCESS CHANNEL (IDLE MODE) • the Access Channel Long Code
USING THE ACCESS CHANNEL LONG CODE MASK Mask includes Access Channel
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER #, Paging Channel #, BTS ID,
and Pilot PN
fixed AC# PC# BASE_ID PILOT PN
• The BTS transmits all of these
SUMMING REGISTER
parameters on the Paging
Channel
IS-95
IS-95 CDMA
CDMA Forward
Forward and
and
Reverse
Reverse Channels
Channels
The Original IS-95 CDMA Code Channels
FORWARD CHANNELS REVERSE CHANNELS
W0: PILOT
W32: SYNC
BTS W1: PAGING ACCESS
Wn: TRAFFIC TRAFFIC
Q Existing IS-95A/JStd-008 CDMA uses the channels above for call setup and
traffic channels – all call processing transactions use these channels
• traffic channels are 9600 bps (rate set 1) or 14400 bps (rate set 2)
Q IS-2000 CDMA is backward-compatible with IS-95, but offers additional
radio configurations and additional kinds of possible channels
• These additional modes are called Radio Configurations
• IS-95 Rate Set 1 and 2 are IS-2000 Radio Configurations 1 & 2
The Code Channels of 1xRTT Rev. 0
Same coding as IS-95B, Includes Power
How many 1 F-Pilot Backward compatible Control Subchannel R-Pilot 1
Possible: Same coding as IS-95B, Access Channel
1 F-Sync Backward compatible (IS-95B compatible) R-ACH or
Enhanced 1
1 to 7 PAGING
Same coding as IS-95B,
Access Channel R-EACH
Backward compatible
Common
0 to 8 F-BCH Broadcast Channel Control Channel R-CCCH 0 or 1
0 to 3 F-QPCH Quick Paging Channel

R-TRAFFIC
Reverse Fundamental
Common Channel (IS95B comp.) R-FCH 1
0 to 4 F-CPCCH Power Control Channel
Dedicated
BTS Common Control Channel R-DCCH 0 or 1
0 to 7 F-CACH Assignment Channel
Reverse
Common Supplemental Channel R-SCH 0 to 2
0 to 7 F-CCCH Control Channels
Users:
0 to many F-TRAFFIC Forward
Traffic Channels
Q CDMA2000 1xRTT has a rich
1 F-FCH Fundamental Channel
variety of traffic channels for
Dedicated
voice and fast data
0 or 1 F-DCCH Control Channel
Q There are also optional
Supplemental
0 to 7 F-SCH IS-95B only Channels IS-95B only additional control channels
Supplemental for more effective operation
0 to 2 F-SCH Channels RC3,4,5
See Course 332 for more details.
Spreading Rates & Radio Configurations
Spreading Radio Data Data Radio
Rate Forward Link Configuration Rates Rates Configuration Reverse Link
Required. IS-95B Compatible Required. IS-95B Compatible
No CDMA2000 coding features RC1 9600 9600 RC1 No CDMA2000 coding features
Compatible with IS-95B RS2 Compatible with IS-95B RS2

SR1 No CDMA2000 coding features RC2 14400 14400 RC2 No CDMA2000 coding features
1xRTT Quarter-rate convolutional or 9600
Turbo Coding, base rate 9600 RC3 153600
9600 Quarter rate convolutional or
Turbo coding; Half rate
1 carrier
1.2288 9600
153600 RC3 convolutional or Turbo coding;
Half-rate convolutional or
MCPS Turbo Coding, base rate 9600 RC4 307200 307200 base rate 9600
Quarter-rate convolutional or 14400 14400 Quarter rate convolutional or

Turbo Coding, base rate 14400 RC5 230400 230400
RC4 Turbo Coding, base rate 14400
1/6 rate convolutional 9600

SR3 or Turbo coding, base rate 9600 RC6 9600
307200 Required. ¼ or 1/3 convolutional
3xRTT 9600
307200 RC5 or Turbo coding, base rate 9600
Required. 1/3 rate convolutional
Fwd: or Turbo coding, base rate 9600 RC7 614400 614400
3 carriers
1.2288 ¼ or 1/3 rate convolutional or 14400
MCPS Turbo coding, base rate 14400 RC8 460800
14400
¼ or ½ convolutional or Turbo
Rev:
14400
460800 RC6 encoding, base rate 14400
3.6864 ½ or 1/3 rate convolutional or
MCPS Turbo encoder, base rate 14400 RC9 1036800 1036800
Walsh Codes in 1xRTT
SYMBOLS of 2G VOICE or DATA

One Symbol of Information
19,200 symbols/second
DATA
SYMBOLS
WALSH
CODE
1,228,800 walsh chips/second
64 chips of Walsh Code
Data Rates are different, but

Chip Rates must stay the same!
SYMBOLS of 3G 153.6 kb/s DATA
One Symbol of Fast Data 307,200 symbols/second
DATA
SYMBOLS
WALSH
CODE
4 Chips of Walsh Code 1,228,800 walsh chips/second
The Famous Walsh Codes from IS-95 Days
WALSH CODES
# ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
Q 64 “Magic” Sequences, each 64 chips long 3

4
5
0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
6 0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
Q Each Walsh Code is precisely Orthogonal with 7

8
9
0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
respect to all other Walsh Codes and their 10

11
12
0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
opposites too! 13
14
15
0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
16 0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
• it’s simple to generate the codes, or 17
18
19
0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
• they’re small enough to use from ROM

20 0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
21 0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
22 0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
24 0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
26 0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
27 0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
28 0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
Unique Properties:
29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
Mutual Orthogonality
33 0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
34 0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
35 0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
36 0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
37 0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
40 0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
42 0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
EXAMPLE: 43
44
45
0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
46 0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
47 0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
Correlation of Walsh Code #23 with Walsh Code #59 48

49
50
0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
#23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110 53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
#59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001 55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
56 0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
Sum 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111 57 0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
60 0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
Correlation Results: 32 1’s, 32 0’s: Orthogonal!! 61

62
0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
Families of the Walsh Codes
WALSH WALSH WALSH WALSH WALSH WALSH CODES WALSH CODES
# 1-Chip # 2-Chips # 4-Chips # 8-Chips # ---- 16-Chips ------- # ----------- 32-Chip Sequence ------------- # ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0 0 0 00 0 0000 0 00000000 0 0000000000000000 0 00000000000000000000000000000000 0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 01 1 0101 1 01010101 1 0101010101010101 1 01010101010101010101010101010101 1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011 2 00110011 2 0011001100110011 2 00110011001100110011001100110011 2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
3 0110 3 01100110 3 0110011001100110 3 01100110011001100110011001100110 3 0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
2x2 4x4
4 00001111 4 0000111100001111 4 00001111000011110000111100001111 4 0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
5 01011010 5 0101101001011010 5 01011010010110100101101001011010 5 0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
6 00111100 6 0011110000111100 6 00111100001111000011110000111100 6 0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
7 01101001 7 0110100101101001 7 01101001011010010110100101101001 7 0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
8 0000000011111111 8 00000000111111110000000011111111 8 0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
8x8
9 0101010110101010 9 01010101101010100101010110101010 9 0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
10 0011001111001100 10 00110011110011000011001111001100 10 0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
11 0110011010011001 11 01100110100110010110011010011001 11 0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
12 0000111111110000 12 00001111111100000000111111110000 12 0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
13 0101101010100101 13 01011010101001010101101010100101 13 0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
14 0011110011000011 14 00111100110000110011110011000011 14 0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
15 0110100110010110 15 01101001100101100110100110010110 15 0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
16 00000000000000001111111111111111 16 0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
16x16
17 01010101010101011010101010101010 17 0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 00110011001100111100110011001100 18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
19 01100110011001101001100110011001 19 0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
20 00001111000011111111000011110000 20 0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
21 01011010010110101010010110100101 21 0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
Walsh Code Names

22 00111100001111001100001111000011 22 0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
23 01101001011010011001011010010110 23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
24 00000000111111111111111100000000 24 0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 01010101101010101010101001010101 25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
W1232 = “Walsh Code #12, 32 chips long.” 26

27
28
00110011110011001100110000110011
01100110100110011001100101100110
00001111111100001111000000001111
26
27
28
0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
29 01011010101001011010010101011010 29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 00111100110000111100001100111100 30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 01101001100101101001011001101001 31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
Walsh Level Mapping 32x32

32
33
34
35
0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
The Walsh Codes shown here are in logical 36
37
0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
state values 0 and 1. 39
40
0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
Walsh Codes also can exist as physical 42
43
0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
bipolar signals. Logical zero is the signal 44

45
46
0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
value +1 and Logical 1 is the signal value -1. 47

48
0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
49 0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
Mapping: Logical 0,1 > +1, -1 Physical 50
51
0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
Q All Walsh codes can be built to any size from a 56

57
58
0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
single zero by replicating and inverting 59

60
61
0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
Q All Walsh matrixes are square -- same number

62 0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
of codes and number of chips per code 64x64

Walsh Code Trees and Interdependencies
W364
W332 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 W3564
W316 0110 0110 0110 0110
W1964
W1932 0110 0110 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001
8 W5164
W3 0110 0110
W1164
W1132 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001
16 0110 W4364
W11 0110 1001 1001
W2764
W2732 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001 0110 0110 W5964
W34 0110
W764
W732 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 W3964
W716 0110 1001 0110 1001 W2364
W2332 0110 1001 0110 1001 1001 0110 1001 0110
8 W5564
W7 0110 1001
W1564
W1532 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110
16 0110 W4764
W15 1001 1001 0110
W3164
W3132 0110 1001 1001 0110 1001 0110 0110 1001 W6364
Q Entire Walsh matrices can be built by replicating and inverting -- Individual

Walsh codes can also be expanded in the same way.
Q CDMA adds each symbol of information to one complete Walsh code
Q Faster symbol rates therefore require shorter Walsh codes
Q If a short Walsh code is chosen to carry a fast data channel, that walsh
code and all its replicative descendants are compromised and cannot be
reused to carry other signals
Q Therefore, the supply of available Walsh codes on a sector diminishes
greatly while a fast data channel is being transmitted!
Q CDMA2000 Base stations can dip into a supply of quasi-orthogonal codes
if needed to permit additional channels during times of heavy loading
Walsh Code Families and Exclusions
Q Consider a forward link supplemental WALSH CODES
channel being transmitted with a data #
0
---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
W34 0110 1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
rate of 307,200 symbols/second 2

3
4
0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
5 0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
• Each symbol will occupy 4 chips at 6
7
8
0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
the 1x rate of 1,228,800 c/s. 9
10
11
0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
12 0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
• A 4-chip walsh code will be used for 13
14
0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
this channel 15
16
17
0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
Q If Walsh Code #3 (4 chips) is chosen for 19

20
21
0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
this channel: 22
23
24
0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
• Use of W34 will preclude other usage 26

27
28
0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
of the following 64-chip walsh codes: 29

30
31
0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
• 3, 35, 19, 51, 11, 43, 27, 59, 7, 39, 33

34
35
0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
23, 55, 15, 47, 31, 63 -- all forbidden! 36

37
38
0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
• 16 codes are tied up since the data is 40

41
42
0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
being sent at 16 times the rate of 43

44
45
0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
conventional 64-chip walsh codes 46
47
48
0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
Q The BTS controller managing this sector

49 0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
50 0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
must track the precluded walsh codes 52

53
54
0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
and ensure they aren’t assigned 55

56
57
0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
Which Walsh Codes get tied up by another? 60

61
62
0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
Wxxyyties up every YYth Walsh Code starting with #XX.

63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
153,600
307200
76,800
38,400
19,200
9,600
4,800
2,400
Code#
Code#
Code#
31 Code#
Code#
Code#
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
127
63 19.2k 63
38.4k 95
31 19.2k
ksps
76.8
31
RF100 - 153
15
153.6 ksps
111
47 19.2k 47
15
38.4k
F-SCH
79
15 19.2k 15
7
119
38.4k 55 19.2k 55
23
87
23 19.2k
ksps
76.8
23
7
307.2 ksps
103
39 19.2k
Walsh code’s parents and children. Remember, we cannot use any Walsh code if
39
38.4k
F-SCH
7
This way of arranging Walsh codes is called “bit reversal order”. It shows each
71
Forward Link Walsh Codes in 1xRTT
7 Paging 7 7
3
123
59 19.2k 59
27
38.4k 91
27 19.2k
ksps
76.8
27
11
153.6 ksps
107
43 19.2k 43
11
38.4k
F-SCH
75
11 19.2k 11
3
115
51 19.2k 51
19
38.4k
Introduction to Wireless & CDMA -- RF100 v3.0 - (c) 2008 Scott Baxter
83
19 19.2k
ksps
76.8
19
3
99
35 19.2k
another Walsh code directly above it or below it is in use.
35
38.4k
3
67
3 Paging 3 3
125
61 19.2k 61
29
38.4k 93
29 19.2k
ksps
76.8
29
13
153.6 ksps
109
45 19.2k 45
13
38.4k
F-SCH
77
13 19.2k 13
5
117
53 19.2k 53
21
38.4k 85
21
ksps
76.8
19.2k 21
5
101
37 19.2k 37
38.4k
5
69
5 Paging 5 5
1
121
57 19.2k 57
25
38.4k 89
25 19.2k
ksps
76.8
25
9
105
41 19.2k 41
38.4k
9
73
9 19.2k 9
1
113
49 19.2k 49
17
38.4k 81
17 19.2k 18
1
97
33 19.2k 33
1
65
1 Paging 1
126
62 19.2k 62
30
38.4k 94
30 19.2k
ksps
76.8
30
14
153.6 ksps
110
46 19.2k 46
14
38.4k
F-SCH
78
14 19.2k 14
6
118
54 19.2k 54
22
38.4k 86
22 19.2k
ksps
76.8
22
6
307.2 ksps
102
38 19.2k 38
38.4k
F-SCH
6
70
6 PCH 6 6
2
122
58 19.2k 58
26
38.4k 90
26 19.2k
ksps
76.8
26
10
153.6 ksps
106
42 19.2k 42
10
38.4k
F-SCH
74
10 19.2k 10
2
114
50 19.2k 50
18
38.4k 82
18 19.2k
ksps
76.8
18
2
98
34 19.2k 34
38.4k
2
66
2 PCH 2 2
124
60 19.2k 60
28
38.4k 92
28 19.2k
ksps
76.8
28
12
153.6 ksps
108
44 19.2k 44
12
38.4k
F-SCH
76
12 19.2k 12
4
116
52 19.2k 52
20
38.4k 84
20 19.2k
ksps
76.8
20
4
100
36 19.2k 36
38.4k
4
68
4 PCH 4 4
0
120
56 19.2k 56
July, 2008
24
38.4k 88
24 19.2k
ksps
76.8
24
8
104
40 19.2k 40
38.4k
8
72
8 19.2k 8
0
112
48 48
QPCH
16
QPCH
80
16 16
QPCH
TX Div PIlot
0
96
32 Sync 32
Code# 0
64
0 Pilot 0
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
4 chips 8 chips 16 chips 32 chips 64 chips 128 chips
153,600
307200
76,800
38,400
19,200
9,600
4,800
2,400
Code#
Code#
Code#
31 Code#
Code#
Code#
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
127
63 19.2k 63
38.4k
???????
95
31 19.2k
ksps
76.8
31
RF100 - 154
15
153.6 ksps
But if the users are highly mobile, forward power may exhaust at typically 30-40 users.
111
47 19.2k 47
15
38.4k
F-SCH
79
15 19.2k 15
7
119
38.4k 55 19.2k
In fixed-wireless or “stadium” type applications, all walsh codes may be usable.
55
23
87
23 19.2k
ksps
76.8
23
7
307.2 ksps
103
39 19.2k 39
38.4k
F-SCH
71
7 19.2k 7
3
123
59 19.2k
Pilot, Paging Sync, up to 61 Voice Users
59
27
38.4k 91
27 19.2k
ksps
76.8
27
11
153.6 ksps
107
43 19.2k 43
11
38.4k
F-SCH
75
11 19.2k 11
3
115
51 19.2k 51
19
38.4k
83
19 19.2k
ksps
76.8
IS-95 Today Typical Usage:
19
3
99
35 19.2k 35
38.4k
3
67
3 19.2k 3
125
61 19.2k 61
29
38.4k 93
29 19.2k
ksps
76.8
29
13
153.6 ksps
109
45 19.2k 45
13
38.4k
F-SCH
77
13 19.2k 13
5
117
53 19.2k 53
21
38.4k 85
21 19.2k
ksps
76.8
21
5
101
37 19.2k 37
38.4k
5
69
5 19.2k 5
1
121
57 19.2k 57
25
38.4k 89
25 19.2k
ksps
76.8
25
9
105
41 19.2k 41
38.4k
9
73
9 19.2k 9
1
113
49 19.2k 49
17
38.4k 81
17 19.2k 18
1
97
33 19.2k 33
1
65
1 Paging 1
126
62 19.2k 62
30
38.4k 94
30 19.2k
ksps
Traffic Channels
76.8
30
14
153.6 ksps
110
46 19.2k
Voice or Data
46
14
38.4k
F-SCH
78
14 19.2k 14
6
118
9.6k/14.4k
54 19.2k 54
22
38.4k 86
22 19.2k
ksps
76.8
22
6
307.2 ksps
102
38 19.2k 38
38.4k
F-SCH
6
70
6 19.2k 6
2
122
58 19.2k 58
26
38.4k 90
26 19.2k
ksps
76.8
26
10
153.6 ksps
106
42 19.2k 42
10
38.4k
F-SCH
74
10 19.2k 10
2
114
50 19.2k 50
18
38.4k 82
18 19.2k
ksps
76.8
18
2
98
34 19.2k 34
38.4k
2
66
2 19.2k 2
124
60 19.2k 60
28
38.4k 92
28 19.2k
ksps
76.8
28
12
153.6 ksps
108
44 19.2k 44
12
38.4k
F-SCH
76
12 19.2k 12
4
116
52 19.2k 52
20
38.4k 84
20 19.2k
ksps
76.8
20
4
100
36 19.2k 36
38.4k
4
68
4 19.2k 4
0
120
56 19.2k 56
July, 2008
24
38.4k 88
24 19.2k
ksps
76.8
24
8
104
40 19.2k 40
38.4k
8
72
8 19.2k 8
0
112
48 19.2k 48
QPCH
16
QPCH
38.4k 16 19.2k 80 QPCH
16 TX Div PIlot
0
96
32 Sync 32
Code# 0
64
0 Pilot 0
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
153,600
307200
76,800
38,400
19,200
9,600
4,800
2,400
Code#
Code#
Code#
31 Code#
Code#
Code#
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
127
63 19.2k 63
38.4k
??
95
31 19.2k
ksps
76.8
Mixed IS-95 / 1xRTT RC3 Voice Typical Usage:
IS-95. The BTS will probably have enough forward power to carry calls on all 61 walsh codes!
31
RF100 - 155
15
153.6 ksps
111
47 19.2k 47
15
38.4k
F-SCH
79
15 19.2k
FCHs of 1xRTT RC3 users consume less power, so more total users are possible than in
15
7
119
38.4k 55 19.2k 55
23
87
23 19.2k
ksps
76.8
23
7
307.2 ksps
103
39 19.2k 39
38.4k
F-SCH
71
7 19.2k 7
3
123
59 19.2k 59
27
38.4k 91
27 19.2k
ksps
76.8
27
11
153.6 ksps
107
43 19.2k 43
11
38.4k
F-SCH
75
11 19.2k 11
3
115
51 19.2k 51
19
38.4k
83
19 19.2k
ksps
76.8
19
3
99
35 19.2k 35
38.4k
3
67
3 19.2k 3
125
61 19.2k 61
29
38.4k 93
29 19.2k
ksps
76.8
29
13
153.6 ksps
109
45 19.2k 45
13
38.4k
F-SCH
77
13 19.2k 13
5
117
53 19.2k 53
21
38.4k 85
21 19.2k
ksps
76.8
21
5
101
37 19.2k 37
38.4k
5
69
5 19.2k 5
1
121
57 19.2k 57
25
38.4k 89
25 19.2k
ksps
76.8
25
9
105
41 19.2k 41
38.4k
9
73
9 19.2k 9
1
113
49 19.2k 49
17
38.4k 81
17 19.2k 18
1
97
33 19.2k 33
1
65
1 Paging 1
126
62 19.2k 62
30
38.4k 94
30 19.2k
ksps
76.8
30
14
153.6 ksps
110
46 19.2k
F-FCHs mixed
RC1,2,3 Voice
46
14
38.4k
F-SCH
78
14 19.2k 14
6
118
54 19.2k 54
22
38.4k 86
22 19.2k
ksps
76.8
22
6
307.2 ksps
102
38 19.2k 38
38.4k
F-SCH
6
70
6 19.2k 6
2
122
58 19.2k 58
26
38.4k 90
26 19.2k
ksps
76.8
26
10
153.6 ksps
106
42 19.2k 42
10
38.4k
F-SCH
74
10 19.2k 10
2
114
50 19.2k 50
18
38.4k 82
18 19.2k
ksps
76.8
18
2
98
34 19.2k 34
38.4k
2
66
2 19.2k 2
124
60 19.2k 60
28
38.4k 92
28 19.2k
ksps
76.8
28
12
153.6 ksps
108
44 19.2k 44
12
38.4k
F-SCH
76
12 19.2k 12
4
116
52 19.2k 52
20
38.4k 84
20 19.2k
ksps
76.8
20
4
100
36 19.2k 36
38.4k
4
68
4 19.2k 4
0
120
56 19.2k 56
July, 2008
24
38.4k 88
24 19.2k
ksps
76.8
24
8
104
40 19.2k 40
38.4k
8
72
8 19.2k 8
0
112
48 19.2k 48
QPCH
16
QPCH
80
16 19.2k 16
QPCH
TX Div PIlot
0
96
32 Sync 32
Code# 0
64
0 Pilot 0
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
153,600
307200
76,800
38,400
19,200
9,600
4,800
2,400
Code#
Code#
Code#
31 Code#
Code#
Code#
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
127
63 19.2k 63
But so many active data users F-FCHs consume a lot of capacity, reduce number of voice users!
38.4k 95
31 19.2k
ksps
76.8
31
RF100 - 156
15
153.6 ksps
F-SCH 153K RC3
111
47 19.2k 47
15
38.4k
F-SCH
The data users can rapidly share the one F-SCH for 153 kb/s peak, ~9Kb/s avg. user rates.
79
1 F-SCH, 27 Voice IS-95/1xRTT RC3 Users, 16 Active Data Users
15 19.2k 15
7
119
38.4k 55 19.2k 55
A Possible 1xRTT RC3 BTS Dynamic State:
23
87
23 19.2k
ksps
76.8
23
7
307.2 ksps
103
39 19.2k 39
38.4k
F-SCH
71
7 19.2k 7
3
123
59 19.2k 59
27
38.4k 91
27 19.2k
ksps
76.8
27
11
153.6 ksps
107
43 19.2k 43
11
38.4k
F-SCH
75
11 19.2k 11
3
115
51 19.2k 51
19
38.4k
83
19 19.2k
ksps
76.8
19
3
99
35 19.2k 35
38.4k
3
67
3 19.2k 3
125
61 19.2k 61
29
38.4k 93
29 19.2k
ksps
76.8
29
13
153.6 ksps
109
F-FCHs 9.6k
45 19.2k 45
13
38.4k
F-SCH
77
13 19.2k
RC3 Data
13
5
117
53 19.2k 53
21
38.4k 85
21 19.2k
ksps
76.8
21
5
101
37 19.2k 37
38.4k
5
69
5 19.2k 5
1
121
57 19.2k 57
25
38.4k 89
25 19.2k
ksps
76.8
25
9
105
41 19.2k 41
38.4k
9
73
9 19.2k 9
1
113
49 19.2k 49
17
38.4k 81
17 19.2k 18
1
97
33 19.2k 33
1
65
1 Paging 1
126
62 19.2k 62
30
38.4k 94
30 19.2k
ksps
76.8
30
14
153.6 ksps
110
46 19.2k 46
14
38.4k
F-SCH
78
F-FCHs 9.6k
14 19.2k 14
6
RC3 Voice
118
54 19.2k 54
22
38.4k 86
22 19.2k
ksps
76.8
22
6
307.2 ksps
102
38 19.2k 38
38.4k
F-SCH
6
70
6 19.2k 6
2
122
58 19.2k 58
26
38.4k 90
26 19.2k
ksps
76.8
26
10
153.6 ksps
106
42 19.2k 42
10
38.4k
F-SCH
74
10 19.2k 10
2
114
50 19.2k 50
18
38.4k 82
18 19.2k
ksps
76.8
18
2
98
34 19.2k 34
38.4k
2
66
2 19.2k 2
124
60 19.2k 60
28
38.4k 92
F-FCHs 9.6k
28 19.2k
ksps
76.8
28
12
RC3 Voice
153.6 ksps
108
44 19.2k 44
12
38.4k
F-SCH
76
12 19.2k 12
4
116
52 19.2k 52
20
38.4k 84
20 19.2k
ksps
76.8
20
4
100
36 19.2k 36
38.4k
4
68
4 19.2k 4
0
120
56 19.2k 56
July, 2008
24
38.4k 88
24 19.2k
ksps
76.8
24
8
104
40 19.2k 40
38.4k
8
72
8 19.2k 8
0
112
48 48
QPCH
16
QPCH
80
16 16
QPCH
TX Div PIlot
0
96
32 Sync 32
Code# 0
64
0 Pilot 0
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
153,600
307200
76,800
38,400
19,200
9,600
4,800
2,400
Code#
Code#
Code#
31 Code#
Code#
Code#
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
127
63 19.2k 63
38.4k 95
31 19.2k
ksps
76.8
31
RF100 - 157
15
153.6 ksps
F-SCH 153K RC3
111
47 19.2k 47
15
38.4k
F-SCH
79
15 19.2k 15
1 F-SCH, 39 IS-95/1xRTT RC3 Voice Users, 4 Active+12 Dormant Data Users
119
38.4k 55 19.2k 55
23
87
23 19.2k
ksps
76.8
A Possible 1xRTT RC3 BTS Dynamic State:
23
7
307.2 ksps
Data users will get 153 kb/s peak, ~9 kb/s average, but latency will be high.
103
39 19.2k
But it takes seconds to move various data users from Dormant to Active!
39
38.4k
F-SCH
71
7 19.2k 7
3
123
59 19.2k 59
27
38.4k 91
27 19.2k
ksps
76.8
27
11
153.6 ksps
107
43 19.2k 43
11
38.4k
F-SCH
75
11 19.2k 11
3
115
51 19.2k 51
19
38.4k
83
19 19.2k
ksps
76.8
19
3
99
35 19.2k 35
38.4k
3
67
3 19.2k 3
125
61 19.2k 61
F-FCHs
29
38.4k 93
29 19.2k
ksps
76.8
29
13
153.6 ksps
109
Data
45 19.2k 45
13
38.4k
F-SCH
77
13 19.2k 13
5
117
53 19.2k
F-FCHs 9.6k
53
21
38.4k 85
21 19.2k
ksps
76.8
RC3 Voice
21
5
101
37 19.2k 37
38.4k
5
69
5 19.2k 5
1
121
57 19.2k 57
25
38.4k 89
25 19.2k
ksps
76.8
25
9
105
41 19.2k 41
38.4k
9
73
9 19.2k 9
1
113
49 19.2k 49
17
38.4k 81
17 19.2k 18
1
97
33 19.2k 33
1
65
1 Paging 1
126
62 19.2k 62
30
38.4k 94
30 19.2k
ksps
76.8
30
14
153.6 ksps
110
46 19.2k 46
14
38.4k
F-SCH
78
F-FCHs 9.6k
14 19.2k 14
6
RC3 Voice
118
54 19.2k 54
22
38.4k 86
22 19.2k
ksps
76.8
22
6
307.2 ksps
102
38 19.2k 38
38.4k
F-SCH
6
70
6 19.2k 6
2
122
58 19.2k 58
26
38.4k 90
26 19.2k
ksps
76.8
26
10
153.6 ksps
106
42 19.2k 42
10
38.4k
F-SCH
74
10 19.2k 10
2
114
50 19.2k 50
18
38.4k 82
18 19.2k
ksps
76.8
18
2
98
34 19.2k 34
38.4k
2
66
2 19.2k 2
124
60 19.2k 60
28
38.4k 92
F-FCHs 9.6k
28 19.2k
ksps
76.8
28
12
RC3 Voice
153.6 ksps
108
44 19.2k 44
12
38.4k
F-SCH
76
12 19.2k 12
4
116
52 19.2k 52
20
38.4k 84
20 19.2k
ksps
76.8
20
4
100
36 19.2k 36
38.4k
4
68
4 19.2k 4
0
120
56 19.2k 56
July, 2008
24
38.4k 88
24 19.2k
ksps
76.8
24
8
104
40 19.2k 40
38.4k
8
72
8 19.2k 8
0
112
48 48
QPCH
16
QPCH
80
16 16
QPCH
TX Div PIlot
0
96
32 Sync 32
Code# 0
64
0 Pilot 0
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
153,600
307200
76,800
38,400
19,200
9,600
4,800
2,400
Code#
Code#
Code#
31 Code#
Code#
Code#
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
127
63 19.2k 63
38.4k 95
31 19.2k
ksps
76.8
31
RF100 - 158
15
153.6 ksps
F-SCH 153K RC3
111
47 19.2k 47
15
38.4k
Slightly Improved 1xRTT RC3 BTS Dynamic State:
F-SCH
79
15 19.2k
1 F-SCH, 37 IS-95/1xRTT RC3 Voice Users, 4 Active+12 Control-Hold Data Users
15
7
119
38.4k 55 19.2k 55
23
Instead of sending 16 data users to Dormant State, let them time-share 2 F-DCCH for
87
23 19.2k
ksps
76.8
Control Hold state. Data users will get 153 kb/s peak, ~9 kb/s average, good latency.
23
7
307.2 ksps
103
39 19.2k 39
38.4k
F-SCH
71
7 19.2k 7
3
123
59 19.2k 59
27
38.4k 91
27 19.2k
ksps
76.8
27
11
153.6 ksps
107
43 19.2k 43
11
38.4k
F-SCH
75
11 19.2k 11
3
115
51 19.2k 51
19
38.4k
83
19 19.2k
ksps
76.8
19
3
99
35 19.2k 35
38.4k
3
67
3 19.2k 3
125
61 19.2k 61
F-FCHs
29
38.4k 93
29 19.2k
ksps
76.8
29
13
153.6 ksps
109
Data
45 19.2k 45
13
38.4k
F-SCH
77
13 19.2k 13
5
F-DCCHs
117
53 19.2k 53
21
38.4k 85
21 19.2k
ksps
76.8
21
5
101
F-FCHs 9.6k
37 19.2k
Not yet available or implemented.
37
38.4k
RC3 Voice
5
69
5 19.2k 5
1
121
57 19.2k 57
25
38.4k 89
25 19.2k
ksps
76.8
25
9
105
41 19.2k 41
38.4k
9
73
9 19.2k 9
1
113
49 19.2k 49
17
38.4k 81
17 19.2k 18
1
97
33 19.2k 33
1
65
1 Paging 1
126
62 19.2k 62
30
38.4k 94
30 19.2k
ksps
76.8
30
14
153.6 ksps
110
46 19.2k 46
14
38.4k
F-SCH
78
F-FCHs 9.6k
14 19.2k 14
6
RC3 Voice
118
54 19.2k 54
22
38.4k 86
22 19.2k
ksps
76.8
22
6
307.2 ksps
102
38 19.2k 38
38.4k
F-SCH
6
70
6 19.2k 6
2
122
58 19.2k 58
26
38.4k 90
26 19.2k
ksps
76.8
26
10
153.6 ksps
106
42 19.2k 42
10
38.4k
F-SCH
74
10 19.2k 10
2
114
50 19.2k 50
18
38.4k 82
18 19.2k
ksps
76.8
18
2
98
34 19.2k 34
38.4k
2
66
2 19.2k 2
124
60 19.2k 60
28
38.4k 92
F-FCHs 9.6k
28 19.2k
ksps
76.8
28
12
RC3 Voice
153.6 ksps
108
44 19.2k 44
12
38.4k
F-SCH
76
12 19.2k 12
4
116
52 19.2k 52
20
38.4k 84
20 19.2k
ksps
76.8
20
4
100
36 19.2k 36
38.4k
4
68
4 19.2k 4
0
120
56 19.2k 56
July, 2008
24
38.4k 88
24 19.2k
ksps
76.8
24
8
104
40 19.2k 40
38.4k
8
72
8 19.2k 8
0
112
48 48
QPCH
16
QPCH
80
16 16
QPCH
TX Div PIlot
0
96
32 Sync 32
Code# 0
64
0 Pilot 0
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
153,600
307200
76,800
38,400
19,200
9,600
4,800
2,400
Code#
Code#
Code#
31 Code#
Code#
Code#
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
127
63 19.2k 63
38.4k
???????
95
31 19.2k
ksps
76.8
31
RF100 - 159
15
153.6 ksps
111
47 19.2k
F-FCHs 9.6k
47
15
38.4k
F-SCH
Wow! 118 users! But RC4 users F-FCHs consume as much power as old IS-95 calls.
79
RC4 Voice
15 19.2k 15
7
119
38.4k 55 19.2k 55
23
87
23 19.2k
ksps
76.8
23
7
307.2 ksps
103
39 19.2k 39
38.4k
F-SCH
71
BTS may run out of forward power before the all walsh codes are used.
7 19.2k 7
123
59 19.2k 59
27
38.4k 91
27 19.2k
ksps
76.8
27
11
153.6 ksps
107
43 19.2k 43
11
38.4k
F-SCH
75
11 19.2k 11
3
115
51 19.2k 51
19
38.4k
83
19 19.2k
ksps
76.8
19
3
99
35 19.2k 35
38.4k
3
67
3 19.2k 3
1xRTT RC4 Voice Only:
125
61 19.2k 61
29
38.4k 93
29 19.2k
ksps
76.8
29
13
153.6 ksps
109
45 19.2k 45
13
38.4k
F-SCH
13 19.2k 77
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
13
5
117
53 19.2k 53
21
38.4k 85
21 19.2k
ksps
76.8
21
5
101
37 19.2k 37
38.4k
5
69
5 19.2k 5
1
121
57 19.2k 57
25
38.4k 89
25 19.2k
ksps
76.8
25
9
105
41 19.2k 41
38.4k
9
73
9 19.2k 9
1
113
49 19.2k 49
17
38.4k 81
17 19.2k 18
1
97
33 19.2k 33
1
65
1 Paging 1
126
62 19.2k 62
30
38.4k 94
30 19.2k
ksps
76.8
30
14
153.6 ksps
110
46 19.2k 46
14
38.4k
F-SCH
78
14 19.2k
F-FCHs 9.6k
14
6
RC4 Voice
118
54 19.2k 54
22
38.4k 86
22 19.2k
ksps
76.8
22
6
307.2 ksps
102
38 19.2k 38
38.4k
F-SCH
6
70
6 19.2k 6
2
122
58 19.2k 58
26
38.4k 90
26 19.2k
ksps
76.8
26
10
153.6 ksps
106
42 19.2k 42
10
38.4k
F-SCH
74
10 19.2k 10
2
114
50 19.2k 50
18
38.4k 82
18 19.2k
ksps
76.8
18
2
98
34 19.2k 34
38.4k
2
66
2 19.2k 2
124
60 19.2k 60
28
38.4k 92
28 19.2k
ksps
76.8
F-FCHs 9.6k
28
12
RC4 Voice
153.6 ksps
108
44 19.2k 44
12
38.4k
F-SCH
76
12 19.2k 12
4
116
52 19.2k 52
20
38.4k 84
20 19.2k
ksps
76.8
20
4
100
36 19.2k 36
38.4k
4
68
4 19.2k 4
0
120
56 19.2k 56
July, 2008
24
38.4k 88
24 19.2k
ksps
76.8
24
8
104
40 19.2k 40
38.4k
8
72
8 19.2k 8
0
112
48 48
QPCH
16
QPCH
80
16 16
QPCH
TX Div PIlot
0
96
32 Sync 32
Code# 0
64
0 Pilot 0
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
153,600
307200
76,800
38,400
19,200
9,600
4,800
2,400
Code#
Code#
Code#
31 Code#
Code#
Code#
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
sps
127
63 19.2k 63
38.4k 95
31 19.2k
ksps
76.8
31
RF100 - 160
15
153.6 ksps
F-SCH 307K RC4
111
47 19.2k 47
15
38.4k
F-SCH
76.4, 153.6 or 307.2 kb/s peak, ~19 kb/s average, good latency. But fwd power may exhaust!
79
15 19.2k 15
1 F-SCH, 80 1xRTT RC4 Voice Users, 4 Active+12 Control-Hold RC4 Data Users
119
38.4k 55 19.2k 55
23
87
23 19.2k
ksps
76.8
23
16 data users time-share 2 F-DCCH for Control Hold state. Data users will get 38.4,
7
307.2 ksps
103
39 19.2k 39
38.4k
F-SCH
71
7 19.2k 7
3
123
59 19.2k 59
27
38.4k 91
27 19.2k
ksps
76.8
27
11
153.6 ksps
107
43 19.2k 43
11
38.4k
F-SCH
75
11 19.2k 11
3
115
51 19.2k 51
19
38.4k
83
19 19.2k
ksps
76.8
19
3
99
35 19.2k 35
38.4k
3
67
3 19.2k 3
1xRTT RC4 Voice and Data:
61 19.2k
????
125
61
29
38.4k 93
29 19.2k
ksps
76.8
29
13
153.6 ksps
109
45 19.2k 45
13
38.4k
F-SCH
13 19.2k 77
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
13
5
117
53 19.2k 53
21
38.4k 85
21 19.2k
ksps
76.8
21
5
101
37 19.2k 37
38.4k
5
69
5 19.2k 5
1
121
57 19.2k 57
25
38.4k 89
25 19.2k
ksps
76.8
25
9
105
41 19.2k 41
38.4k
9
73
9 19.2k 9
1
113
49 19.2k 49
17
38.4k 81
17 19.2k 18
1
97
33 19.2k 33
1
65
1 Paging 1
126
62 19.2k
F-FCHs
62
30
38.4k 94
30 19.2k
ksps
76.8
30
14
F-DCCHs
153.6 ksps
110
46 19.2k 46
14
38.4k
F-SCH
78
14 19.2k
F-FCHs 9.6k
14
6
RC4 Voice
118
54 19.2k 54
22
38.4k 86
22 19.2k
ksps
76.8
22
6
307.2 ksps
102
38 19.2k 38
38.4k
F-SCH
6
70
6 19.2k 6
2
122
58 19.2k 58
26
38.4k 90
26 19.2k
ksps
76.8
26
10
153.6 ksps
106
42 19.2k 42
10
38.4k
F-SCH
74
10 19.2k 10
2
114
50 19.2k 50
18
38.4k 82
18 19.2k
ksps
76.8
18
2
98
34 19.2k 34
38.4k
2
66
2 19.2k 2
124
60 19.2k 60
28
38.4k 92
28 19.2k
ksps
76.8
F-FCHs 9.6k
28
12
RC4 Voice
153.6 ksps
108
44 19.2k 44
12
38.4k
F-SCH
76
12 19.2k 12
4
116
52 19.2k 52
20
38.4k 84
20 19.2k
ksps
76.8
20
4
100
36 19.2k 36
38.4k
4
68
4 19.2k 4
0
120
56 19.2k 56
July, 2008
24
38.4k 88
24 19.2k
ksps
76.8
24
8
104
40 19.2k 40
38.4k
8
72
8 19.2k 8
0
112
48 48
QPCH
16
QPCH
80
16 16
QPCH
TX Div PIlot
0
96
32 Sync 32
Code# 0
64
0 Pilot 0
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Mature 1xRTT Mixed-Mode Voice and Data:
1 RC3/RC4 Shared F-SCH, 20 RC3 Voice Users, 38 RC4 Voice Users,
4 Active+12 Control-Hold RC3 and RC4 Data Users
16 data users time-share 2 F-DCCH for Control Hold state. Data users will get
38.4, 76.4, 153.6 or 307.2 kb/s peak, ~9 or 19 kb/s average, good latency. Fwd power tight!
Code# 0 2 1 3 Code#
F-SCH 153K RC3
4 chips
F-SCH
307.2 ksps or
F-SCH
307200
sps
F-SCH307.2
307K
ksps RC4
Code# 0 4 2 6 1 5 3 7 Code#
Or
8 chips
F-SCH F-SCH F-SCH F-SCH F-SCH F-SCH 153,600

153.6 ksps 153.6 ksps 153.6 ksps 153.6 ksps 153.6 ksps 153.6 ksps sps
Co
Code# 0 8 4 12 2 10 6 14 1 9 5 13 3 11 7 15 Code#
m
16 chips
76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76,800
ksps ksps ksps ksps ksps ksps ksps ksps ksps ksps ksps ksps ksps ksps
bi
sps
na
Code# 0 16 8 24 4 20 12 28 2 18 10 26 6 22 14 30 1 17 9 25 5 21 13 29 3 19 11 27 7 23 15 31 Code#
32 chips
t
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38.4k
38,400
io
sps
ns
Code# Code#
24
18
38
41
35
47
32
16
48
40
56
36
20
52
12
44
28
60
34
50
10
42
26
58
22
54
14
46
30
62
33
17
49
25
57
37
21
53
13
45
29
61
19
51
11
43
27
59
39
23
55
15
31
63
0
7
8
5
F-FCHs 9.6k F-FCHs 9.6k F-FCHs 9.6k
64 chips
Paging
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
19.2k
Sync
Pilot
19,200
F-DCCHs
????
sps
RC3 Voice RC3 Voice RC3 Voice
F-FCHs
104
120
114
110
126
101
117
123
112
100
116
108
124
106
122
102
118
113
105
121
109
125
115
107
103
119
111
127
Code# Code#
64
32
96
16
80
48
72
40
24
88
56
68
36
20
84
52
12
76
44
28
92
60
66
34
98
18
82
50
10
74
42
26
90
58
70
38
22
86
54
14
78
46
30
94
62
65
33
97
18
81
49
73
41
25
89
57
69
37
21
85
53
13
77
45
29
93
61
67
35
99
19
83
51
11
75
43
27
91
59
71
39
23
87
55
15
79
47
31
95
63
8
7
0
3
F-FCHs 9.6k F-FCHs 9.6k F-FCHs 9.6k
128 chips
9,600
TX Div PIlot
4,800
QPCH
QPCH
QPCH
RC4 Voice RC4 Voice RC4 Voice 2,400

sps
SR1, RC1 9,600 bps F-FCH (IS-95-Compatible)
Orthogonal
Spreading
I
Power Short Code
Control
Puncturing
+CRC & 1/2 rate Symbol Pwr Ctrl I
Σ
Data Bits Interleaver FIR
Tail bits Conv Encoder Repetition Bits
LPF I
8.6 kbps 9.6 kbps 19.2 ksps 800 bps Gain
1228.8 kcps
Gain
User Long PC 19.2 ksps
Code Mask Punc
800 bps 1228.8 kcps 1228.8 kcps
BTS Long Code

Generator
Long Code
Decimator
Power Ctrl
Decimator
Walsh 64
Generator Σ FIR
LPF Q
1228.8 kbps /W Q
Same symbols go on both I and Q!

Q
Short Code
SR1, RC2 14,400 bps F-FCH (IS-95-Compatible)
Orthogonal
Spreading
I
Power Short Code
Control
2 of 6 Puncturing
+CRC & 1/2 rate Symbol Symbol Pwr Ctrl I
Σ
Data Bits Interleaver FIR
Tail bits Conv Encoder Repetition Puncturing Bits
LPF I
13.35 kbps 14.4 kbps 28.8 ksps 19.2 ksps 800 bps Gain
1228.8 kcps
Gain
User Long PC 19.2 ksps
Code Mask Punc
800 bps 1228.8 kcps 1228.8 kcps
BTS Long Code

Generator
Long Code
Decimator
Power Ctrl
Decimator
Walsh 64
Generator Σ FIR
LPF Q
1228.8 kbps /W Q
Same symbols go on both I and Q!

Q
Short Code
SR1, RC3 F-FCH (9,600 bps)
Complex
Scrambling
Power Orthogonal 1228.8 kcps + I

Control Spreading
Puncturing
I
Short Code Σ FIR
LPF I
Full Rate +CRC & 1/4 rate
Interleaver
Pwr Ctrl 19.2 ksps I -
Data Bits Tail bits Conv Encoder Bits 1228.8 kcps
8.6 kbps 9.6 kbps 38.4 ksps 800 bps Gain I
Gain 1228.8 kcps
User Long PC Serial to Walsh 64
Code Mask Punc Parallel Generator
1228.8 kcps
38.4 ksps 800 bps
Q
BTS Long Code
Generator
Long Code
Decimator
Power Ctrl
Decimator 19.2 ksps Q 1228.8 kcps +
1228.8 kbps /W/2 Q
Power control information
Q
Short Code Σ FIR
LPF Q
may be carried as shown + 1228.8 kcps
or on the F-DCCH
The
stream of
symbols
is divided Complex scrambling
into two ensures that the
parts: physical I and Q phase
one on planes contain equal
logical I amplitudes at all times.
and This minimizes the
one on peak-to-average power
logical Q levels in the signal.
SR1, RC4 F-FCH (9,600 bps)
Complex
Scrambling
Power Orthogonal 1228.8 kcps + I

Control Spreading
Puncturing
I
Short Code Σ FIR
LPF I
Full Rate +CRC & 1/2 rate
Interleaver
Pwr Ctrl 9.6 ksps I -
Data Bits Tail bits Conv Encoder Bits 1228.8 kcps
8.6 kbps 9.6 kbps 19.2 ksps 800 bps Gain I 1228.8 kcps
Gain
User Long PC Serial to Walsh 128
Code Mask Punc Parallel Generator
1228.8 kcps
19.2 ksps 800 bps
Q
BTS Long Code
Generator
Long Code
Decimator
Power Ctrl
1228.8 kbps /W/2 Q
Power control information
Q
Short Code Σ FIR
LPF Q
may be carried as shown + 1228.8 kcps
or on the F-DCCH
The
stream of
symbols
is divided Complex scrambling
into two ensures that the
parts: physical I and Q phase
one on planes contain equal
logical I amplitudes at all times.
and This minimizes the
one on peak-to-average power
logical Q levels in the signal.
SR1, RC3 F-SCH (153,600 bps)
Complex
Scrambling
Orthogonal 1228.8 kcps + I

Spreading
614.4 ksps
I
Short Code Σ FIR
LPF I
Payload +CRC & 1/4 rate
Interleaver 307.2 ksps I -
Data Bits Tail bits Conv Encoder 1228.8 kcps
152.4 kbps 153.6 kbps 614.4 ksps I 1228.8 kcps
Gain
User Long Serial to Walsh 4
Code Mask Parallel Generator
614.4 ksps 1228.8 kcps

Q
BTS Long Code
Generator
Long Code
1228.8 kbps /W/2 Q
Q
Short Code Σ FIR
LPF Q
+ 1228.8 kcps
The
stream of
symbols
is divided
into two
Complex scrambling
parts:
ensures that the
one on
physical I and Q phase
logical I
planes contain equal
and
amplitudes at all times.
one on
This minimizes the
logical Q
peak-to-average power
levels in the signal.
SR1, RC4 F-SCH (307,200 bps)
Complex
Scrambling
Orthogonal 1228.8 kcps + I

Spreading
614.4 ksps
I
Short Code Σ FIR
LPF I
Payload +CRC & 1/2 rate
Interleaver 307.2 ksps I -
Data Bits Tail bits Conv Encoder 1228.8 kcps
304.8 kbps 307.2 kbps 614.4 ksps I 1228.8 kcps
Gain
User Long Serial to Walsh 4
Code Mask Parallel Generator
614.4 ksps 1228.8 kcps

Q
BTS Long Code
Generator
Long Code
1228.8 kbps /W/2 Q
Q
Short Code Σ FIR
LPF Q
+ 1228.8 kcps
The
stream of
symbols
is divided
into two
Complex scrambling
parts:
ensures that the
one on
physical I and Q phase
logical I
planes contain equal
and
amplitudes at all times.
one on
This minimizes the
logical Q
peak-to-average power
levels in the signal.
CDMA
CDMA Network
Network Architecture
Architecture
Structure of a Typical CDMA System
HLR Home Location Register
(subscriber database)
SUPPORT
FUNCTIONS
BASE STATIONS
Voice Mail System SWITCH BASE STATION
CONTROLLER
PSTN Mobile Telephone

Local Carriers Switching Office
Long Distance ATM Link
Carriers to other CDMA
Networks
(Future)
CDMA Network for Circuit-Switched Voice Calls
(C)BSC/Access Manager
Switch
PSTN v SEL CE
t1 t1 t1
BTS
Q The first commercial IS-95 CDMA systems provided only circuit-

switched voice calls
CDMA 1xRTT Voice and Data Network
PDSN
Foreign Agent
Backbone
Internet Network
VPNs
PDSN Authentication
Home Agent Authorization AAA (C)BSC/Access Manager
Accounting
Switch
PSTN v SEL CE
t1 t1 t1
BTS
Q CDMA2000 1xRTT networks added two new capabilities:

• channel elements able to generate and carry independent streams of
symbols on the I and Q channels of the QPSK RF signal
– this roughly doubles capacity compared to IS-95
• a separate IP network implementing packet connections from the mobile
through to the outside internet
– including Packet Data Serving Nodes (PDSNs) and a dedicated direct
data connection (the Packet-Radio Interface) to the heart of the BSC
Q The overall connection speed was still limited by the 1xRTT air interface
1xEV-DO Overlaid On Existing 1xRTT Network
PDSN
Foreign Agent DO DO-OMC
Backbone
Radio
Internet Network Network
VPNs Controller
PDSN Authentication
Accounting
Switch CE
PSTN v SEL CE
t1 t1 t1
BTS
Q 1xEV-DO requires faster resource management than 1x BSCs can give

• this is provided by the new Data Only Radio Network Controller (DO-RNC)
Q A new controller and packet controller software are needed in the BTS to
manage the radio resources for EV sessions
• in some cases dedicated channel elements and even dedicated backhaul is
used for the EV-DO traffic
Q The new DO-OMC administers the DO-RNC and BTS PCF addition
Q Existing PDSNs and backbone network are used with minor upgrading
Q The following sections show Lucent, Motorola, and Nortel’s specific solutions
Voice Call Path through the CDMA Network
MTX BSC-BSM BTS

GPS GPS
GPSR
SLM CM GPSR
BSM CDSU CDSU DISCO TFU
DMS-BUS TFU1 CDSU

Ch. Card ACC
Packets
CDSU DISCO 1 CDSU
LPP ENET LPP CDSU Σα Txcvr
A
RFFE
A
CDSU DISCO 2
Chips
Σβ Txcvr RFFE
DS0 in T1
CDSU B B
DTCs CDSU Σχ Txcvr
C
RFFE
C
SBS Vocoder, RF
IOC Vocoders Selector Channel
Selectors Element
PSTN
1x Data Call Path through the CDMA Network
MTX BSC-BSM BTS

GPS GPS
GPSR
SLM CM GPSR
BSM CDSU CDSU DISCO TFU
DMS-BUS TFU1 CDSU

Ch. Card ACC
Packets
CDSU DISCO 1 CDSU
LPP ENET LPP CDSU Σα Txcvr
A
RFFE
A
CDSU DISCO 2
Chips
Σβ Txcvr RFFE
CDSU B B
DTCs CDSU Σχ Txcvr
C
RFFE
C
SBS Selector RF
IOC Vocoders Channel
Selectors Elements
R-P (FCH, SCH)
PSTN Interface
Internet PDSN
VPNs
Telecom Transmission Standards
170 OC-192s Q Worldwide telecom rides
on One Fiber Strand!! on the standard signal
formats shown at left
Q Lower speeds are used on
64,512 OC-192 10 Gb/s copper twisted pairs or
coaxial cable
32,256 OC-96 5 Gb/s
Q Higher speeds are carried
16,128 OC-48 2.5 Gb/s on fiber
8,064 OC-24 1.2 Gb/s Q Multiplexers bundle and
unbundle channels
North American Heirarchy OC-12 622 Mb/s
in Copper Media
4,032 Q Channelized and
2,016 OC-3 155 Mb/s unchannelized modes are
~45 Mb/s
DS-0 provided
51.84 Mb/s
DS-3 OC-1
= 28 DS-1 = 28 DS-1
= 672 DS-0 = 672 DS-0 European Heirarchy
in Copper Media
FIBER
1.544 Mb/s 2.036 Mb/s
DS-1/T-1 E-1
= 24 DS-0 = 28+2 DS-0
64 kb/s 64 kb/s
DS-0 DS-0
IS-95
IS-95 Operational
Operational Details
Details
Vocoding,
Vocoding, Multiplexing,
Multiplexing, Power
Power Control
Control
Variable Rate Vocoding & Multiplexing
DSP QCELP VOCODER
Q Vocoders compress speech, reduce bit 20ms Sample

rate, greatly increasing capacity Pitch
Filter
Q CDMA uses a superior Variable Rate Codebook
Vocoder
Coded Result Feed-
• full rate during speech back Formant
Filter
• low rates in speech pauses
• increased capacity bits Frame Sizes
• more natural sound 192/288 Full Rate Frame
Q Voice, signaling, and user secondary 96/144 1/2 Rate Frame
data may be mixed in CDMA frames 48/72 1/4 Rt.
24/36 1/8
Frame Contents: can be a mixture of

Primary Signaling Secondary
Traffic (System (On-Air
(Voice or
data) Messaging) activation, etc)
How Power Control Works
REVERSE LINK POWER ADJUSTMENT
BSC BTS RX RF Digital
Stronger than Open
setpoint? Reverse Link Loop Closed MOBILE
Bad FER? Loop
Raise Setpoint Eb/No TX RF Digital
Setpoint
IS-95, 1xRTT
ALL SAME METHOD 800 Power Control Bits per second! TXPO = -(RXdbm) -C + TXGA
FORWARD LINK POWER ADJUSTMENT

MOBILE
BSC Pilot BTS (1 sector)
Sync Trans-
mitter,
Paging
User 1 Σ I Q
Sector X Forward Link
Voc- Selec- User 2 Short PN

oder tor User 3 DGU
Bad Frame IS-95 RS1

PMRM POWER MEAS. REPORT MSG “2 bad in last 4, Help!!” Counter Method
FEI Bits Mark Bad Frames Received
FEI Bits IS-95 RS2
Method
POWER CONTROL BITSTREAM RIDING ON MOBILE PILOT Eb/No 1xRTT
Setpoint
Method
Details of Reverse Link Power Control
Subscriber Handset
Q TXPO Handset Transmit Power BTS
Receiver>> Rake
R
LNA
• Actual RF power output of the
≈
Viterbi
DUP x IF R Σ
Decoder
handset transmitter, including TXPO PA ∼ LO R
combined effects of open x ~
LO
Open Loop S
loop power control from Closed Loop Pwr Ctrl
receiver AGC and closed IF

x
I Long PN Vocoder
Orth
loop power control by BTS IF Mod
x
x Mod FEC
Q <<Transmitter
• can’t exceed handset’s
maximum (typ. +23 dBm) Typical TXPO:
+23 dBm in a coverage hole
TXPO = -(RXdbm) -C + TXGA 0 dBm near middle of cell
C = +73 for 800 MHz. systems -50 dBm up close to BTS
= +76 for 1900 MHz. systems
Typical Transmit Gain Adjust
Q TXGA Transmit Gain Adjust 0 dB
• Sum of all closed-loop -10 dB

power control commands
from the BTS since the
beginning of this call -20 dB
Time, Seconds
A
A Quick
Quick Introduction
Introduction to
to
CDMA
CDMA Messages
Messages and
and Call
Call Processing
Processing
Messages in CDMA
Q In CDMA, most call processing events are driven by messages

Q Some CDMA channels exist for the sole purpose of carrying
messages; they never carry user’s voice traffic
• Sync Channel (a forward channel)
• Paging Channel (a forward channel)
• Access Channel (a reverse channel)
• On these channels, there are only messages, continuously all
of the time
Q Some CDMA channels exist just to carry user traffic
• Forward Traffic Channel
• Reverse Traffic Channel
• On these channels, most of the time is filled with traffic and
messages are sent only when there is something to do
Q All CDMA messages have very similar structure, regardless of the
channel on which they are sent
How CDMA Messages are Sent
EXAMPLE:
Q CDMA messages on both forward A POWER MEASUREMENT
and reverse traffic channels are REPORT MESSAGE
normally sent via dim-and-burst
Field Length
Q Messages include many fields of (in bits)
binary data MSG_TYPE (‘00000110’) 8
Q The first byte of each message ACK_SEQ 3
identifies message type: this allows
MSG_SEQ 3
the recipient to parse the contents
ACK_REQ 1
Q To ensure no messages are
missed, all CDMA messages bear ENCRYPTION 2
serial numbers and important ERRORS_DETECTED 5
messages contain a bit requesting POWER_MEAS_FRAMES 10
acknowledgment LAST_HDM_SEQ 2
Q Messages not promptly NUM_PILOTS 4
acknowledged are retransmitted
several times. If not acknowledged, NUM_PILOTS occurrences of this field:
the sender may release the call PILOT_STRENGTH 6 t
Q Field data processing tools capture
and display the messages for study RESERVED (‘0’s) 0-7
Message Vocabulary: Acquisition & Idle States
Pilot Channel Sync Channel
No Messages Sync Channel Msg
Access Channel
Paging Channel BTS
Registration Msg
Access Parameters Msg General Page Msg
Order Msg
System Parameters Msg Order Msg • Mobile Station Acknowldgment
•Base Station Acknowledgment
•Lock until Power-Cycled • Long Code Transition Request
• Maintenance required • SSD Update Confirmation
CDMA Channel List Msg many others….. many others…..
Extended System Channel Assignment Origination Msg

Parameters Msg Msg
Extended Neighbor Page Response Msg

List Msg Feature Notification Msg
Authentication Challenge
Global Service Authentication Response Msg
Redirection Msg Challenge Msg
Status Response Msg

Service Redirection Msg Status Request Msg
TMSI Assignment
SSD Update Msg TMSI Assignment Msg Completion Message
Null Msg Data Burst Msg Data Burst Msg
Message Vocabulary: Conversation State
Forward Traffic Channel
Order Msg Alert With Reverse Traffic Channel
• Base Station Acknowledgment Information Msg
• Base Station Challenge
Confirmation
Service Request Msg Service Request Msg Origination
• Message Encryption Mode Continuation Msg
Authentication Service Response Msg Service Response Msg Authentication Challenge

Challenge Msg Response Msg
TMSI Assignment Msg Service Connect Msg Service Connect TMSI Assignment
Completion Message Completion Message
Send Burst DTMF Msg Service Option Service Option Control Send Burst DTMF Msg
Control Msg Message
Set Parameters Msg Status Request Msg Status Response Msg Parameters Response
Message
Power Control Flash With Flash With Power Measurement

Parameters Msg. Information Msg Information Msg Report Msg
Retrieve Parameters Msg Data Burst Msg Data Burst Message Order Message
• Mobile Sta. Acknowledgment
Analog Handoff Extended Handoff Pilot Strength •Long Code Transition
Direction Msg Direction Msg Measurement Msg Request
• SSD Update Confirmation
SSD Update Msg Neighbor List Handoff Completion Msg • Connect
Update Msg
Mobile Station In-Traffic System

Registered Msg Parameters Msg
A
A Streamlined
Streamlined Visual
Visual Tour
Tour
Of
Of CDMA
CDMA Call
Call Processing
Processing
What’s In a Handset? How does it work?
Digital
Rake Receiver Symbols
Chips Traffic Correlator
summing
PN xxx Walsh xx
bits
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
Σ Symbols
control
Receiver Traffic Correlator Δt Viterbi Decoder,
time-aligned
RF Section Convl. Decoder,
IF, Detector PN xxx Walsh xx Demultiplexer
power
Traffic Correlator Packets
AGC
PN xxx Walsh xx
RF Messages
Audio
Open Loop
Duplexer Pilot Searcher

CPU Vocoder
PN xxx Walsh 0
RF Transmit Gain Adjust Audio
Messages
Transmitter
Transmitter Digital Section
RF Section
Long Code Gen.
Let's
Let's Acquire
Acquire The
The System!
System!
1. Find the Strongest Pilot!
PN 168
BTS W0 PILOT
TIME
Rake Receiver
SCAN
#1 unassigned Find Strongest
#2 unassigned
#3 unassigned
#4 unassigned
Pilot Searcher
Q The pilot searcher of the phone spends about 3.4 seconds measuring the
pilot strength at every possible PN delay, in miniscule 1/8 chip delay steps,
to see how much energy is being received from every nearby sector
Q The sector with the strongest pilot is chosen
0
Ec/Io
Pilot Searcher Scans the Entire Range of PNs

-20
Chips 0 32K
PN 0 512
2. Read the Sync Channel Message
PN 168 The Sync Channel is a
“Sesame Street” for mobiles!
W32 SYNC SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYNSYN
BTS W0 PILOT
TIME
Read Sync Ch. Msg

Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W32 Stay Locked!
SYNC CHANNEL MESSAGE
#2 PN168+2 W32
#3 PN168+9 W32 MSG_LENGTH, 28, 28 octets
MSG_TYPE, 1, Sync Channel Message
#4 PN168+5 W32
P_REV, 6, IS-2000 Revision 0
Pilot Searcher MIN_P_REV, 1, J-STD-008
SID 995,
NID 3,
Q Great! We found a signal. Now we know: PILOT_PN 168
LC_STATE, 0x00 25 93 12 7C FA,
• The strongest pilot available SYS_TIME, 0x02 20 34 B7 53,
• The exact timing of this pilot 10/23/2001 11:02:54
LP_SEC, 13,
Q We do NOT yet know LTM_OFF, 54, -660 minutes
• This pilot’s PN offset DAYLT, 1, Yes
PRAT, 1, 4800 bps
• 20 msec frame timing of channels CDMA_FREQ, 274 (IS-95)
EXT_CDMA_FREQ, 274 (1xRTT)
• Long Code State SR1_BCCH_SUPPORTED, 0
Q The SYNC channel is a special channel timed SR3_INCL, 0, No
exactly in step with the short PN sequence RESERVED, 0,
• It tells us all these unknown quantities

3. The Timing Shift: Adjust all Internal Clocks
PN 168
End of SCH
SuperFrame
BTS W0 PILOT Ref Time
TIME
+320 ms
Rake Receiver
#1 unassigned
-PN
Stay Locked!
#2 unassigned 168
#3 unassigned
Change
Timing
#4 unassigned
Pilot Searcher The
Q This timeline shows each step as the mobile acquires the system
Q First search all PNs to find the strongest pilot
Q Read the Sync Channel Message to learn times and LC state
• The times and state refer to a future moment 320 ms after the end of the
Sync Channel superframe, minus the BTS PN offset. This waiting period
is called the Timing Change.
4. Is This the Right System to Use?
Scan the PRL for Anything Better
SYSTEM TABLE ACQUISITION TABLE
ROAMING LIST
NEG/ ACQ ROAM INDEX ACQ TYPE CH1 CH2 CH3 CH4 CH5 CH6 CH7 CH8 CH9
0 6 500 425 825 575 850 325 625
INDEX SID NID PREF GEO PRI INDEX IND
Roaming List Type: IS-683A 1
2
6
6
575
50
625
100
500
75
425
475 825 850 175 250
296 4144 65535 Pref NEW SAME 13 1
Preferred Only: FALSE 297 4812 65535 Pref SAME MORE 21 1
3 6 25 200 350 375 725 50 475 175 250
a GEO GROUP
4 1 Both
Default Roaming Indicator: 0 298 205 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0 5 6 450 500 350 575 650
Climb!
299 208 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0 6 6 675 500 600 575 475
Preferred List ID: 10018 7 6 250 50 175
300 208 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0 8 6 550 375 425 625
301 342 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0 9 6 75 50 175 250
302 342 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0 10 6 200 250 175 50
11 6 425 500 575 25 325 650
303 478 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0 12 6 500 575 475 25 675
304 1038 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0 13 6 500 625 350 50 375 775 575 725 425
Q It’s not enough just to find a 305

306
1050
1058
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
4
4
0
0
14
15
16
6
6
6
650
25
425
500
50
550
675
375
225
25
350
725
75
250
750
425 50 575
175
775
CDMA signal 307

308
1375
1385
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
SAME
SAME
SAME
MORE
4
4
0
0
17
18
6
6
200
825
50
850
175
925
375 250
19 6 350 325 375 675 25 1175 725 600 100

309 143 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
• We want the CDMA 310 143 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
20
21
22
6
6
6
750
325
1150
725
725
1175
775
350 750 375 775 425 575 625
signal of our own system 311

312
4103
4157
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
NEW
SAME
SAME
MORE
3
2
1
1
23
24
6
6
350
25
875
1175
325
825
375 1175
200 75 175 250
or a favorite roaming 313 312 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0 25 6 50 200 25 100 250 75
a GEO GROUP
26 6 500 1075 850 825
314 444 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0 27 1 A
partner 315
316
444
1008
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
4
4
0
0
28
29
30
1
5
5
B
A
B
317 1012 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
Q Phones look in the PRL to
31 5 C
318 1014 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0 32 5 D
33 5 E
319 1688 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
see if there is a more 320
321
113
113
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
SAME
SAME
MORE 37
SAME 4
0
0
34
35
36
5
4
4
F
A
B
preferred signal than 322

323
179
179
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
SAME
SAME
MORE 37
SAME 4
0
0
37
38
4
6
Both
350 825
whatever they find first 324 465 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
39
40
41
6
6
6
25
675
850
100
600 750 850 1175 775
325 2119 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0 42 6 650
• They check frequencies 326

327
2094
1005
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
SAME
SAME
MORE
SAME
4
4
0
0
43
44
6
6
450
325
475
350 375 1025 1050 1075
in the Acquisition Table 328 1013 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0

45
46
6
6
150
1025
475 625 675
1050 1075
until they find the best

PRL: Preferred Roaming List
system, or look down the Programmed into each phone by the system
list level by level operator; can be updated over the air.
5. Collect the Configuration Messages!
Collect all the Configuration Messages
PN 168
(all config.messages are repeated every 1.28 sec)
W1 PAGING ACK SYS ChASN CHN XSYS NBR ChASN GSRM APM ACK GPAG ACK
TIME
Global Service
Parameters
Parameters
Extended
List Message
Message
Message
Neighbor
Message
Rake Receiver
Parameters
Message
System
Access
** Redirection
System
** List
Message
** CDMA
Channel
#1 PN168+0 W1 Stay Locked!
#2 PN168+2 W1
#3 PN168+9 W1
#4 PN168+5 W1
Collect all the Configuration Messages
Pilot Searcher Absorb and store all their parameters.
Q The Configuration Messages tell the mobile everything it needs to know to

successfully operate on the system
• Access Parameters Message (how to behave on the access channel)
• System Parameters Message (registration, handoff, window settings)
• Extended System Parameters Message (how to identify; packet details)
• Channel List Message (list of all carrier frequencies on this sector)
• Neighbor List Message (list of nearby sectors to watch out for)
• Global Service Redirection Message (“don’t stay here - go over there”)
6. Welcome! Just Monitor the Paging Channel
PN 168
W1 PAGING ACK SYS ChASN CHN XSYS NBR ChASN GSRM APM ACK GPAG ACK
TIME
Now monitor the
Rake Receiver Paging Channel
#1 PN168+0 W1 for any
incoming calls
#2 PN168+2 W1
or messages
#3 PN168+9 W1
#4 PN168+5 W1
Pilot Searcher
Q Listen to see if you get any incoming calls or short messages!
Registration: Mobile, Sign In Please
W1 PAGING KSAKX KPCKGKSAKXPNKPPCKGKSAKXPNKPPCKGKSAKXPNKPPCKGSAKXPNGKSAKXPNKGKSAKXPG

NSA
W32 SYNC SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS W0 PILOT
TIME
ACCESS CHANNEL R
20 sec. The BTS sends an ACK
20 seconds after system acquisition, the mobile on the Paging Channel.
sends a Registration Message on the access The mobile is now
channel. Registered and can begin
slotted mode paging.
Q After acquiring the system, the mobile must register

• This allows the current system to update the HLR with the mobile’s
location, so incoming calls can be delivered here
• It also allows the mobile to tell the system if it wants to do slotted
mode paging, and if so, what Slot Cycle Index.
Q A “holdoff” timer delays initial registration 20 seconds after acquisition
• This avoids needless registration by mobiles just being turned on to
check who is the owner, or other short power-on/off uses
Q Registration has many different controlling parameters, all declared by the
system on the paging channel in the System Parameters Message
Stretch Your Battery! IS-95 Slotted Mode Paging
Mobile listens during its slot, every cycle
W1 PAGING KGKSAKKGCKGKSAKXPNKPPCKGKSAKXPNKPPCKGKSGKXPNKPPCKGSAKXPNGKSAKXPNKGKSAKXPG
NSA

BTS W0 PILOT
TIME
Rake Receiver
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5
#1 PN168+0 W1
E P
#2 PN168+2 W1
1 Slot Cycle 1 Slot Cycle
L E
#3 PN168+9 W1
1 Slot 80 ms
S
Battery
#4 PN168+5 W1 Drain
Pilot Searcher
Each mobile has a preferred SCI
programmed by the vendor. The system
Q Slotted Mode Paging is a battery-saving trick also declares a maximum slot cycle
index, which mobiles may not exceed.
• After registering with the system, the mobile
goes into sleep mode with low battery drain Slot Cycle
Index (SCI)
Number Slots
in Cycle
Length of
Cycle, sec.
• It wakes on a schedule to listen for pages 0 16 1.28 sec.
Q Page slots are 80 ms. Long 1 32 2.56 sec.

2 64 5.12 sec.
Q Slot cycles can be set to many lengths
3 128 10.24 sec.
Q Longer cycles give better battery life, but introduce 4 256 20.48 sec.
longer possible delays in call delivery 5 512 40.96 sec.
Q Each mobile uses Hashing with its IMSI and SCI 6 1024 81.92 sec.
to determine which slot it should always monitor 7 2048 163.84 sec.
Even Better: CDMA2000 Slotted Mode Paging
Using the Quick Paging Channel (QPCH)
Mobile listens to PCH only when QPCH requires
W1 PAGING KGKSAKKGCKGKSAKXPNKPPCKGKSAKXPNKPPCKGKSGKXPNKPPCKGSAKXPNGKSAKXPNKGKSAKXPG
NSA
W48 QPCH
BTS W0 PILOT
TIME
Paging Channel Slots Paging Channel Slots
Rake Receiver
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5
er
#1 PN168+0 W1
p
e W1P
#2 PN168+2 W1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
De E E
#3 PN168+9 Battery QPCH Slots QPCH Slots
SL
#4 PN168+5 W1
Pilot Searcher
Drain
Q IS-95 mobiles must monitor their PCH Mobile hashes using its IMSI to
slots during every slot cycle recognize which indicator bits it should
monitor. If the bits are on, the mobile
• Must wake up 1000’s of times per wakes up and listen to the next PCH
hour and run high-drain message slot – somebody watching those bits
will be paged.
parsers, even if they are not paged
PCH SLOT
Q The Quick Paging Channel (QPCH) is a GenPG
simpler bitstream which notifies a 1xRTT 20 80 ms
mobile to monitor the PCH, only when a ms
QPCH SLOT
page is coming for its IMSI group
• There are at least xx IMSI groups. A 80 ms
mobile knows its group by hashing. 100 ms
Idle Mode Handoff
Q An idle mobile always uses the best available signal

• In idle mode, it isn’t possible to do soft handoff and listen to multiple
sectors or base stations at the same time -- the paging channel
information stream is different on each sector, not synchronous -- just
like ABC, NBC, CBS, and CNN TV news programs aren’t in word-sync
for simultaneous viewing
• Since a mobile can’t combine signals, the mobile must switch quickly,
always enjoying the best available signal
Q The mobile’s pilot searcher is constantly checking neighbor pilots
Q A Mobile might change pilots for either of two reasons:
• It notices another pilot at least 3 db stronger than the current active
pilot, and it stays this good continuously for at least five seconds:
mobile switches at end of the next superframe
• Mobile loses the current paging channel. If another signal is better
than the old active sector, change immediately to the new one.
Q On the new paging channel, if the mobile learns that registration is
required, it re-registers on the new sector
Idle Mode on the Paging Channel:
Meet the Neighbors, track the Strongest Pilot
All PN Offsets
0
Ec/Io
-20
Chips 0 SRCH_WIN_A Mobile Rake RX 32K

PN 0 F1 PN168 W01 512
Active Pilot F2 PN168 W01
Rake Fingers n F3 PN168 W01
o Srch PN??? W0
p
SRCH_WIN_N The phone’s pilot searcher constantly checks
the pilots listed in the Neighbor List Message
Reference PN
Neighbor Set
If the searcher ever notices a neighbor pilot substantially stronger than

the current reference pilot, it becomes the new reference pilot
and the phone switches over to its paging channel on the next superframe.
This is called an idle mode handoff.
Receiving
Receiving An
An Incoming
Incoming Call
Call
Incoming Call Termination – Voice
MSC BSC BTS A
HLR VLR
SS7 α
β
PSTN
switch χ
I see
Scott’s mobile, Your channel frames! Then let’s use OK! Then start
are you there? I hear you. Is ready! Service Option ringing and
You have a call. Just a moment. Walsh 23 X, for voice show this:
I see you! with 8k EVRC 615-300-0124 OK.
W23 TRAFFIC ACK SVCcon Alert/Inf ACK V

W1 PAGING KGGenPag
KS PCGKSPKGACKKPC CHasn KPNKPPCKGKSGKXPNKPPCKGSAKXPNGKSAKXPNKGKSAKXPG
NSAGSAKXPNGKSAK
W32 SYNC S SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS W0 PILOT
TIME
ACCESS PgResp
TRAFFIC ACK SVCncmp ACK Con V
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23 I’m here! What I see you, I accept. I am.
should I do? I see too!
#2 PN168+2 W23
frames! My owner answered!
#3 PN168+9 W23 Connect the audio.
#4 PN168+5 W23
SEND
Pilot Searcher
Making
Making an
an Outgoing
Outgoing Call!
Call!
Outgoing Call Origination – IS-95 Voice
MSC BSC BTS A
HLR VLR
SS7 α
β
PSTN
switch χ
I see
Your channel frames! Then let’s use
I hear you. Is ready! Service Option
Just a moment. Walsh 23 X, for voice
I see you! with 8k EVRC OK!
W23 TRAFFIC ACK SVCcon ACK Voice conversation

W1 PAGING KGKSPCGGPCGKSPKGACKKPC CHasn KPNKPPCKGKSGKXPNKPPCKGSAKXPNGKSAKXPNKGKSAKXPG
NSAGSAKXPNGKSAK
W32 SYNC S SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS W0 PILOT
TIME
ACCESS Origination
TRAFFIC ACK SVCncmp Voice conversation
Hey system! I am
Rake Receiver
615-300-0124,
#1 PN168+0 W23 I see you, I accept.
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234 I see too!
#2 PN168+2 W23
using EVRC voice. frames!
#3 PN168+9 W23
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher SEND
Power-Controlled
Power-Controlled
Reservation
Reservation Access
Access Mode
Mode
Power Controlled Reservation Access Mode
Enhanced Access Probe
EACH PREAMBLE EACH HEADER
BTS Early Acknowledgment

Channel Assignment Message
MESSAGE CAPSULE CACH PREAMBLE
F-CACH R-EACH
Enhanced Access Data

F-CPCCH Power Control Bits CCCH PREAMBLE CCCH HEADER
R-CCCH
F-CCCH Acknowledgment
Q Reservation Access Mode procedures:

• On R-EACH, mobile asks permission to transmit
• The associated F-CACH gives permission
• Mobile transmits on R-CCCH during scheduled slot
• F-CPCCH gives power control during R-CCCH transmission
• F-CCCH gives acknowledgment and TCH assignment, if needed
Downloading
Downloading Data
Data on
on aa
Forward
Forward Link
Link Supplemental
Supplemental Channel
Channel
Forward Supplemental Channel Assignment
Mobile: Watch Mobile: Watch
Walsh Code 2 Walsh Code 2
Starting in 320 ms Starting in 320 ms
For 1000 ms. For 1000 ms.
Supplemental Supplemental
W2 F-SCH Channel Burst Channel Burst
W23 F-FCH ESCAM ESCAM

W1 PAGING KGKSAKKNKGGKSKPG
NSASPPCKGKSAKGKSAKKNKGGKSKPG
NSASPPCK
PN 168
W32 SYNC SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS W0 PILOT
TIME
ACCESS CHANNEL
R-FCH
Uploading
Uploading Data
Data on
on aa
Reverse
Reverse Link
Link Supplemental
Supplemental Channel
Channel
Reverse Supplemental Channel Assignment
Mobile: Send Mobile: Send
Walsh Code 1 Walsh Code 1
Starting in 320 ms Starting in 320 ms
For 1000 ms. For 1000 ms.
W23 F-FCH ESCAM ESCAM

NSASPPCK
PN 168
BTS W0 PILOT
TIME
ACCESS CHANNEL
R-FCH SCRM SCRM
Supplemental Supplemental
R-SCH Channel Burst Channel Burst
System: I need to System: I need to

Send you the Send you the
Following blocks: Following blocks:
Ending
Ending A
A Call
Call
Normal End of Call
W23 TRAFFIC Voice RELnorm
NSASPPCKGKSA ACK SYS ChASN CHN XSYS NBR
W32 SYNC SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN
BTS W0 PILOT SCAN Ref Time
TIME
ACCESS CHANNEL MOBILE REACQUIRES SYSTEM NORMALLY
TRAFFIC CHANNEL Voice RELnoRsn
Q When a call ends normally, it is because the caller on one side of the
conversation decided to hang up
Q The side ending the call sends a “Release – Normal” order
Q The other side sends a “Release – No reason” order
• It may send an acknowledgment first, if it cannot give the release
order immediately
Q After the system receives a release order from the mobile, it releases the
resources it used for the call
Q After the mobile receives a release order from the base station, it stops
listening to the traffic channel and freshly reacquires the system
Abnormal End of Call – Forward Link Failure
5s timer
W23 TRAFFIC Voice All bad frames
NSASPPCKGKSA ACK SYS ChASN CHN XSYS
W32 SYNC SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN
TIME
ACCESS CHANNEL MOBILE REACQUIRES SYSTEM, if available
TRAFFIC CHANNEL Voice Mute! No pc
5s timer
Q The mobile is always counting and tracking the bad frames it

receives on the forward link
Q Forward Link Fade Timer: If the mobile does not receive any good
frames during a 5-second period, it aborts the call
Q If a mobile receives 10 consecutive bad frames, it mutes its
transmitter until at least 2 consecutive good frames are heard
• If the mobile stays muted 5 seconds, the BTS will release too
Q After a call ends for any reason, the mobile tries to reacquire the
system, making an independent cold start
Abnormal End of Call – Reverse Link Failure
W23 TRAFFIC Voice RELnoRsn
NSASPPCKGKSAAKSKPG
NSAS ACK SYS ChASN CHN XSYS
W32 SYNC SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN
TIME
ACCESS CHANNEL MOBILE REACQUIRES SYSTEM, if available
TRAFFIC CHANNEL Voice All bad frames
5s timer
Q The BTS is always counting and tracking the bad frames it

receives on the reverse link from the mobile
Q Reverse Link Fade Timer: If the BTS does not receive any good
frames during a 5-second period, it releases the call
Q After a call ends for any reason, the mobile tries to reacquire the
system, making an independent cold start
Feature
Feature Notification:
Notification:
You
You Have
Have Voicemail!
Voicemail!
Feature Notification
FEATURE NOTIFICATION MESSAGE
98/06/30 21:16:44.368 [PCH] Feature Notification Message
MSG_LENGTH = 144 bits The Feature Notification Message on
MSG_TYPE = Feature Notification Message
ACK_SEQ = 0 the Paging Channel tells a specific
MSG_SEQ = 0 mobile it has voice messages waiting.
ACK_REQ = 1
VALID_ACK = 0
ADDR_TYPE = IMSI
ADDR_LEN = 56 bits
There are other record types to notify
IMSI_CLASS = 0 the mobile of other features.
IMSI_CLASS_0_TYPE = 3
RESERVED = 0
MCC = 302
IMSI_11_12 = 00
IMSI_S = 9055170325
RELEASE = 0
RECORD_TYPE = Message Waiting
RECORD_LEN = 8 bits
MSG_COUNT = 1
RESERVED = 0
MOBILE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The mobile confirms it has received the
notification by sending a Mobile Station
Acknowledgment Order on the access
channel.
CDMA
CDMA Handset
Handset Architecture
Architecture
CDMA
CDMA Handoffs
Handoffs
What’s In a Handset? How does it work?
Digital
Rake Receiver Symbols
Chips Traffic Correlator
summing
PN xxx Walsh xx
bits
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
Σ Symbols
control
Receiver Traffic Correlator Δt Viterbi Decoder,
time-aligned
RF Section Convl. Decoder,
IF, Detector PN xxx Walsh xx Demultiplexer
power
Traffic Correlator Packets
AGC
PN xxx Walsh xx
RF Messages
Audio
Open Loop
Duplexer Pilot Searcher

CPU Vocoder
PN xxx Walsh 0
RF Transmit Gain Adjust Audio
Messages
Transmitter
Transmitter Digital Section
RF Section
Long Code Gen.
The Rake Receiver
Handset Rake Receiver
PN Walsh
Voice,
RF PN Walsh Σ Data,
BTS Messages
PN Walsh
BTS
Searcher Pilot Ec/Io
PN W=0
Q Every frame, handset uses combined outputs of the three traffic

correlators (“rake fingers”)
Q Each finger can independently recover a particular PN offset and
Walsh code
Q Fingers can be targeted on delayed multipath reflections, or even on
different BTSs
Q Searcher continuously checks pilots
CDMA Soft Handoff Mechanics
Switch BSC Handset Rake Receiver
PN Walsh
Voice,
Sel. RF PN Walsh Σ Data,
PN Walsh Messages
BTS
BTS Searcher
Pilot Ec/Io
PN W=0
Q CDMA soft handoff is driven by the handset

• Handset continuously checks available pilots
• Handset tells system pilots it currently sees
• System assigns sectors (up to 6 max.), tells handset
• Handset assigns its fingers accordingly
• All messages sent by dim-and-burst, no muting!
Q Each end of the link chooses what works best, on a frame-by-frame
basis!
• Users are totally unaware of handoff
The Complete Rules of Soft Handoff
J-Std008
IS-95B/
1xRTT
IS-95/
Q The Handset considers pilots in sets PILOT SETS
• Active: pilots of sectors actually in use
Active 6 6
# Req’d`. By Std.
• Candidates: pilots mobile requested, but
not yet set up & transmitting by system Candidate 5 10
• Neighbors: pilots told to mobile by system,
as nearby sectors to check Neighbor 20 40
• Remaining: any pilots used by system but
not already in the other sets (div. by PILOT_INC) Remaining
Q Handset sends Pilot Strength Measurement
Message to the system whenever: HANDOFF
• It notices a pilot in neighbor or remaining set
exceeds T_ADD
PARAMETERS
T_ADD T_DROP
• An active set pilot drops below T_DROP for
T_TDROP time T_TDROP T_COMP
• A candidate pilot exceeds an active by
T_COMP Exercise: How does a pilot
Q The System may set up all requested handoffs, in one set migrate into
or it may apply special manufacturer-specific another set, for all cases?
screening criteria and only authorize some Identify the trigger, and the
messages involved.
Softer Handoff
Handset Rake Receiver
Switch BSC PN Walsh
Voice,
RF PN Walsh Σ Data,
Sel. BTS Messages
PN Walsh
Searcher
PN W=0 Pilot Ec/Io
Q Each BTS sector has unique PN offset & pilot

Q Handset will ask for whatever pilots it wants
Q If multiple sectors of one BTS simultaneously serve a handset, this is
called Softer Handoff
Q Handset can’t tell the difference, but softer handoff occurs in BTS in
a single channel element
Q Handset can even use combination soft-softer handoff on multiple
BTS & sectors
What is Ec/Io?
Q Ec/Io is the measurement mobiles

use to gauge strengths of the various
nearby sectors they encounter Handset Receiver
Rake
LNA IF R
• Ec means the energy per chip of
the pilot of the observed sector ≈ x
≈ R
BW BW R
~30 LO 1.25
• Io means the total power currently MHz. MHz. S
being picked up by the mobile RX Level
(from AGC)
Q Why can’t the mobile just measure the signal strength of a sector
directly with its receiver?
• all sectors are on the same frequency
• the measurable signal strength on that frequency is just the
sum of all the individual signal powers
• to distinguish them individually CDMA decoding must be used
Q Each sector dedicates 10-15% of its power to a steady test signal
called the “pilot”. Mobiles can easily measure the pilot of a sector,
determining its strength as a percentage of total received power
How Ec/Io Varies with Traffic Loading
Light Traffic Loading

Q Each sector transmits a certain
amount of power, the sum of:
• pilot, sync, and paging Ec/Io = (2/4)
= 50%
• any traffic channels in use = -3 db. Paging 1.5w
at that moment Sync 0.5w I0
Pilot 2w EC
Q Ec/Io is the ratio of pilot power
to total power
• On a sector with nobody Heavily Loaded
talking, Ec/Io is typically
Traffic Channels
about 50%, which is -3 db
• On a sector with maximum Ec/Io = (2/10) 6w
= 20% I0
traffic, Ec/Io is typically
= -7 db.
about 20%, which is -7 db. Paging
Sync
1.5w
0.5w
Pilot 2w EC
How Ec/Io varies with RF Environment
One Sector Dominant

Q In a “clean situation”, one
Channels
Traffic
4w
sector is dominant and the Io = -90 dbm
mobile enjoys an Ec/Io just Ec = -96 dbm I0
Paging 1.5w
as good as it was when Ec/Io = -6 db Sync 0.5w
Pilot 2w EC
transmitted
Q In “pilot pollution”, too many Many Sectors, Nobody Dominant
sectors overlap and the Traffic BTS10
Sync & Paging
mobile hears a “soup” made Pilot
Traffic BTS9
up of all their signals Sync & Paging

Pilot
Traffic BTS8
• Io is the power sum of all Io = 10 signals Sync & Paging

Pilot
Traffic BTS7
each -90 dbm Sync & Paging
the signals reaching the Pilot
BTS6
= -80 dbm Traffic
mobile Ec of any one

Sync & Paging
Pilot
Traffic BTS5
I0
Sync & Paging
• Ec is the energy of a sector = -96 Pilot

Traffic BTS4
single sector’s pilot Ec/Io = -16 db Sync & Paging

Pilot
Traffic BTS3
Sync & Paging
• The large Io overrides the Pilot

Traffic
Sync & Paging
BTS2
weak Ec; Ec/Io is low! Pilot

Traffic BTS1
Sync & Paging
Pilot EC
A
A Soft
Soft Handoff
Handoff
Basic Soft/Softer Handoff
BTS A BTS B
BSC α α
BTSC BTSC
β β
ctrl OK. Here’s your new
χ χ Neighbor list:
PN164 PN172 PN340
OK! You can use: PN420 PN084 PN132
I hear you. PN 168 W23 PN434 PN504 PN016
Hang on… PN 344 W41 OK PN028 PN508 PN372
W41 TRAFFIC EHDM ACK NLum
PN 344 W1 PAGING GGKSKPG

NSASPPCK
W32 SYNC SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W0 PILOT
W23 TRAFFIC ACK EHDM ACK NLum
PN 168 W1 PAGING KGKSAKKNKGGKSKPG

NSASPPCK
BTS
W0 PILOT
TIME
ACCESS CHANNEL
TRAFFIC CHANNEL PSMM ACK HOcomp ACK
Rake Receiver
!!
#1 PN344+0 W41
#2 PN344+3 W41
Wow! PN344 Hey system! I want: OK Great! I’m using OK
#3 PN168+2 W23 is above PN168 (ref), -6, keep PN168 + PN344
#4 PN168+5 W23 T_ADD! PN344, -11, keep
Pilot Searcher
Handoff Example
All PN Offsets
0
Ec/Io
-20
Chips 0 10752 14080 32002 32K
PN 0 168 220 500 512
Mobile Rake RX Active Pilot
F1 PN168 W61 Rake Fingers n The call is already in progress.
F2 PN168 W61 o PN 168 is the only active signal,
F3 PN168 W61 p and also is our timing reference.
Srch PN??? W0
Continue checking the neighbors.
Reference PN
Neighbor Set
T_ADD
! !
If we ever notice a neighbor with Ec/Io above T_ADD,
ask to use it! Send a Pilot Strength Measurement Message!
Handoff Now In Effect, but still check Pilots!
All PN Offsets
0
Ec/Io
-20
Chips 0 10752 14080 32002 32K
PN 0 168 220 500 512
Mobile Rake RX Active Set
F1 PN168 W61 n Rake Fingers
p o
F2 PN500 W50
T_DROP
F3 PN220 W20
Srch PN??? W0
Reference PN
Neighbor Set
T_ADD
Continue checking each ACTIVE pilot. If any are less than T_DROP and remain
so for T_TDROP time, send Pilot Strength Measurement Message, DROP IT!!
Continue looking at each NEIGHBOR pilot. If any ever rises above T_ADD, send
Pilot Strength Measurement Message, ADD IT!
The Complete Picture of Handoff & Pilot Sets
All PN Offsets
0
Ec/Io
-20
Chips 0 Rake Fingers n

SRCH_WIN_A 32K
PN 0 o p Active Set 512
Pilots of sectors
SRCH_WIN_A
T_DROP now used for Mobile Rake RX
communication
F1 PN168 W61
Reference PN F2 PN500 W50
T_DROP
Candidate Set SRCH_WIN_N F3 PN220 W20
Pilots requested Srch PN??? W0
by mobile but not
set up by system Neighbor Set
Pilots suggested
T_ADD by system for
more checking
All other pilots divisible by PILOT_INC but not

Remaining Set presently in Active, Candidate, or Neighbor sets
T_ADD
SRCH_WIN_R
CDMA
CDMA Call
Call Processing
Processing
CDMA Troubleshooting is like Air Accident Investigation
Control & Parameters Messaging
114.50
118.25
11500 11500
130.75
Aeronautical
Investigations
Wireless Protocol Stack Flight Data Recorder Cockpit Voice Recorder
4 Application
CDMA
3 Message
Layers
Investigations
LAC
2 Data Link Layer
MAC BTS
1 Physical Layer Temporal Analyzer Data Layer 3 Message Files
Q Air accidents are big news and reporters follow the investigations closely
• Everybody’s familiar with the two main information sources at the crash
– Cockpit voice recorder: record of conversation and sounds in the
cockpit during the last 30 minutes up to the crash
– Flight data recorder: record of major control settings, mechanical,
electrical, and hydraulic systems status for the last 30 minutes
Q In CDMA, the same sorts of tools are available for problem investigation:
• Layer-3 message files contain user and system command/control details
• Temporal analyzer data shows the RF environment up to the problem
Troubleshooting Call Processing
Q CDMA call processing is complex!
• Calls are a relationship between mobile and system
– the events driven by messaging
– the channels carried by RF transmission
• Multiple codes and channels available for use
• Multiple possible problems - physical, configuration, software
• Multiple concurrent processes in the mobile and the system
Q Troubleshooting focuses on the desired call events
• What is the desired sequence of events?
• Compare the actual sequence of events.
– What’s missing or wrong? Why did it happen?
Q Messaging is a major blow-by-blow troubleshooting tool
Q RF indications reveal the transmission risks and the channel
configurations
Bottom Line: To troubleshoot effectively, you’ve got to know call
processing steps and details AND the RF basis of the transmission
Introduction
Introduction to
to Optimization
Optimization
What is Performance Optimization?
Q The words “performance optimization” mean different things to

different people, viewed from the perspective of their own jobs
Q System Performance Optimization includes many different smaller
processes at many points during a system’s life
• recognizing and resolving system-design-related issues (can’t
build a crucial site, too much overlap/soft handoff, coverage
holes, etc.)
• “cluster testing” and “cell integration” to ensure that new base
station hardware works and that call processing is normal
• “fine-tuning” system parameters to wring out the best possible
call performance
• identifying causes of specific problems and customer
complaints, and fixing them
• carefully watching system traffic growth and the problems it
causes - implementing short-term fixes to ease “hot spots”, and
recognizing problems before they become critical
Performance Optimization Phases/Activities
Phase Drivers/Objectives Activities Main Tools Success Indicators

Cover desired area; Plan cells to effectively cover Prop. Models,
RF Design and
have capacity for as needed and divide traffic Test Transmitters, Model results
Cell Planning anticipated traffic load appropriately planning tools
New Cluster Ensure cells properly

Drive-test: coverage, all Drive-test tools; All handoffs occur;
constructed and
Testing and handoff boundaries, all call cell diagnostics and all test cases
configured to give
Cell Integration normal performance
events and scenarios hardware test verified
Solve Specific Identify problems Drive-test tools, Identified

Detect, Investigate, Resolve
Performance from complaints or system stats, problems are
performance problems
Problems statistics; fix them! customer reports resolved
Well-System Ensure present ‘plant’ Watch stats: Drops, Blocks, Acceptable levels
Performance is giving best possible Access Failures; identify/fix hot System statistics and good trends
Management performance spots for all indicators
Manage congested Watch capacity indicators; Smart optimization Stats-Derived

Capacity
areas for most identify problem areas, tune of parameters; indicators; carried
Optimization effective performance parameters & configuration system statistics traffic levels
Sectors are
Growth expanded soon
Q hello
Management: Overall traffic
increases and
Predict sector and area
Traffic analysis and
trending tools;
after first signs of
Optimizing both exhaustion: plan and validate congestion;
congestion; prop. models for
Performance competition for capital
effective growth plan, avoid
cell spliiting; carrier
capital budget
and Capital integration impact remains within
during tight times additions
Effectiveness comfortable
bounds
Good Performance is so Simple!!
Q One, Two, or Three good signals in handoff

BTS BTS • Composite Ec/Io > -10 db
Q Enough capacity
• No resource problems – I’ve got what I
BTS need
Ec/Io
-10
BTS A
BTS B
BTS C
available
FORWARD power
Traffic
LINK Channels
In use
Paging
Sync
Pilot
Bad Performance Has Many Causes
+41
Q Weak Signal / Coverage Hole
360
+8
Q Pilot Pollution
A 360+33c • Excessive Soft Handoff
BTS
B Q Handoff Failures, “Rogue” mobiles
BTS
• Missing Neighbors
• Search Windows Too Small
• BTS Resource Overload / No Resources
BTS Rx Pwr
No
Overload – No Forward Power, Channel
Available Elements
Power!
– No available Walsh Codes
BTS Sector Transmitter
Traffic
– No space in Packet Pipes
CEs
Channels
In Use
Q Pilot “Surprise” ambush; Slow Handoffs
Paging
x Q PN Plan errors
Q Slow Data Problems: RF or IP congestion
Sync
Pilot Vocoders Q Improper cell or reradiator configuration
BTS A
Selectors BTS B Q Hardware and software failures
PN 100 PN 99
ACTIVE SEARCH WINDOW

Q But on analysis, all of these problems’ bad
effects happen because the simple few-signal
1 mile 11 miles
ideal CDMA environment isn’t possible.
Aeronautical Analogy: Tools for Problem Investigation
Control & Parameters Messaging
114.50
118.25
11500 11500
125.75
Aeronautical
Investigations
Flight Data Recorder Cockpit Voice Recorder
CDMA
Investigations
BTS
Temporal Analyzer Data Layer 3 Message Files
To study the cause of an aeronautical accident, we try to recover the Flight Data
Recorder and the Cockpit Voice Recorder.
To study the cause of a CDMA call processing accident, we review data from the
Temporal Analyzer and the Layer 3 Message Files -- for the same reasons.
Starting Optimization on a New System
Q RF Coverage Control
• try to contain each sector’s coverage, avoiding gross spillover
into other sectors
• tools: PN Plots, Handoff State Plots, Mobile TX plots
Q Search Window Settings
• find best settings for SRCH_WIN_A, _N, _R
• especially optimize SRCH_WIN_A per sector using collected
finger separation data; has major impact on pilot search speed
Q Neighbor List Tuning
• try to groom each sector’s neighbors to only those necessary
but be alert to special needs due to topography and traffic
• tools: diagnostic data, system logs
Q Access Failures, Dropped Call Analysis
• finally, iterative corrections until within numerical goals
Getting these items into shape provides a solid baseline and foundation from
which future performance issues can be addressed.
Autonomous
Autonomous Data
Data Collection
Collection
By
By Stowaway
Stowaway Mobiles
Mobiles
Stowaway Mobiles
Q Some operators are using “stowaway” mobiles in courier vehicles

or public transport (under agreement, of course)
Q A typical installation includes:
• a commercial data collection device by a manufacturer such as
ZKcelltest
• two attached phones, one for collection and one as a modem
• a PN scanner
• a GPS receiver
Q The data collection begins anytime the vehicle is driven
Q Collected data is uploaded to a server on the system
Q The central server also provides post-processing functions via a
web interface, allowing remote users to examine data for their
areas
Autonomous
Autonomous Data
Data Collection
Collection
By
By Subscriber
Subscriber Handsets
Handsets
Autonomous Collection:
A New Way to See Network Performance
Collection Server
•software download
•collected data upload BTS
•data management, analysis
PDSN/Foreign Agent
Backbone BTS
Internet Network
VPNs T SECURE TUNNELS T
PDSN Authentication
Home Agent
Authorization AAA R-P Interface
Accounting
BTS
PSTN v SEL
t1 t1 t1
Switch (C)BSC/Access Manager BTS
Q An exciting new trend in network RF performance is to embed data

collection software on mobile platforms
Q Offers big advantages for RF optimization cost/effectiveness
Using Autonomous Collection
Collection Server
•software download
•collected data upload BTS
•data management, analysis
PDSN/Foreign Agent
Backbone BTS
Internet Network
VPNs T SECURE TUNNELS T
PDSN Authentication
Home Agent Accounting AAA
Authorization R-P Interface
BTS
t1 v
PSTN SEL
t1 t1
Switch (C)BSC/Access Manager BTS
Q A Server downloads software to a large population of subscriber mobiles

Q Mobiles collect on custom profiles
• all or groups of mobiles can be enabled/disabled
• new triggers can be rapidly developed and downloaded when desired
Q Mobiles upload compacted packets to server driven by custom triggers
• may be immediately if needed, or at low-traffic pre-programmed times
• collected data can include location/GPS/call event/L3
messaging/timestamps/etc.
Q Server manages data, provides filtering and reporting
Q Performance optimizers use terminals and post-processing software
Advantages of Autonomous Collection
Q Mobile-reported data can be

location-binned
• post-processing provides
visual identification of problem
areas
Q Collection can be rapidly enabled
per cell or area for immediate
investigation of problem reports
Q Requires less employee drive time
for collection
Q Customer mobiles cover area
more densely than drivetesters
Q Customer mobiles include in-
building populations
Q Individual mobile identification can
be included with customer
permission for direct customer
service interaction
Conventional
Conventional Field
Field Tools
Tools
CDMA Field Test Tools
Field Collection Tools using Handset Data PN Scanners
Motorola Qualcomm
MDM, CAIT Agilent Berkeley
(HP + SAFCO) Varitronics
Grayson Agilent Willtech
(HP + SAFCO) Grayson Qualcomm
Comarco Ericsson
TEMS DTI Willtech
Q There are many commercial CDMA field test tools

Q Characteristics of many test tools:
• capture data from data ports on commercial handsets
• log data onto PCs using proprietary software
• can display call parameters, messaging, graphs, and maps
• store data in formats readable for post-processing analysis
• small and portable, easy to use in vehicles or even on foot
Q A few considerations when selecting test tools:
• does it allow integration of network and mobile data?
• Cost, features, convenience, availability, and support
• new tools are introduced every few months - investigate!
Grayson’s Invex3G Tool
Q 100 MB ethernet connection to

PC
Q the eight card slots can hold
receivers or dual-phone cards
Q there’s also room for two
internal PN scanners
Q Multiple Invex units can be
cascaded for multi-phone load-
test applications
Q Cards are field-swappable -
Users can reconfigure the unit
in the field for different tasks
without factory assistance
Grayson Invex 1x Data Example
153.6
kb/s
This mobile is in a 2-way soft handoff

(two green FCH walsh codes
assigned) in the middle of a downlink
SCH burst. Notice walsh code #3, 4
chips long, is assigned as an SCH
but only on one sector, and the
downlink data speed is 153.6kb/s.
Grayson Invex 1xData Example
F-SCH rates 153.6 kbps; R-SCH 76.8kbps
CDMA Status
PN Scanner Data
Current Data Task Status

Layer-3 Messages
July,
Introduction 2008 & CDMA -- RF100 v3.0 - (c) 2008 Scott BaxterTechnical Introduction to Wireless -- ©1997 Scott249
to Wireless Baxter - V0.0
WillTech Tools
Q Blue Rose platform can

manage multiple phones and
collect data
• Internal processor
manages test operations
independently for stand-
alone operation
• Internal PCMCIA flash
card provides storage
• An external PC can display
collected data during or
after data collection
Agilent Drive-Test Tools
Q Agilent offers Drive-Test tools

• Serial interfaces for up to four
CDMA phones
• A very flexible digital receiver
with several modes
Q PN Scanner
• Fast, GPS-locked, can scan
two carrier frequencies
Q Spectrum Analyzer
• Can scan entire 800 or 1900
mHz. Bands
Q Base-Station Over-Air Tester
(BOAT)
• Can display all walsh channel
activity on a specific sector
• Useful for identifying hardware
problems, monitoring
instantaneous traffic levels, etc.
Q Post-Processing tool: OPAS32
Comarco Mobile Tools
Q X-Series Units for more data-

intensive collection activities
• Multiple handsets can be
collected
• Data is displayed and
collected on PC
Q LT-Series provides integrated
display and logging
Q "Workbench" Post-Processing
tool analyzes drive-test files
PN Scanners
Q Why PN scanners? Because phones can’t

scan remaining set fast enough, miss
transient interfering signals
Q Berkeley Varitronics
• high-resolution, GPS-locked
– full-PN scan speed 26-2/3 ms.
• 2048 parallel processors for very fast
detection of transient interferors
Q Agilent (formerly Hewlett-Packard)
• high resolution, GPS-locked
– full-PN scan speed 1.2 sec.
• Integrated with spectrum analyzer and
phone call-processing tool
Q Grayson Wireless
• New digital receiver provides CDMA PN
searcher and and sector walsh domain
displays
Post-Processing Tools
Post-Processing tools display drive-test files
for detailed analysis - Faster, more
effective than studying data playback
with collection tools alone
Q Actix Analyzer
• Imports/analyzes data from almost
every brand of drive-test collection
tool
Q Grayson Interpreter
• Imports/analyzes data from Grayson
Wireless Inspector, Illuminator, and
Invex3G
Q Agilent OPAS32
• Imports/analyzes a variety of data
OPAS32
Q Nortel RF Optimizer
• Can merge/analyze drive-test and
Nortel CDMA system data
Q Wavelink
Q Comarco "Workbench" Tool
Q Verizon/Airtouch internal tool “DataPro” COMARCO
The
The Key
Key Features
Features
and
and Structure
Structure of
of 1xEV-DO
1xEV-DO
Channel Structure of 1xEV-DO vs. 1xRTT
CHANNEL STRUCTURE
IS-95 AND 1xRTT
Q IS-95 and 1xRTT Many users’ simultaneous forward
• many simultaneous users, each and reverse traffic channels
PILOT W0
with steady forward and reverse SYNC W32
traffic channels PAGING W1
F-FCH1 W17
• transmissions arranged, F-FCH2 W25
requested, confirmed by layer-3 F-FCH3 W41
messages – with some delay…… F-SCH W3

Q 1xEV-DO -- Very Different: BTS
F-FCH4 W53
• Forward Link goes to one user at a
time – like TDMA!
• users are rapidly time-multiplexed,
each receives fair share of ATs 1xEV-DO AP
available sector time (Access Terminals) (Access Point)
• instant preference given to user 1xEV-DO Forward Link
with ideal receiving conditions, to
maximize average throughput
• transmissions arranged and
requested via steady MAC-layer AP
walsh streams – very immediate!
Power Management of 1xEV-DO vs. 1xRTT
IS-95: VARIABLE POWER

POWER MANAGEMENT TO MAINTAIN USER FER
Maximum Sector Transmit Power
Q IS-95 and 1xRTT:
8
• sectors adjust each user’s 6
7
5
channel power to maintain a 5
5
power
4
preset target FER 2
3
User 1
Q 1xEV-DO IS-856: PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
• sectors always operate at time
maximum power
• sector output is time- 1xEV-DO: MAX POWER ALWAYS,
DATA RATE OPTIMIZED
multiplexed, with only one
user served at any instant
• The transmission data rate is power
set to the maximum speed
the user can receive at that
moment
time
Some EV-DO Terminology
IS-95, IS-2000, 1xRTT EV-DO
Phone,
Mobile, AT
Handset, or Access
Subscriber Terminal
Terminal
Base Station, AP
BTS, Access
Cell Site Point
1xEV-DO
1xEV-DO Technical
Technical Details
Details
Data
Data Flow
Flow and
and Channels
Channels
1xEV-DO Transmission Timing
Forward Link
Q All members of the CDMA family - IS-95, IS-95B,

1xRTT, 1xEV-DO and 1xEV-DV transmit
“Frames”
One Cycle of PN Short Code
• IS-95, IS-95B, 1xRTT frames are usually 20
ms. long
• 1xEV-DO frames are 26-2/3 ms. long
– same length as the short PN code One 1xEV-DO Frame
– each 1xEV-DO frame is divided into
1/16ths, called “slots”
Q The Slot is the basic timing unit of 1xEV-DO
transmission
• Each slot is directed toward somebody and
holds a subpacket of information for them
• Some slots are used to carry the control
channel for everyone to hear; most slots are
intended for individual users or private groups
Q Users don’t “own” long continuing series of slots One Slot
like in TDMA or GSM; instead, each slot or small
string of slots is dynamically addressed to
whoever needs it at the moment
What’s In a Slot?
½ Slot – 1024 chips ½ Slot – 1024 chips
PILOT
PILOT
SLOT
MAC
MAC
MAC
MAC
DATA DATA DATA DATA
400 chips 64 96 64 400 chips 400 chips 64 96 64 400 chips
Q The main “cargo” in a slot is the DATA being sent to a user

Q But all users need to get continuous timing and administrative
information, even when all the slots are going to somebody else
Q Twice in every slot there is regularly-scheduled burst of timing and
administrative information for everyone to use
• MAC (Media Access Control) information such as power
control bits
• a burst of pure Pilot
– allows new mobiles to acquire the cell and decide to use it
– keeps existing user mobiles exactly on sector time
– mobiles use it to decide which sector should send them
their next forward link packet
What if there’s No Data to Send?
PILOT
PILOT
SLOT
MAC
MAC
MAC
MAC
empty empty empty empty
Q Sometimes there may be no data waiting to be sent on a sector’s

forward link
• When there’s no data to transmit on a slot, transmitting can be
suspended during the data portions of that slot
• But---the MAC and PILOT must be transmitted!!
• New and existing mobiles on this sector and surrounding
sectors need to monitor the relative strength of all the sectors
and decide which one to use next, so they need the pilot
• Mobiles TRANSMITTING data to the sector on the reverse link
need power control bits
• So MAC and PILOT are always transmitted, even in an empty
slot
Slots and Frames
PILOT
PILOT
SLOT
MAC
MAC
MAC
MAC
DATA DATA DATA DATA
Slot
FRAME
1 Frame = 16 slots – 32k chips – 26-2/3 ms
Q Two Half-Slots make a Slot

Q 16 Slots make a frame
Frames and Control Channel Cycles
Q A Control Channel Cycle is 16 frames (that’s 426-2/3 ms, about 1/2
second)
Q The first half of the first frame has all of its slots reserved for possible use
carrying Control Channel packets
Q The last half of the first frame, and all of the remaining 15 frames, have
their slots available for ordinary use transmitting subpackets to users
Slot
FRAME
CONTROL
CHANNEL
USER(S) DATA CHANNEL
16-FRAME
CONTROL CHANNEL
CYCLE 16 Frames – 524k chips – 426-2/3 ms
That’s a lot of slots!

16 x 16 = 256
Forward Link Frame and Slot Structure:
“Big Picture” Summary
PILOT
PILOT
SLOT
MAC
MAC
MAC
MAC
DATA DATA DATA DATA
FRAME
CONTROL
CHANNEL
USER(S) DATA CHANNEL
16-FRAME
CONTROL CHANNEL
CYCLE 16 Frames – 524k chips – 426-2/3 ms
Q Slots make Frames and Frames make Control Channel Cycles!
The 1xEV-DO Channels
IN THE WORLD OF CODES
Long PN offset
Access Channel
W064 Pilot
Pilot W016
Access
Sector has a Short PN Offset
for session setup
ACCESS from Idle Mode
W264 Rev Activity Data W24
DRCLock MAC
MAC
W 64
just like IS-95
RPC Pilot
W016
RRI
Public or Private
Access
Wx16 Control
Long PN offset
W0 W4 Terminal
Wx16 Traffic W1 W5 (User
MAC DRC W2 W6
W816
Access Terminal)
FORWARD W3 W7
TR
Point Traffic Channel
(AP) Walsh as used during
A
ACK W48 a data session
code
FF
Data W24 Walsh
IC
code
Q These channels are NOT CONTINUOUS like IS-95 or 1xRTT!

• They are made up of SLOTS carrying data subpackets to individual
users or control channel subpackets for everyone to monitor
• Regardless of who “owns” a SLOT, the slot also carries two small
generic bursts containing PILOT and MAC information everyone can
monitor
Information Flow Over 1xEV-DO
Data Ready
Data from PDSN for the Mobile
DRC: 5
MP3, web page, or other content AP

Q The system notifies a mobile when data for it is waiting to be sent
Q The mobile chooses which sector it hears best at that instant, and requests
the sector to send it a packet
Q there are 16 possible transmission formats the mobile may request, called
“DRC Indices”. Each DRC Index value is really a combined specification
including specific values for:
• what data speed will be transmitted
• how big a “chunk” of waiting data will be sent (that amount of data will be
cut of the front of the waiting data stream and will be the “Packet”
transmitted)
• what kind of encoding will be done to protect the data (3x Turbo, 5x
Turbo, etc.) and the symbol repetition, if any
• after the symbols are formed, how many SUBpackets they will be
divided into
Q Then, the sector starts transmitting the SUBpackets in SLOTS on the
forward link
Q The first slot will begin with a header that the mobile will recognize so it can
begin the receiving process
Transmission of a Packet over EV-DO
Data from PDSN for the Mobile Data Ready
MP3, web page, or other content

AP
A user has initiated a1xEV-DO data session on their AT,
accessing a favorite website.
The requested page has just been received by the PDSN.
The PDSN and Radio Network Controller send a “Data
Ready” message to let the AT know it has data waiting.
Data from PDSN for the Mobile Data Ready
DRC: 5
AP
A user has initiated a1xEV-DO data session on their AT,
DRC Modu- Preamble Payload Raw C/I
accessing a favorite website. Index Slots lation Chips Bits kb/s db
The requested page has just been received by the PDSN. 0x0 n/a QPSK n/a 0 null rate n/a
The PDSN and Radio Network Controller send a “Data 0x1 16 QPSK 1024 1024 38.4 -11.5
Ready” message to let the AT know it has data waiting. 0x2 8 QPSK 512 1024 76.8 -9.2
0x3 4 QPSK 256 1024 153.6 -6.5
0x4 2 QPSK 128 1024 307.2 -3.5
The AT quickly determines which of its active sectors is the 0x5 4 QPSK 128 2048 307.2 -3.5
strongest. On the AT’s DRC channel it asks that sector to 0x6 1 QPSK 64 1024 614.4 -0.6
send it a packet at speed “DRC Index 5”. 0x7 2 QPSK 64 2048 614.4 -0.5
0x8 2 QPSK 64 3072 921.6 +2.2
0x9 1 QPSK 64 2048 1,228.8 +3.9
The mobile’s choice, DRC Index 5, determines everything:
0xa 2 16QAM 64 4096 1,228.8 +4.0
The raw bit speed is 307.2 kb/s. 0xb 1 8PSK 64 3072 1,843.2 +8.0
The packet will have 2048 bits. 0xc 1 16QAM 64 4096 2,457.6 +10.3
There will be 4 subpackets (in slots 4 apart). 0xd 2 16QAM 64 5120 1,536.0 in Rev. A
The first subpacket will begin with a 128 chip preamble. 0xe 1 16QAM 64 5120 3,072.0 in Rev. A
Data from PDSN for the Mobile PACKET Data Ready
DRC: 5
2048 bits
AP
Using the specifications for Turbo Coder
the mobile’s requested DRC +
+ +
+ +
Index Slots lation Chips Bits kb/s db
index, the correct-size packet + D D D
0x0 n/a QPSK n/a 0 null rate n/a
+
of bits is fed into the turbo +
Interleaver
+
+
+ +
0x1 16 QPSK 1024 1024 38.4 -11.5
coder and the right number of + D
+
D D 0x2 8 QPSK 512 1024 76.8 -9.2
0x3 4 QPSK 256 1024 153.6 -6.5
symbols are created. Symbols 0x4 2 QPSK 128 1024 307.2 -3.5
0x5 4 QPSK 128 2048 307.2 -3.5
0x6 1 QPSK 64 1024 614.4 -0.6
0x7 2 QPSK 64 2048 614.4 -0.5
0x8 2 QPSK 64 3072 921.6 +2.2
0x9 1 QPSK 64 2048 1,228.8 +3.9
0xa 2 16QAM 64 4096 1,228.8 +4.0
0xb 1 8PSK 64 3072 1,843.2 +8.0
0xc 1 16QAM 64 4096 2,457.6 +10.3
0xd 2 16QAM 64 5120 1,536.0 in Rev. A
0xe 1 16QAM 64 5120 3,072.0 in Rev. A
DRC: 5
2048 bits
AP
+ +
+ +
+
Interleaver
+
+
+ +
0x1 16 QPSK 1024 1024 38.4 -11.5
+
D D 0x2 8 QPSK 512 1024 76.8 -9.2
0x3 4 QPSK 256 1024 153.6 -6.5
0x5 4 QPSK 128 2048 307.2 -3.5
To guard against bursty errors 0x6 1 QPSK 64 1024 614.4 -0.6
in transmission, the symbols 0x7 2 QPSK 64 2048 614.4 -0.5
are completely “stirred up” in Block Interleaver 0x8 2 QPSK 64 3072 921.6 +2.2
0x9 1 QPSK 64 2048 1,228.8 +3.9
a block interleaver.
0xa 2 16QAM 64 4096 1,228.8 +4.0
0xb 1 8PSK 64 3072 1,843.2 +8.0
0xc 1 16QAM 64 4096 2,457.6 +10.3
0xd 2 16QAM 64 5120 1,536.0 in Rev. A
0xe 1 16QAM 64 5120 3,072.0 in Rev. A
DRC: 5
2048 bits
AP
+ +
+ +
+
Interleaver
+
+
+ +
0x1 16 QPSK 1024 1024 38.4 -11.5
+
D D 0x2 8 QPSK 512 1024 76.8 -9.2
0x3 4 QPSK 256 1024 153.6 -6.5
0x5 4 QPSK 128 2048 307.2 -3.5
are completely “stirred up” in Block Interleaver 0x8 2 QPSK 64 3072 921.6 +2.2
0x9 1 QPSK 64 2048 1,228.8 +3.9
a block interleaver.
0xa 2 16QAM 64 4096 1,228.8 +4.0
0xb 1 8PSK 64 3072 1,843.2 +8.0
The re-ordered stream of 0xc 1 16QAM 64 4096 2,457.6 +10.3
symbols is now ready to 0xd 2 16QAM 64 5120 1,536.0 in Rev. A
transmit. Interleaved Symbols 0xe 1 16QAM 64 5120 3,072.0 in Rev. A
DRC: 5
2048 bits
AP
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
Interleaver
+ +
0x1 16 QPSK 1024 1024 38.4 -11.5
+
D D 0x2 8 QPSK 512 1024 76.8 -9.2
0x3 4 QPSK 256 1024 153.6 -6.5
are completely “stirred up” in 0x7 2 QPSK 64 2048 614.4 -0.5
a block interleaver. Block Interleaver 0x8 2 QPSK 64 3072 921.6 +2.2
0x9 1 QPSK 64 2048 1,228.8 +3.9
The re-ordered stream of
0xa 2 16QAM 64 4096 1,228.8 +4.0
symbols is now ready to 0xb 1 8PSK 64 3072 1,843.2 +8.0
transmit. The symbols are 0xc 1 16QAM 64 4096 2,457.6 +10.3
divided into the correct 0xd 2 16QAM 64 5120 1,536.0 in Rev. A
number of subpackets, which Interleaved Symbols 0xe 1 16QAM 64 5120 3,072.0 in Rev. A
will occupy the same number
of transmission slots, spaced
four apart.
Subpacket 2
Subpacket 3
Subpacket 4
Subpacket 1
It’s up to the AP to decide

when it will start transmitting
the stream, taking into account
any other pending subpackets
for other users, and
“proportional fairness”.
DRC: 5
2048 bits
AP
When the AP is ready, the first Turbo Coder
subpacket is actually +
+ +
+ +
transmitted in a slot. + D D D
+
The first subpacket begins with +
Interleaver
+
+
+ +
0x1 16 QPSK 1024 1024 38.4 -11.5
a preamble carrying the + D
+
D D 0x2 8 QPSK 512 1024 76.8 -9.2
0x3 4 QPSK 256 1024 153.6 -6.5
user’s MAC index, so the Symbols
0x4 2 QPSK 128 1024 307.2 -3.5
user knows this is the 0x5 4 QPSK 128 2048 307.2 -3.5
start of its sequence of 0x6 1 QPSK 64 1024 614.4 -0.6
subpackets, and how 0x7 2 QPSK 64 2048 614.4 -0.5
many subpackets are in Block Interleaver 0x8 2 QPSK 64 3072 921.6 +2.2
0x9 1 QPSK 64 2048 1,228.8 +3.9
the sequence..
0xa 2 16QAM 64 4096 1,228.8 +4.0
The user keeps collecting 0xb 1 8PSK 64 3072 1,843.2 +8.0
subpackets until either: 0xc 1 16QAM 64 4096 2,457.6 +10.3
1) it has been able to 0xd 2 16QAM 64 5120 1,536.0 in Rev. A
reverse-turbo decode the Interleaved Symbols 0xe 1 16QAM 64 5120 3,072.0 in Rev. A
packet contents early, or
2) the whole schedule of
subpackets has been
transmitted.
Subpackets
1 2 3 4
SLOTS
1xEV-DO
1xEV-DO Rev.
Rev. A
A
1xEV-DO Rev. A Design Objectives
Q To enable multimedia services

• high-speed upload of multimedia files and attachments
• interactive gaming
• IP-based services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).
Q To allow real-time conversational services
• push to talk,
• video telephony
• instant multimedia -- an extension of push to talk that combines
immediate voice with simultaneous delivery of video and pictures.
Q multimedia multicasting using QUALCOMM's “Platinum Multicast”
• enables high-quality video/audio to many users simultaneously.
Q Peak forward link data rates of 3.1 Mbps
Q Peak reverse link data rates of 1.8 Mbps
Q Optimized packet data service
• one of lowest costs per bit compared to other wireless technologies.
1xEV-DO Rev. A Differences
Q Everything we’ve seen thus far applies to 1xEV-DO Revision 0.

Q 1xEV-DO Rev. A is now officially standardized and ready for
commercial deployment
Forward Link Enhancements in 1xEV-DO Rev. A
Q Forward Link Enhancements

• Peak rates increased from 2.4 Mbps to 3.1 Mbps
• Multi-user packet support
• Small payload sizes (128, 256, 512 bits) improve frame fill efficiency
• The DRC channel functions are broken out into two channels
– DRC retains rate control indication
– new Data Source Control (DSC) Channel shows desired serving cell
• Minimizes interruptions due to server switching on FL
Reverse Link Enhancements in 1xEV-DO Rev. A
Q Reverse Link Enhancements

• Higher data rates and finer quantization
• Data rates from 4.8 kbps to 1.8 Mbps with 48 payload sizes
• 4 slots/sub-packets regardless of payload size (6.66 ms)
• Modulation:
– Low rates: 1 walsh channel, BPSK modulation
– Medium rates: 1 walsh channel, QPSK modulation
– High Rates: 2 walsh channels, QPSK modulation
– Highest Rate: 2 walsh channels, 8PSK modulation
• Hybrid ARQ using fast re-transmission (re-tx) and early termination
• Flexible rate allocation: each AT has autonomous and scheduled mode
• Efficient VOIP support
• 3-channel synchronous stop-and-wait protocol
• The mobile can use higher power and finish earlier when transmitting
packets of applications requiring minimum latency
Available Link Rates in 1xEV-DO Rev. A
FORWARD LINK REVERSE LINK
DRC Modu- Preamble Payload Raw C/I Payload Modu-Effective Rate kbps after: Code Rate (repetition) after
Index Slots lation Chips Bits kb/s db Bits lation 4 slots 8 slots 12 slots16 slots 4 slots 8 slots 12 slots16 slots
0x0 n/a QPSK n/a 0 null rate n/a 128 B4 19.2 9.6 6.4 4.8 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5
0x1 16 QPSK 1024 1024 38.4 -11.5 256 B4 38 19.2 12.8 9.6 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5
0x2 8 QPSK 512 1024 76.8 -9.2 512 B4 76 38.4 25.6 19.2 1/4 1/5 1/5 1/5
0x3 4 QPSK 256 1024 153.6 -6.5 768 B4 115 57.6 38.4 28.8 3/8 1/5 1/5 1/5
0x4 2 QPSK 128 1024 307.2 -3.5 1024 B4 153 76.8 51.2 38.4 1/2 1/4 1/5 1/5
0x5 4 QPSK 128 2048 307.2 -3.5 1536 Q4 230 115 76.8 57.6 3/8 1/5 1/5 1/5
0x6 1 QPSK 64 1024 614.4 -0.6 2048 Q4 307 153 102.4 76.8 1/2 1/4 1/5 1/5
0x7 2 QPSK 64 2048 614.4 -0.5 3072 Q2 461 230 153.6 115.2 3/8 1/5 1/5 1/5
0x8 2 QPSK 64 3072 921.6 +2.2 4096 Q2 614 307 204.8 153.6 1/2 1/4 1/5 1/5
0x9 1 QPSK 64 2048 1,228.8 +3.9 6144 Q4Q2 921 461 307 230.4 1/2 1/4 1/5 1/5
0xa 2 16QAM 64 4096 1,228.8 +4.0 8192 Q4Q2 1228 614 409 307.2 2/3 1/3 2/9 1/5
0xb 1 8PSK 64 3072 1,843.2 +8.0 12288 E4E2 1843 921 614 460.8 2/3 1/3 1/3 1/3
0xc 1 16QAM 64 4096 2,457.6 +10.3
0xd 2 16QAM 64 5120 1,536.0 +8.3
0xe 1 16QAM 64 5120 3,072.0 +11.3
Q The 1xEV-DO Rev. A reverse link has seven available modes

offering higher speeds than available in Rev. 0
• Modulation formats are hybrids defined in the standard
Q The 1xEV-DO Rev. A forward has two available modes offering
higher speeds than available in Rev. 0.
What’s Next? 1xEV-DO Rev. B
Q CDG says 1Q06 for Rev. B

Telecoms.com News
17 November 2005
Rufus Jay, rufus.jay@informa.com
Q The CDMA Development Group (CDG) has announced that the

EV-DO Revision B standard is pencilled in for release in 1Q06.
Rev. B increases data throughput to 73.5Mbps in the forward link
and 27Mbps in the reverse link. As well as supporting mobile
broadband data and OFDM based multicasting, Rev. B's lower
latency rates will improve the performance of VoIP, push to talk
over cellular, video calling, concurrent voice and multimedia and
multiplayer online gaming. The CDG also plans to expand
cdma2000 by improved roaming and a sub US$40 handset push,
similar to the GSMA's emerging markets initiative.
1xEV-DO
1xEV-DO Network
Network Architecture
Architecture
CDMA Network for Circuit-Switched Voice Calls
(C)BSC/Access Manager
Switch
PSTN v SEL CE
t1 t1 t1
BTS
Q The first commercial IS-95 CDMA systems provided only circuit-

switched voice calls
CDMA 1xRTT Voice and Data Network
PDSN
Foreign Agent
Backbone
Internet Network
VPNs
PDSN Authentication
Accounting
Switch
PSTN v SEL CE
t1 t1 t1
BTS
Q CDMA2000 1xRTT networks added two new capabilities:

• channel elements able to generate and carry independent streams of
symbols on the I and Q channels of the QPSK RF signal
– this roughly doubles capacity compared to IS-95
• a separate IP network implementing packet connections from the mobile
through to the outside internet
– including Packet Data Serving Nodes (PDSNs) and a dedicated direct
data connection (the Packet-Radio Interface) to the heart of the BSC
Q The overall connection speed was still limited by the 1xRTT air interface
1xEV-DO Overlaid On Existing 1xRTT Network
PDSN
Foreign Agent DO DO-OMC
Backbone
Radio
Internet Network Network
VPNs Controller
PDSN Authentication
Accounting
Switch CE
PSTN v SEL CE
t1 t1 t1
BTS
Q 1xEV-DO requires faster resource management than 1x BSCs can give

• this is provided by the new Data Only Radio Network Controller (DO-RNC)
Q A new controller and packet controller software are needed in the BTS to
manage the radio resources for EV sessions
• in some cases dedicated channel elements and even dedicated backhaul is
used for the EV-DO traffic
Q The new DO-OMC administers the DO-RNC and BTS PCF addition
Q Existing PDSNs and backbone network are used with minor upgrading
Q The following sections show Lucent, Motorola, and Nortel’s specific solutions
1xEV-DO
1xEV-DO // 1xRTT
1xRTT
Interoperability
Interoperability
1xEV-DO/1xRTT Interoperability
Q The CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Standard IS-856 makes no provision for

any kind of handoff to or from any other technology
Q Driven by Operator interest, a “Hybrid” mode has been developed
to provide some types of handoff functions to the best extent
possible
Q Hybrid Mode
• is a mobile only function – neither the EV nor 1xRTT network
knows anything about it
• is a proprietary feature with vendor-specific implementation
• has no standard-defined RF “triggers”; no “hooks”
Q In the 1xEV rev. A standard, some new features will be provided
• the 1xEV control channel will be able to carry 1xRTT pages too
• this and other changes may make the “hybrid” mode
unnecessary and obsolete
What Handoffs are Possible in Hybrid Mode?
Q All switching between systems occurs in Idle Mode

• there are no “handoffs” in active traffic state in either mode
Q Sessions can be transferred from one system to the other, but
NOT in active traffic state
• If there is a connection, it can be closed and then re-originated
on the other system
• In some cases this can be accomplished automatically without
the end-user’s awareness – in other cases, this is not possible
Hybrid Mode Transition Scenarios
1:2 Deployment 1:1 Deployment 1:1 Deployment

EV-DO, F2
1xRTT, F1
Q DO systems will be Implemented in Several Configurations

• 1:1 overlays in busy core areas
• 1:1 or 1:N overlays in less dense areas
Q Many EV>1x and 1x>EV transition events may occur as a user
transitions from area to area
Q Initial system acquisition is also involved as a user activates their
AT in different locations
Q These transitions are dependent on the Hybrid mode
implementation in the AT
Q The following pages show some possible transitions assuming
Mobile IP and AT Hybrid Mode are implemented
1xRTT / 1xEV-DO Hybrid Idle Mode
Q 1xRTT/1xEV-DO Hybrid Mode

• depends on being able to hear pages on both
1xEV-DO
Active
systems – 1xRTT and 1xEV-DO

• is possible because of slotted mode paging
• 1xRTT and 1xEV-DO paging slots do not occur
simultaneously
1xEV-DO
Idle
• mobile can monitor both
Idle
Mode Q During 1xEV-DO traffic operation, the hybrid-aware

mobile can still keep monitoring 1xRTT paging
Hybrid channel
Mode
Q During 1xRTT traffic operation, the hybrid-aware
mobile is unable to break away; 1xRTT traffic
1xRTT
Idle
Idle
Mode operation is continuous

• no opportunity to see 1xEV-DO signal
Q This hybrid Idle mode capability is the foundation
for all 1xRTT/1xEV mode transfers
1xRTT
Active
• the network does not trigger any transfers
Hybrid Dual-Mode Idle Operation
1xRTT / 1xEV-DO Paging Interoperability
LONGEST POSSIBLE
16-frame Control Channel Cycle PACKET
16 slots of 26-2/3 ms = 426-2/3 ms
DRC 16 Subpackets
1xRTT Minimum Slot Cycle Index: 16 slots of 80 ms each = 48 26-2./3 ms frames
Q A dual-mode 1xRTT/1xEV-DO mobile using slotted-mode paging can

effectively watch the paging channels of both 1xRTT and 1xEV-DO at the
same time
Q How is it possible for the mobile to monitor both at the same time?
• The paging timeslots of the two technologies are staggered
Q Three of the 16 timeslots in 1xRTT conflict with the control channel slots
of 1xEV-DO
• However, conflicts can be avoided by page repetition, a standard
feature in systems of both technologies
Initial System Acquisition by Hybrid Mobile
when 1xEV-DO is NOT Available
1xEV-DO
Active
1xEV-DO
Acquire
1xEV-DO
Idle
System
driven by no, can’t see EV
PRL
After entering this state, the

Acquire Idle
Register mobile will not search for
1xRTT
1xRTT
Idle
with Mode 1xEV service again

System
1xRTT
driven by
Network
PRL Classical 1xRTT
Idle Mode Voice Idle
Page! Mode
Release
1xRTT
Active
1xRTT
Voice
Call
Initial System Acquisition by Hybrid Mobile
when 1xEV-DO is Available
1xEV-DO
Set Up or
interrupted
Active
Re-establish Data
1xEV during 1xEV
1xEVDO Connection
Traffic 1xRTT Traffic
Data
voice call Closed
Session
Triggers:
1xEV-DO
Acquire AT Data
1xEV-DO yes, found EV Ready!
Idle
System Idle Idle

driven by Mode Mode
PRL AN Data
Page!
Hybrid Hybrid Hybrid
Mode Mode Mode
Acquire Idle
Register
1xRTT
1xRTT Idle Voice Idle Idle

Idle
with Mode
System Mode Page! Mode Mode
1xRTT
driven by
Network
PRL
Release
1xRTT
Active
1xRTT
Voice
Call
In-Traffic: EV-DO Fade with 1xRTT Available
Fade
AT data ready
1xEV-DO
PPP
Active
Traffic Mode, Close Resync Traffic Mode,

Data Transfer Connection MIP Data Transfer
Registr.
AN data ready
Fade
Get New
UATI
1xEV-DO
DO
Idle
no
Dormant System
/Idle Same
Acquired DO
Subnet?
1xRTT
Idle
Idle Dormant
Mode /Idle
1xRTT
Active
PPP
Reestablish Resync Resume Transfer
Call MIP Data Transfer Finished
Registr.
Transition In-Traffic: Lost EV-DO and 1xRTT
Fade
1xEV-DO
Set Up or
Active
Re-establish
Traffic Mode, Close 1xEV
1xEVDO
Data Transfer Connection Traffic
Data
Session
Fade Get New

Triggers:
Found UATI
1xEV-DO
New DO AT Data
Signal!! No
Ready!
Idle
DO PRL,
Idle Same DO Idle Idle
Search for
Mode Subnet? Yes Mode Mode
DO AN Data
Hybrid Page!
Mode
Fade Idle
Mode
1xRTT
Use 1x PRL, Use 1x PRL,

Idle
Idle
Search for Search for
Mode
1xRTT 1xRTT
Lost No No 1x Signal,
Signal!! Signal Continue EV
Found!! Operation
No Signal Found!!
1xRTT
Active
Dormant Session, EV-DO Lost > 1xRTT > 1xEV-DO
Coverage Fade
Edge
1xEV-DO
Active
PPP
Traffic Mode, Resync
Data Transfer MIP
Data Finished, Registr.
Call Dormant
Fade Found Get New

New DO UATI
Signal!!
1xEV-DO
No
Idle
DO PRL, DO PRL, DO PRL, DO PRL,

Idle Same DO Idle
Search for DO DO DO
Mode Subnet? Yes Mode
DO Available? Available? Available?
No No No
Signal Signal Signal
Found!! Found!! Found!! Hybrid
Mode
1xRTT
Idle
Idle Idle Idle

Mode Mode Mode
1xRTT
Active
PPP
Resync
MIP
Registr.

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A

Days before radio.....

Submarine Cable Installation Field Telegraphy

Alexander Graham Bell and his phone

Short Wave -- International Broadcast -- Amateur CB

VHF LOW Band VHF TV 2-6 FM VHF VHF TV 7-13

824 835 845 849

A B Paging, ESMR, etc. A B

Frequencies used by “A” Cellular Operator

Q In each MSA and RSA, eligibility for ownership was restricted

PCS SPECTRUM ALLOCATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA

Q Total Worldwide Wireless customers surpassed total worldwide landline

SIDEBANDS SIDEBANDS • a large number of sidebands are

Q The modulating signals shown in previous

1 0 1 0 FSK applications: control messages in

Q The core idea that makes CDMA

In 1948 Claude Shannon published his landmark paper on information theory,

Q 1xEV, “1x Evolution”, is a family of alternative QPSK

Q The view at top right shows the

FDMA FDMA: AMPS & NAMPS

3100 – 800 DL WCDMA 0

1xRTT RC4 EDGE TD-SCDMA

GENERATION IS-95 GSM CSD

Higher High data

First •Packet IP Integrated

SH Avg Sectors per User 1 1 1 1 1.8 1.8 1.8

Q Radio signals in the atmosphere

Comparison of Free-Space and Reflection Propagation Modes

Q Simple Analytical models Q Simple Analytical

-60 +80 Q Area models mimic an average

Correction factor, Garea

The Okumura model is based on detailed analysis of exhaustive drive-test measurements

Correction factor, Garea (dB)

1 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000

Q The Okumura Model uses a combination of terms from basic physical

Q Ordinary Okumura-type models do work in

Q Antennas are passive devices: they do not produce

An antenna’s directivity is Typical Example

Q The Vertical Plane Pattern graphs the 0

Quasi-Optical Techniques (reflection, focusing)

Array techniques (discrete elements) In phase

Q Collinear vertical arrays

The family of omni-directional wireless

not fall in important coverage

BCR-10O, Kathrein 740-198 Angle

Vertical Plane Pattern

Q Vertical Plane Pattern

Physical Characteristics Typical coaxial cables

Q Respect specified minimum

Q Filters are the basic building

Typical RF bandpass filter

Typical tuned combiner

• Linear amplifier ~-3 dB

Q Duplexer allows simultaneous

Q Couplers are used to measure Typical directional coupler

Q AC power wiring and voice telephone wiring do not

Transmitter 50Ω Transmission Line 50Ω

Q In a perfect antenna system, the transmission line and the

Significant Reflected Power

Q In a damaged antenna system, the impedance match is not good

Q Reflection Coefficient (academic users)

• to calculate the reflection coefficient, the