Final Report

Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
INTRODUCTION
POWER SCENARIO
Growing concern for the environment degradation has led to the world’s interest in
renewable energy resources. Wind is commercially and operationally the most viable
renewable energy resources and accordingly, emerging as one of the largest source in
terms of the renewable energy sector.
For developing countries like india, wind turbines offer an attractive sourcefor
power production. The country’s current generating capacity is about 1,05,000 MW(as of
march 31, 2001), but this needs to be doubled in the next 10-15 years to meet a situation of
“power on demand”. Both central and state agencies, varios private and public sector
companies are now considering the installation of wind farm projects for wind power
generation.
 India now ranks as a”wind super power” with an installed wind power capacity
of 1167 MW and about 5 billion units of electricity have been fed to the
national grid so far.
 In the progress the wind resource assessment program, wind monitoring, wind
mapping,covering 800 stations in 24 states with 193 wind monitoring stations
in operations. Altogether 13 states of india have a net potential of about 45000
MW.
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 1

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SECTOR-WISE ENERGY CONSUMPTION
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
Ind Agri Domestic Comm Others
The graph above shows the approximate consumption of power in india.industries

and agriculture consumes about 62% of the total power developed, while domestic
requirements consumes about 21% . the rest is utilized for commercial and other
requirements.
Thus it is seen thet there is a huge demand for power. Most of these are met, but
by using conventional methods of fossil fuel, coal,and natural gas.about 76.5% of total
sources of energy produced is by conventional methods. It is very clear that the
conventional sourcesof energy are not going to last for a long time.thus it becomes
necessary for some other form of energy to meet the growing demands. Solar energy is
one good option, but it is not available at night after sun sets. We need some sort of

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energythat is dependable. Wind energy though seasonal is very much predictable, which
gives us an advantage.
We have been polluting the earth’s atmosphere for a long time by using fossil fuel.
It has reached a stage of no return. Now it is time we stoppolluting or else the environment
will be degraded completely. Wind energy gives us a very green form of energy which is
also freely available.
Literature Survey
2.1 Wind
Wind is the flow of air or other gases that compose an atmosphere (including, but not
limited to, the Earth's). Wind is air molecules in motion on Earth. In outer space, the solar
wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the sun through space, while the
planetary wind is the outgasing of light elements from a planet's atmosphere into space.
Differences in density between two air masses lead to wind. Differential heating between
the poles and the equator lead to the development of the jet stream and the associated
climatological mid-latitude westerlies, polar easterlies, and the trade winds. Winds are
commonly classified by their spatial scale, their speed, the types of forces that cause them,
the geographic regions in which they occur, and their effect. Wind speeds over much of
the globe are measured over a ten-minute time frame, with the United States and India
using different averaging intervals. Winds are plotted on surface weather analyses within
station models, indicating the direction the wind is blowing from as well as its strength.
Long-duration wind speeds have various names associated with their average strength,
such as breeze, gale, storm, hurricane, and typhoon. Shorter duration winds, such as wind
gusts, exceed the minimum value over the observed time frame and can cause substantial
damage to power lines and suspension bridges. Winds with an intermediate duration,
which sharply increase and last for a minute are termed squalls. While wind is often a
standalone weather phenomenon, it can also occur as part of a storm system, most notably

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in a cyclone. Winds can shape landforms, via a variety of aeolian processes such as the
formation of fertile soils, such as loess, and by erosion. Wind occurs on a range of scales,
from local breezes generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting tens of minutes, to
global winds resulting from the difference in absorption of solar energy between the
climate zones on Earth. The two major driving factors of large scale atmospheric
circulation are the differential heating between the equator and the poles, which causes the
jet stream, and the rotation of the planet (Coriolis effect) which causes the circular motion
of air around areas of high and low pressure.
2.2Cause
The first known scientific description of wind was from the seventeenth-century Italian
physicist Evangelista Torricelli,
... winds are produced by differences of air temperature, and hence density,
between two regions of the earth.
Other forces which drive wind or affect it are the pressure gradient force, the coriolis
force, buoyancy forces, and friction forces. When a difference in density exists between
two adjacent air masses, the air tends to flow from the regions of higher to lower pressure.
On a rotating planet, this air flow will be acted upon by the Coriolis force, in regions
sufficiently far from the equator and sufficiently high above the surface. Surface friction
with land causes winds to blow more inward into low pressure areas.
Globally, the two major driving factors of large scale winds are the differential heating
between the equator and the poles (difference in absorption of solar energy between these
climate zones), and the rotation of the planet. It is the differential heating between the
poles and the equator that lead to the development of the jet stream.
Winds defined by an equilibrium of physical forces are used in the decomposition and
analysis of wind profiles. They are useful for simplifying the atmospheric equations of
motion and for making qualitative arguments about the horizontal and vertical distribution
of winds. The Geostrophic wind component is the result of the balance between Coriolis
force and pressure gradient force. It flows parallel to isobars and approximates the flow
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above the atmospheric boundary layer in the midlatitudes if frictional effects are low. The
thermal wind is a wind difference between two levels which only exists in an atmosphere
with horizontal temperature gradients, or baroclinicity. The ageostrophic wind component
is the difference between actual and geostrophic wind which is responsible for air "filling
up" cyclones over time. The gradient wind is similar to the geostrophic wind but also
includes centrifugal force (or centripetal acceleration).
2.3 Measurement
Wind direction is reported by the direction from which it originates with the use of
weather vanes. At airports, windsocks are primarily used to indicate wind direction, but
can also be used to estimate wind speed by its angle of hang. For example, a northerly
wind blows from the north to the south. Wind speed is measured by anemometers, either
directly with rotating cups, or indirectly via pressure differences or the propagation speed
of ultrasound signals.Another type of anemometer uses pitot tubes which take advantage
of the pressure differential between an inner tube and an outer tube which is exposed to the
wind to determine the dynamic pressure, which is then used to compute the wind speed.
Sustained wind speeds are reported globally at a 10 metres (33 ft) height and are averaged
over a 10 minute time frame. The United States reports winds over a 2 minute
average,while India typically reports winds over a 3 minute average.Knowing the wind
sampling average is important, as the value of a one-minute sustained wind is 14 percent
greater than a ten-minute sustained wind. Shorter bursts of higher winds, known as wind
gusts, are defined as maxima which exceed the lowest wind speed measured during a ten
minute time interval by 10 knots (19 km/h). A squall is a doubling of the wind speed
above a certain threshold, which lasts for a minute or more.
To determine winds aloft, rawinsondes determine wind speed by GPS or radar tracking of
the probe.Alternatively, movement of the parent weather balloon position can be tracked
from the ground visually via a theodolite, with the wind profile is computed from drift rate
and the theoretical speed of ascent. Remote sensing techniques for wind include SODAR,
Doppler LIDARs and RADARs which can measure the doppler shift of electromagnetic
radiation scattered or reflected off suspended aerosols or molecules, and radiometers and
radars can be used to measure the surface roughness of the ocean from space or airplanes.
Ocean roughness can be used to estimate wind velocity close to the sea surface over
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oceans. Wind Engineering describes the study of the effects of the wind on the built
environment, including buildings, bridges and other man-made objects.
2.4 Global climatology

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2.5 Wind power

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as electricity,
using wind turbines. At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered
generators was 121.2 gigawatts. Wind power produces about 1.5% of worldwide
electricity use, and is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years between 2005 and
2008. Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration,
such as 19% of electricity production in Denmark, 11% in Spain and Portugal, and 7% in
Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008. As of May 2009, eighty countries around
the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.
Large scale wind farms are typically connected to the local electric power transmission
network, with smaller turbines being used to provide electricity to isolated locations.
Utility companies increasingly buy back surplus electricity produced by small domestic
turbines. Wind (and solar) energy as a power source is favoured by environmentalists as an
alternative to fossil fuels, as they are plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, and
produces no greenhouse gas emissions; although the construction of wind farms is not
universally welcomed due to their visual impact and other effects on the environment.
Wind power, along with solar power, is non-dispatchable, meaning that for economic
operation all of the available output must be taken when it is available, and other
resources, such as hydropower, must be used to match supply with demand. The
intermittency of wind seldom creates problems when using wind power to supply a low
proportion of total demand. Where wind is to be used for a moderate fraction of demand,
additional costs for compensation of intermittency are considered to be modest.
2.6 AREA SURVEY
To design a windmill it is essential to know the wind speed in the area where it is to
be installed. One of our seniors have already done the area survey surrounding to our
college.
The below table provides the information about the average wind velocity range during
feb and march respectively.

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TABLE 2.1
TIME AVG MEAN VELOCITY AVG MAX VELOCITY

(mph) (mph)
8:00 AM 2.59 7.0
9:35 AM 2.9 7.2
12:00 PM 3.55 9.9
1:00 PM 4.01 10.3
2:00 PM 5.00 7.9
3:00 PM 5.82 17.7
4:00 PM 6.16 10.01
2.7 Wind power in India
The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has significantly
increased in the last few years. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry
compared with Denmark or the US, a combination of domestic policy support for wind
power and the rise of Suzlon (a leading global wind turbine manufacturer) have led India
to become the country with the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the world,
and the wind energy leader in the developing world.
As of November 2008 the installed capacity of wind power in India was 9587.14 MW,
mainly spread across Tamil Nadu (4132.72 MW), Maharashtra (1837.85 MW), Karnataka
(1184.45 MW), Rajasthan (670.97 MW), Gujarat (1432.71 MW), Andhra Pradesh (122.45
MW), Madhya Pradesh (187.69 MW), Kerala (23.00 MW), West Bengal (1.10 MW), other
states (3.20 MW) It is estimated that 6,000 MW of additional wind power capacity will be
installed in India by 2012.Wind power accounts for 6% of India's total installed power
capacity, and it generates 1.6% of the country's power.
•
India has the world's fifth largest wind power industry, with an annual power production
of 8,896 MW.
The worldwide installed capacity of wind power reached 120,798 MW by the end of 2008.
USA (25,170 MW), Germany (23,903 MW), Spain (16,754 MW) and China (12,210 MW)
are ahead of India in fifth position. The short gestation periods for installing wind turbines,

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and the increasing reliability and performance of wind energy machines has made wind
power a favored choice for capacity addition in India.
Suzlon, an Indian-owned company, emerged on the global scene in the past decade, and by
2006 had captured almost 8 percent of market share in global wind turbine sales. Suzlon is
currently the leading manufacturer of wind turbines for the Indian market, holding some
52.4 percent of market share in India. Suzlon’s success has made India the developing
country leader in advanced wind turbine technology.
2.7.1 Tamil Nadu (4132.72 MW)
Tamil Nadu is the state with most wind generating capacity: 4132.72 MW at the end of
2008.Not far from Aralvaimozhi, the Muppandal wind farm which the largest in Asia is
located near the once impoverished village of Muppandal, supplying the villagers with
electricity for work. The village had been selected as the showcase for India's $2 billion
clean energy program which provides foreign companies with tax breaks for establishing
fields of wind turbines in the area. In february 2009, Shriram EPC bagged INR 700 million
contract for setting up of 60 units of 250 KW (totaling 15 MW) wind turbines in
Tirunelveli district by Cape Energy.
2.7.2 Maharashtra (1837.85 MW)
Maharashtra is second only to Tamil Nadu in terms of generating capacity. Suzlon has
been heavily involved. Suzlon operates what was once Asia's largest wind farm, the
Vankusawade Wind Park (201 MW), near the Koyna reservoir in Satara district of
Maharashtra.
2.7.3 Gujarat (1432.71 MW)
Samana in Rajkot district is set to host energy companies like China Light Power (CLP)
and Tata Power have pledged to invest up to Rs.8.15 billion ($189.5 million) in different
projects in the area. CLP, through its India subsidiary CLP India, is investing close to Rs.5
billion for installing 126 wind turbines in Samana that will generate 100.8 MW power.
Tata Power has installed wind turbines in the same area for generating 50 MW power at a
cost of Rs.3.15 billion. Both projects are expected to become operational by early next
year, according to government sources. The Gujarat government, which is banking heavily

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on wind power, has identified Samana as an ideal location for installation of 450 turbines
that can generate a total of 360 MW. To encourage investment in wind energy
development in the state, the government has introduced a raft of incentives including a
higher wind energy tariff. Samana has a high tension transmission grid and electricity
generated by wind turbines can be fed into it. For this purpose, a substation at Sadodar has
been installed. Both projects are being executed by Enercon Ltd, a joint venture between
Enercon of Germany and Mumbai-based Mehra group.
ONGC Ltd has commissioned its first wind power project. The 51 MW project is located
at Motisindholi in Kutch district of Gujarat. ONGC had placed the EPC order on Suzlon
Energy in January 2008, for setting up the wind farm comprising 34 turbines of 1.5-mw
each. Work on the project had begun in February 2008, and it is learnt that the first three
turbines had begun production within 43 days of starting construction work. Power from
this Rs 308 crore captive wind farm will be wheeled to the Gujarat state grid for onward
use by ONGC at its Ankleshwar, Ahmedabad, Mehsana and Vadodara centres. ONGC has
targeted to develop a captive wind power capacity of around 200 MW in the next two
years.
2.7.4 Karnataka (1184.45 MW)
There are a lot of small wind farms in Karnataka. Karnataka is one of the states in India
which has the most number of wind mill farms. Chitradurga, Gadag are some of the
districts where there are a large number of Windmills. Chitradurga alone has over 200
wind turbines.
2.7.5 Madhya Pradesh (187.69 MW)
Present Rs.3.97p/kwh coming down to Rs 3.30 from the 5th year to 20th year
In consideration of unique concept, Govt. of Madhya Pradesh has sanctioned another 15

MW project to MPWL at Nagda Hills near Dewas. All the 25 WEGs have been
commissioned on 31.03.2008 and under successful operation.
2.7.6 Kerala (23.00 MW)
The first wind farm of the state was set up at Kanjikode in Palakkad district. It has a
generating capacity of 2.03 MW. A new wind farm project was launched with private
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participation at Ramakkalmedu in Idukki district. The project, which was inaugurated by

chief minister V. S. Achuthanandan in April 2008, aims at generating 10.5 MW of
electricity.
2.7.7 West Bengal (1.10 MW)
The total installation in West Bengal is just 1.10 MW as there was only 0.5 MW addition
in 2006-2007 and none between 2007-2008 and 2008-2009 (till Nov 2008)
2.7.8 Others (3.20 MW)
3.20 MW is installed in other states.
Utilization
Despite the high installed capacity, the actual utilization of wind power in India is low
because policy incentives are geared towards installation rather than operation of the
plants. This is why only 1.6% of actual power production in India comes from wind
although the installed capacity is 6%. The government is considering the addition of
incentives for ongoing operation of installed wind power plants.
Future
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has fixed a target of 10,500 MW
between 2007-12, but an additional generation capacity of only about 6,000 MW might be
available for commercial use by 2012.
State-wise Unit Generation Data (kWh)

From Wind Power Projects
TABLE 2.2
S.No. State Million Units

1 Andhra Pradesh 1020.00
2 Gujarat 2924.00
3 Karnataka 5581.00

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4 Kerala -
5 Madhya Pradesh 469.00
6 Maharashtra 6958.00
7 Rajasthan 2135.00
8 Tamil Nadu 26748.00
9 West Bengal -
Total 45827.00
STATEWISE POWER INSTALLED CAPACITY IN INDIA (AS ON

END OF MARCH 2008)

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Graph showing Year-Wise Installed Capacity(MW) in INDIA

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Fig 2.1
Equivalent Saving of Coal & other Pollutants

By use of Wind Power Generation
(Upto 31st March, 2008)
Table 2.3
Total Saving
S.No. Description
In Thousand Tons
1 Substitution of Coal 1,83,30,800
2 Sulphur di-Oxide [ SO2 ] 2,97,896
3 Nitrogen Oxides [ NOx ] 2,06,222
4 Carbon di-Oxide [ CO2 ] 4,58,27,000
5 Particulates 24,632

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3.1 Airfoil
An airfoil is the shape of a wing or blade (of a propeller, rotor or turbine) or sail as seen in
cross-section.
An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces a force perpendicular to the

motion called lift. Subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a rounded
leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with asymmetric camber. Foils of
similar function designed with water as the working fluid are called hydrofoils.
A fixed-wing aircraft's wings, horizontal, and vertical stabilizers are built with airfoil-
shaped cross sections, as are helicopter rotor blades. Airfoils are also found in propellers,
fans, compressors and turbines. Sails are also airfoils, and the underwater surfaces of
sailboats, such as the centerboard and keel, are similar in cross-section and operate on the
same principles as airfoils. Swimming and flying creatures and even many plants and
sessile organisms employ airfoils; common examples being bird wings, the bodies of
fishes, and the shape of sand dollars. An airfoil-shaped wing can create downforce on an
automobile or other motor vehicle, improving traction.
Any object with an angle of attack in a moving fluid, such as a flat plate, a building, or the
deck of a bridge, will generate an aerodynamic force (called lift) perpendicular to the flow.
Airfoils are more efficient lifting shapes, able to generate more lift (up to a point), and to
generate lift with less drag.
A lift and drag curve obtained in wind tunnel testing is shown on the right. The curve
represents an airfoil with a positive camber so some lift is produced at zero angle of attack.
With increased angle of attack, lift increases in a roughly linear relation, called the slope of
the lift curve. At about eighteen degrees this airfoil stalls and lift falls off quickly beyond
that. Drag is least at a slight negative angle for this particular airfoil, and increases rapidly
with higher angles. Airfoil design is a major facet of aerodynamics. Various airfoils serve
different flight regimes. Asymmetric airfoils can generate lift at zero angle of attack, while
a symmetric airfoil may better suit frequent inverted flight as in an aerobatic aeroplane. In
the region of the ailerons and near a wingtip a symmetric airfoil can be used to increase the
range of angle of attacks to avoid spin-stall. Ailerons itself are not cut into the airfoil, but
extend it. Thus a large range of angles can be used without boundary layer separation.

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Subsonic airfoils have a round leading edge, which is naturally insensitive to the angle of
attack. For intermediate Reynolds numbers already before maximum thickness boundary
layer separation occurs for a circular shape, thus the curvature is reduced going from front
to back and the typical wing shape is retrieved. Supersonic airfoils are much more angular
in shape and can have a very sharp leading edge, which — as explained in the last
sentence — is very sensitive to angle of attack. A supercritical airfoil has its maximum
thickness close to the leading edge to have a lot of length to slowly shock the supersonic
flow back to subsonic speeds. Generally such transonic airfoils and also the supersonic
airfoils have a low camber to reduce drag divergence. Movable high-lift devices, flaps and
sometimes slats, are fitted to airfoils on almost every aircraft. A trailing edge flap acts
similar to an aileron, with the difference that it can be retracted partially into the wing if
not used (and some flaps even make the plane a biplane if used). A laminar flow wing has
a maximum thickness in the middle camber line. Analysing the Navier-Stokes equations in
the linear regime shows that a negative pressure gradient along the flow has the same
effect as reducing the speed. So with the maximum camber in the middle, maintaining a
laminar flow over a larger percentage of the wing at a higher cruising speed is possible. Of
course, with rain or insects on the wing or for jetliner like speeds this does not work. Since
such a wing stalls more easily, this airfoil is not used on wingtips (spin-stall again).

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3.2 Airfoil Terminology
The various terms related to airfoils are defined below:
• The mean camber line is a line drawn midway between the upper and lower
surfaces.
• The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges of the
airfoil, at the ends of the mean camber line.
• The chord is the length of the chord line and is the characteristic dimension of the
airfoil section.
• The maximum thickness and the location of maximum thickness are expressed as a
percentage of the chord.
• For symmetrical airfoils both mean camber line and chord line pass from centre of
gravity of the airfoil and they touch at leading and trailing edge of the airfoil.
• The aerodynamic center is the chord wise length about which the pitching moment
is independent of the lift coefficient and the angle of attack.
• The center of pressure is the chord wise location about which the pitching moment
is zero.

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3.3 Thin airfoil theory
Thin airfoil theory is a simple theory of airfoils that relates angle of attack to lift. It was
devised by German mathematician Max Munk and further refined by British
aerodynamicist Hermann Glauert and others in the 1920s. The theory idealizes the flow
around an airfoil as two-dimensional flow around a thin airfoil. It can be imagined as
addressing an airfoil of zero thickness and infinite wingspan.
Thin airfoil theory was particularly notable in its day because it provided a sound
theoretical basis for the following important properties of airfoils in two-dimensional flow:
(1) on a symmetric airfoil, the center of pressure lies exactly one quarter of the chord
behind the leading edge
(2) on a cambered airfoil, the aerodynamic center lies exactly one quarter of the chord
behind the leading edge
(3) the slope of the lift coefficient versus angle of attack line is units per radian
As a consequence of (3), the section lift coefficient of a symmetric airfoil of infinite

wingspan is:
where is the section lift coefficient,

is the angle of attack in radians, measured relative to the chord line.
(The above expression is also applicable to a cambered airfoil where is the angle of
attack measured relative to the zero-lift line instead of the chord line.)
Also as a consequence of (3), the section lift coefficient of a cambered airfoil of infinite
wingspan is:
where is the section lift coefficient when the angle of attack is zero.
Thin airfoil theory does not account for the stall of the airfoil which usually occurs at an
angle of attack between 10° and 15° for typical airfoils.

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Derivation of thin airfoil theory
The airfoil is modeled as a thin lifting mean-line (camber line). The mean-line, y(x), is
considered to produce a distribution of vorticity γ(s) along the line, s. By the Kutta
condition, the vorticity is zero at the trailing edge. Since the airfoil is thin, x (chord
position) can be used instead of s, and all angles can be approximated as small.
From the Biot-Savart law, this vorticity produces a flow field w(s) where
where x is the location at which induced velocity is produced, x' is the location of the
vortex element producing the velocity and c is the chord length of the airfoil.
Since there is no flow normal to the curved surface of the airfoil, w(x) balances that from
the component of main flow V which is locally normal to the plate — the main flow is
locally inclined to the plate by an angle α − dy / dx. That is
This integral equation can by solved for γ(x), after replacing x by
as a Fourier series in Ansin(nθ) with a modified lead term A0(1 + cos(θ)) / sin(θ)
That is
(These terms are known as the Glauert integral).
The coefficients are given by

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and
By the Kutta–Joukowski theorem, the total lift force F is proportional to
and its moment M about the leading edge to
The calculated Lift coefficient depends only on the first two terms of the Fourier series, as
The moment M about the leading edge depends only on A0,A1 and A2 , as
The moment about the 1/4 chord point will thus be,
From this it follows that the center of pressure is aft of the 'quarter-chord' point 0.25 c, by
The aerodynamic center, AC, is at the quarter-chord point. The AC is where the pitching
moment M' does not vary with angle of attack, i.e.
3.4 Lift (force)

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A fluid flowing relative to a body exerts a force on it, called an aerodynamic force if the
fluid is air. Lift is the component of this force which is perpendicular to the oncoming flow
direction. It contrasts with the drag force, which is the component of the aerodynamic
force parallel to the flow direction. An airfoil is a streamlined body that is capable of
generating significantly more lift than drag.
Lift is commonly associated with the wing of a fixed-wing aircraft, although lift is also
generated by propellers; helicopter rotors; rudders, sails and keels on sailboats; hydrofoils;
wings on auto racing cars; wind turbines and other streamlined objects. While common
meanings of the word "lift" suggest that lift opposes gravity, lift can be in any direction.
When an aircraft is flying straight and level (cruise) all of the lift opposes gravity.
However, when an aircraft is climbing, descending, or banking in a turn, for example, the
lift is tilted with respect to the vertical and the lift is greater than, or less than, the weight
of the aircraft. Lift may also be entirely downwards in some aerobatic manoeuvres, or on
the wing on a racing car. In this last case, the term downforce is often used.
Non-streamlined objects such as bluff bodies and plates (not parallel to the flow) may also
generate lift when moving relative to the fluid. This lift may be steady, or it may oscillate
due to vortex shedding. Interaction of the object's flexibility with the vortex shedding may
enhance the effects of fluctuating lift and cause vortex-induced vibrations.
Methods to determine lift on an airfoil
If the lift coefficient for a wing at a specified angle of attack is known (or estimated using
a method such as thin-airfoil theory), then the lift produced for specific flow conditions
can be determined using the following equation:
where
• L is lift force,
• ρ is air density
• v is true airspeed,
• A is planform area, and

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• CL is the lift coefficient at the desired angle of attack, Mach number, and Reynolds
number
Lift can be calculated using potential flow theory by imposing a circulation. It is often
used by practicing aerodynamicists as a convenient quantity in calculations, for example
thin-airfoil theory and lifting-line theory.
The circulation Γ is the line integral of the velocity of the air, in a closed loop around the
boundary of an airfoil. It can be understood as the total amount of "spinning" (or vorticity)
of air around the airfoil. The section lift/span L' can be calculated using the Kutta–
Joukowski theorem:
where ρ is the air density, V is the free-stream airspeed. Kelvin's circulation theorem states
that circulation is conserved. There is conservation of the air's angular momentum. When
an aircraft is at rest, there is no circulation.
The challenge when using the Kutta–Joukowski theorem to determine lift is to determine
the appropriate circulation for a particular airfoil. In practice, this is done by applying the
Kutta condition, which uniquely prescribes the circulation for a given geometry and free-
stream velocity.
A physical understanding of the theorem can be observed in the Magnus effect, which is a
lift force generated by a spinning cylinder in a free stream. Here the necessary circulation
is induced by the mechanical rotation acting on the boundary layer, causing it to induce a
faster flow around one side of the cylinder and a slower flow around the other. The
asymmetric distribution of airspeed around the cylinder then produces a circulation in the
outer inviscid flow.
The force on the wing can be examined in terms of the pressure differences above and
below the wing, which can be related to velocity changes by Bernoulli's principle.
The total lift force is the integral of vertical pressure forces over the entire wetted surface
area of the wing:

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where:
• L is the lift,
• A is the wing surface area
• p is the value of the pressure,
• n is the normal unit vector pointing into the wing, and
• k is the vertical unit vector, normal to the freestream direction.
The above lift equation neglects the skin friction forces, which typically have a negligible
contribution to the lift compared to the pressure forces. By using the streamwise vector i
parallel to the freestream in place of k in the integral, we obtain an expression for the
pressure drag Dp (which includes induced drag in a 3D wing). If we use the spanwise
vector j, we obtain the side force Y.
One method for calculating the pressure is Bernoulli's equation, which is the mathematical
expression of Bernoulli's principle. This method ignores the effects of viscosity, which can
be important in the boundary layer and to predict friction drag, which is the other
component of the total drag in addition to Dp.
The Bernoulli principle states that the sum total of energy within a parcel of fluid remains
constant as long as no energy is added or removed. It is a statement of the principle of the
conservation of energy applied to flowing fluids.
A substantial simplification of this proposes that as other forms of energy changes are
inconsequential during the flow of air around a wing and that energy transfer in/out of the
air is not significant, then the sum of pressure energy and speed energy for any particular
parcel of air must be constant. Consequently, an increase in speed must be accompanied

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by a decrease in pressure and vice-versa. It should be noted that this is not a causational
relationship. Rather, it is a coincidental relationship, whatever causes one must also cause
the other as energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It is named for the Dutch-Swiss
mathematician and scientist Daniel Bernoulli, though it was previously understood by
Leonhard Euler and others.
Bernoulli's principle provides an explanation of pressure difference in the absence of air

density and temperature variation (a common approximation for low-speed aircraft). If the
air density and temperature are the same above and below a wing, a naive application of
the ideal gas law requires that the pressure also be the same. Bernoulli's principle, by
including air velocity, explains this pressure difference. The principle does not, however,
specify the air velocity. This must come from another source, e.g., experimental data.
In order to solve for the velocity of inviscid flow around a wing, the Kutta condition must
be applied to simulate the effects of inertia and viscosity. The Kutta condition allows for
the correct choice among an infinite number of flow solutions that otherwise obey the laws
of conservation of mass and conservation of momentum.
3.5 Drag
In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance or fluid resistance) refers to forces
that oppose the relative motion of an object through a fluid (a liquid or gas). Drag forces
act in a direction opposite to the oncoming flow velocity. Unlike other resistive forces
such as dry friction, which is nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend on
velocity.
For a solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of the net
aerodynamic or hydrodynamic force acting opposite to the direction of the movement. The
component perpendicular to this direction is considered lift. Therefore drag opposes the
motion of the object, and in a powered vehicle it is overcome by thrust.
In astrodynamics, depending on the situation, atmospheric drag can be regarded as an

inefficiency requiring expense of additional energy during launch of the space object or as
a bonus simplifying return from orbit.

H.K.B.K.C.E
Drag in aerodynamics
Parasitic drag
Parasitic drag (also called parasite drag) is drag caused by moving a solid object through a
fluid. Parasitic drag is made up of multiple components including viscous pressure drag
(form drag), and drag due to surface roughness (skin friction drag). Additionally, the
presence of multiple bodies in relative proximity may incur so called interference drag,
which is sometimes described as a component of parasitic drag.
In aviation, induced drag tends to be greater at lower speeds because a high angle of attack
is required to maintain lift, creating more drag. However, as speed increases the induced
drag becomes much less, but parasitic drag increases because the fluid is flowing faster
around protruding objects increasing friction or drag. At even higher speeds in the
transonic, wave drag enters the picture. Each of these forms of drag changes in proportion
to the others based on speed. The combined overall drag curve therefore shows a minimum
at some airspeed - an aircraft flying at this speed will be at or close to its optimal
efficiency. Pilots will use this speed to maximize endurance (minimum fuel consumption),
or maximise gliding range in the event of an engine failure.
Lift induced drag
Lift-induced drag (also called induced drag) is drag which occurs as the result of the
creation of lift on a three-dimensional lifting body, such as the wing or fuselage of an
airplane. Induced drag consists of two primary components, including drag due to the
creation of vortices (vortex drag) and the presence of additional viscous drag (lift-induced
viscous drag). The vortices in the flow-field, present in the wake of a lifting body, derive
from the turbulent mixing of air of varying pressure on the upper and lower surfaces of the
body, which is a necessary condition for the creation of lift.
With other parameters remaining the same, as the lift generated by a body increases, so
does the lift-induced drag. For an aircraft in flight, this means that as the angle of attack,
and therefore the lift, of the lifting body increases to the point of stall, so does the lift-
induced drag. At the onset of stall, lift is abruptly decreased, as is lift-induced drag, but

H.K.B.K.C.E
viscous pressure drag, a component of parasite drag, increases due to the formation of
turbulent unattached flow on the surface of the body.
4.1 Wind turbine

A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the kinetic energy in wind into
mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as a
pump or grinding stones, the machine is usually called a windmill. If the mechanical
energy is then converted to electricity, the machine is called a wind generator, wind
turbine, wind power unit (WPU), wind energy converter (WEC), or aerogenerator.

H.K.B.K.C.E
This article discusses electric power generation machinery. The Windmill article discusses
machines used for grain-grinding, water pumping, etc. The article on wind power
describes turbine placement, economics and public concerns. The wind energy section of
that article describes the distribution of wind energy over time, and how that affects wind-
turbine design.
4.2 History
Humans have been using wind power for at least 5,500 years to propel sailboats and
sailing ships, and architects have used wind-driven natural ventilation in buildings since
similarly ancient times. The use of wind to provide mechanical power came somewhat
later in antiquity.
The Babylonian emperor Hammurabi planned to use wind power for his ambitious
irrigation project in the 17th century BC. The ancient Sinhalese utilized the monsoon
winds to power furnaces as early as 300 BC evidence has been found in cities such as
Anuradhapura and in other cities around Sri Lanka The furnaces were constructed on the
path of the monsoon winds to exploit the wind power, to bring the temperatures inside up
to 1100-1200 Celsius. An early historical reference to a rudimentary windmill was used to
power an organ in the 1st century AD. The first practical windmills were later built in
Sistan, Afghanistan, from the 7th century. These were vertical-axle windmills, which had
long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.Made of six to twelve sails covered
in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up
water, and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.Horizontal-axle
windmills were later used extensively in Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in
the 1180s, and many Dutch windmills still exist.
In the United States, the development of the "water-pumping windmill" was the major
factor in allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas of North America, which were
otherwise devoid of readily accessible water. They contributed to the expansion of rail
transport systems throughout the world, by pumping water from wells for the steam
locomotives. The multi-bladed wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel
was, for many years, a fixture of the landscape throughout rural America.

H.K.B.K.C.E
The first modern wind turbines were built in the early 1980s, although more efficient
designs are still being developed.
4.3 Types of wind turbine
• Horizontal axis
• Vertical axis
Horizontal axis
Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly)
being lifted into position
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator
at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a
simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo

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motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker
rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of the
tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the
tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of
the tower and are sometimes tilted up a small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake),
because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind,
and because in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept
area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclic (that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to
fatigue failures most HAWTs are upwind machines.
These squat structures, typically (at least) four bladed, usually with wooden shutters or
fabric sails, were developed in Europe. These windmills were pointed into the wind
manually or via a tail-fan and were typically used to grind grain. In the Netherlands they
were also used to pump water from low-lying land, and were instrumental in keeping its
polders dry.
In Schiedam, the Netherlands, a traditional style windmill (the Noletmolen) was built in
2005 to generate electricity. The mill is one of the tallest Tower mills in the world, being
some 42.5 metres (139 ft) tall.
19th-century windmills
The Eclipse windmill factory was set up around 1866 in Beloit, Wisconsin and soon
became successful building mills for pumping water on farms and for filling railroad
tanks. Other firms like Star, Dempster, and Aeromotor also entered the market. Hundreds
of thousands of these mills were produced before rural electrification and small numbers
continue to be made. They typically had many blades, operated at tip speed ratios not
better than one, and had good starting torque. Some had small direct-current generators
used to charge storage batteries, to provide power to lights, or to operate a radio receiver.
The American rural electrification connected many farms to centrally-generated power and

H.K.B.K.C.E
replaced individual windmills as a primary source of farm power by the 1950s. They were
also produced in other countries like South Africa and Australia (where an American
design was copied in 1876). Such devices are still used in locations where it is too costly
to bring in commercial power.
Three bladed wind turbine
Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually
three-bladed and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. These have high
tip speeds of up to six times the wind speed, high efficiency, and low torque ripple, which
contribute to good reliability. The blades are usually colored light gray to blend in with the
clouds and range in length from 20 to 40 metres (65 to 130 ft) or more. The tubular steel
towers range from 200 to 300 feet (60 to 90 metres) tall. The blades rotate at 10-22
revolutions per minute. A gear box is commonly used to step up the speed of the
generator, although designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator. Some
models operate at constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed
turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the transmission system.
All turbines are equipped with shut-down features to avoid damage at high wind speeds.
HAWT advantages
• Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack.
Allowing the angle of attack to be remotely adjusted gives greater control, so the
turbine collects the maximum amount of wind energy for the time of day and
season.
• The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In
some wind shear sites, every ten meters up, the wind speed can increase by 20%
and the power output by 34%.
• High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind,
receiving power through the whole rotation. In contrast, all vertical axis wind
turbines, and most proposed airborne wind turbine designs, involve various types
of reciprocating actions, requiring airfoil surfaces to backtrack against the wind for
part of the cycle. Backtracking against the wind leads to inherently lower
efficiency.

H.K.B.K.C.E
HAWT disadvantage
• The tall towers and blades up to 90 meters long are difficult to transport.
Transportation can now cost 20% of equipment costs.
• Tall HAWTs are difficult to install, needing very tall and expensive cranes and
skilled operators.
• Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and
generator.
• Reflections from tall HAWTs may affect side lobes of radar installations creating
signal clutter, although filtering can suppress it.
• Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the
appearance of the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
• Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence
when a blade passes through the tower's wind shadow (for this reason, the majority
of HAWTs use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the
tower).
• HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the
wind.
Cyclic stresses and vibration
Cyclic stresses fatigue the blade, axle and bearing; material failures were a major cause of
turbine failure for many years. Because wind velocity often increases at higher altitudes,
the backward force and torque on a horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) blade peaks as it
turns through the highest point in its circle. The tower hinders the airflow at the lowest
point in the circle, which produces a local dip in force and torque. These effects produce a
cyclic twist on the main bearings of a HAWT. The combined twist is worst in machines
with an even number of blades, where one is straight up when another is straight down. To
improve reliability, teetering hubs have been used which allow the main shaft to rock
through a few degrees, so that the main bearings do not have to resist the torque peaks.

H.K.B.K.C.E
The rotating blades of a wind turbine act like a gyroscope. As it pivots along its vertical
axis to face the wind, gyroscopic precession tries to twist the turbine disc along its
horizontal axis. For each blade on a wind generator's turbine, precessive force is at a
minimum when the blade is horizontal and at a maximum when the blade is vertical. This
cyclic twisting can quickly fatigue and crack the blade roots, hub and axle of the turbines.
Vertical axis
Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key
advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the
wind to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly
variable. VAWTs can utilize winds from varying directions.
With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, so the tower
doesn't need to support it, and it is more accessible for maintenance. Drawbacks are that
some designs produce pulsating torque. Drag may be created when the blade rotates into
the wind.
It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, meaning they are often installed
nearer to the base on which they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop. The wind
speed is slower at a lower altitude, so less wind energy is available for a given size turbine.
Air flow near the ground and other objects can create turbulent flow, which can introduce
issues of vibration, including noise and bearing wear which may increase the maintenance
or shorten the service life. However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building
generally redirects wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If
the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building
height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence.

H.K.B.K.C.E

H.K.B.K.C.E

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Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 1

SECTOR-WISE ENERGY CONSUMPTION

The graph above shows the approximate consumption of power in india.industries

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 2

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 3

2.4 Global climatology

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2.5 Wind power

2.6 AREA SURVEY

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 7

TIME AVG MEAN VELOCITY AVG MAX VELOCITY

2.7 Wind power in India

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 8

2.7.1 Tamil Nadu (4132.72 MW)

2.7.2 Maharashtra (1837.85 MW)

2.7.3 Gujarat (1432.71 MW)

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2.7.4 Karnataka (1184.45 MW)

2.7.5 Madhya Pradesh (187.69 MW)

In consideration of unique concept, Govt. of Madhya Pradesh has sanctioned another 15

2.7.6 Kerala (23.00 MW)

participation at Ramakkalmedu in Idukki district. The project, which was inaugurated by

2.7.7 West Bengal (1.10 MW)

2.7.8 Others (3.20 MW)

3.20 MW is installed in other states.

State-wise Unit Generation Data (kWh)

S.No. State Million Units

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 11

STATEWISE POWER INSTALLED CAPACITY IN INDIA (AS ON

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 12

Graph showing Year-Wise Installed Capacity(MW) in INDIA

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 13

Equivalent Saving of Coal & other Pollutants

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 14

An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces a force perpendicular to the

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 15

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3.2 Airfoil Terminology

The various terms related to airfoils are defined below:

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3.3 Thin airfoil theory

As a consequence of (3), the section lift coefficient of a symmetric airfoil of infinite

where is the section lift coefficient,

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Derivation of thin airfoil theory

This integral equation can by solved for γ(x), after replacing x by

(These terms are known as the Glauert integral).

The coefficients are given by

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By the Kutta–Joukowski theorem, the total lift force F is proportional to

and its moment M about the leading edge to

3.4 Lift (force)

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Methods to determine lift on an airfoil

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Bernoulli's principle provides an explanation of pressure difference in the absence of air

In astrodynamics, depending on the situation, atmospheric drag can be regarded as an

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 24

Lift induced drag