INSTITUTO TECNOLOGICO Y DE ESTUDIOS SUPERIORES DE

MONTERREY
APPLIED ENGINEERING RESEARCH GROUP
DMMITQ, APRIL 2009
CIUDAD JUAREZ, CHIHUAHUA, MEXICO

SOLAR CELLS: A NEW SOURCE OF ELECTRICITY.

Héctor Ramírez, *Maritza Rodríguez, **Nadia Martínez

* Rapid Product Realization for Developing Markets Research Chair Chapter Juarez
Tecnológico de Monterrey campus Ciudad Juárez
Ave. Tomás Fernández Campos No. 8945 Cd Juárez, Chihuahua
e-mail: angelita2708@hotmail.com , hector_rv23@hotmail.com, nadia12_183@hotmail.com
página web http://www.itesm.edu/

Palabras clave: Celdas solares, efecto fotovoltaico, energía solar y electricidad.

Abstract.

An experimental solar cell model will be done in order to convert sunlight into electricity by the
photovoltaic effect in which it will be able to eliminate the current use (C.F.E) and it would
make possible the saving of a considerable amount of money. This model could be stand in the
professional building from the I.T.E.S.M without obstacle. A class dome will be installed in the
roof as a layer of glass in order to intensify the sunbeams for a better quality in the solar cell;
also, a cooler that regulates the highest temperature permitted. Variables such as: current,
voltage, power, efficiency, temperature and the intensity of the sunlight are dependant
properties taken into account. Equations, graphics and results are also presented.

Key words: Solar cells, photovoltaic effect, solar energy and electricity.
  1. INTRODUCTION.
Nowadays it is very difficult to be paying piles and piles of money in electrical
light because it is indispensable for many things in daily life, to power a small pump, to
power a computer, an elevator, to power electrical printers or doors; in I.T.E.S.M. it is
one of the biggest problems, since when the college exceeds the limit that the federal
commission of electricity imposes on it, it has to create its own energy with diesel
generators.

 2. OBJECTIVE.
In this project we will only focus in classrooms 3 from the I.T.E.S.M; when we
use more energy than permitted, we have to use diesel generators and the cost is too
high. Our main purpose it is to create energy using natural resources without any cost
and that energy will benefit our pockets.

 3. THE FUNCTION OF A SOLAR CELL.

The solar or photovoltaic cell is the direct conversion of solar energy into
electricity in an atomic level. Some semiconducting materials absorb the photons in
sunlight and they emit electrons. When these free electrons are taken, the result is an
electric current that it can be used as electricity. The photovoltaic cells are made of
semiconducting materials, in special silicon. A thin screen is used in order to origin an
electric field, positive in one side and negative in the other, of course, when the energy
becomes of the sunbeams it reach the photovoltaic cells and the
electrons are hitting and remove from the atoms of the
semiconducting material.
The common way to use the solar cells is based in the
photovoltaic effect, in which light enters in a semiconductor
device of two layers and it produces a difference in the potency
between the layers. This voltage is useful to conduct a current
across an extern circuit in order to produce work.
  4. STATE OF ART.
Although the efficient solar cells have been available since
50’s, the scientific research of the photovoltaic effect began in 1839,
when the French scientist, Henri Becquerel discovered that an
electrical current could be produced making shine a light on certain
chemical solutions.
The effect was observed first in a solid material (the metal
selenium) in 1877. This material was used during many years for the
photometers, which they required of very small amounts of energy.
A deep comprehension of the scientific principles was provided by
Albert Einstein in 1905 and Schottky in 1930, which it was
necessary before efficient solar cells could be made. A solar silicon
cell that turned 6% of the solar light affects its electricity and it was developed by
Chapin, Pearson and Fuller in 1954, and this is the common cell that it was used in
specialized uses such as orbital satellites as of 1958.
The use of the solar cells has been increasing because it is a good source of
renewable energy; it was described as a solar battery and nothing more than a curiosity
because it was too expensive to use in a higher scale. In the 60’s, the space industry
began to use this kind of technology for the first time to provide electrical energy inside
the space crafts. Throughout the space programs, the technology advanced and it
reached a high grade of trust while reducing its cost.
During the energy crises in the 70’s, the technology with a photovoltaic cell
began to win recognition as a source of energy for applications not related with space.
The construction of the photovoltaic cells has been expanded because of the lack of
systems of electrical networks and the big rural areas in the world today; since the 90’s
the photovoltaic technology has been used in order to provide electricity to different
uses such as: satellite telephone systems, education via satellite, security and control of
unboarded marine platforms, etc.
Photovoltaic cells cost a low price and it
can be used electrification and rural
telephony such as: water pumping and
cathodic protection. The costs of
generation and investment are from
3,500 to 7,000 US$/KW installed and from 0, 25 to 0, 5 dollars to generate each KWh.
 Uses and actual developments
During the 18th and 19th century the major market for the solar boards was in the
power supplies for remote areas and some consumer goods (clocks, toys and
calculating). However, in the middle of the 19’s it was launched an important effort to
develop solar boards integrated in the construction of buildings in order to be connected
to a network. Nowadays, photovoltaic roofs are leading the development of the market
in Japan, Europe and the U.S.A. Japan has a program that wants to build 70.000 solar
homes, with which by the year 2010 they
expect to reach about 4.820 MW produce
by photovoltaic systems. In Europe, some
countries are supporting the construction
of solar homes, with the Europe
Parlament proposing a plan 1.000MW. In
U.S.A. Clinton’s President announced a
program about solar roofs, in which he
told that before the 2010 year it will be
installed a million solar boards in
America.
The cathodic protection is one
method to protect the metal structures
against the corrosion. In order to reach
the cathodic protection it applies a small
negative voltage in the metal structure and this one avoids the oxidation. The positive
terminal of the source is connected to a galvanic anode or of sacrifice that is generally a
piece of the remainder metal.

Electrical fences
The electrical fences are used extensively in agriculture to avoid that the cattle or the
predators enters or leaves a close field. These fences have one or two wires “alive” that
stay with near 500 volts of DC. These wires give an unloading to any animal that touch
them. These fences also are used in enclosures of the fauna and protected areas. Wires
require a high voltage but very little current and they are located in remote areas where
the cost of electricity is too high. These needs can be solved by a photovoltaic system of
solar cells, a conditioner of energy and a battery.
Illumination
People require illumination in far places where the cost to apply energy by a network is
too expensive. The solar cells can satisfy signals in the streets, even though those cells
always require a battery to have energy. These systems consist in a photovoltaic board
added to a battery, a conditioner of energy and a pump of C.C with high efficiency.
They are so popular in remote places, especially in countries such as Mexico.

 4.1 KNOWLEDGE ABOUT A SOLAR CELL.

The generation of electrical energy (AC/DC) is obtained through the
transformation of the solar energy using solar cells that are connected forming an
adjustment that connects a load controller. This energy can be stored in batteries and it
is used in a direct way or it becomes to alternating current.
An arrangement of several solar cells connected electrically together and
mounted in a structure of support or a frame, is called photovoltaic module. The
modules are designed to provide a certain level with voltage, for example the one of a
common system of 12 volts. The produced current depends directly on how much light
arrives until the module.
This means that several modules can be connected with others to form an
adjustment, that in general while it is the area of the adjustment more, but energy will
obtain, bony, more electricity will be produced. The photovoltaic modules and
adjustments produce direct current (CC). These adjustments can in series be connected
as much as in parallel to produce any amount of voltage or current that is required. A
way to control the limitation is using two or more different cells, with a band space and
one or more junctions in order to generate a voltage. These types of cells are known as
“multijuntura” cells also called “tandem” cells. The devices multijuntura can obtain a
better efficiency of total conversion because they can convert the greatest part of the
bright phantom in electricity.

Costs and potency

On the other hand, great advances in the photovoltaic technology are taking
place and experimental panels with high yields to 40%.
At several latitudes, it considers the diurnal cycle and the atmospheric conditions; the
average that arrives to the earth surface is 100W/m on winter and 250 W/m on summer.
With and efficiency of conversion of, approximately, 12%, it can be hoped to obtain 12
and 30 watts by squared meter of photovoltaic cell in winter and summer, respectively.
With the current costs of electrical energy, 0,08 $/kWh (USD), a square meter
will generate up from 0,06 $/day, and one km ² will generate up to 30 MW, or 50.000 $/
(km ² .day). The present power consumption of the earth population is near to 12-13 TW
at any time given (including derivatives of petroleum, coal, nuclear power and
hydroelectric).
The price of the photovoltaic panels was from 1 to 2$/watt (USD) and of 1, 0000
of pesos in amounts of ~400. As the amount of production increases, the prices probably
continue lowering. When these panels are installed, the cost is between 1 and 7 dollars
by watt.
Sale prices in Australia for small systems are close to A$ 12 to A$ 15 by watt.
For example, a panel of 10 W cost A$ 150 towards December of 2005, and one of 20 W
cost A$ 300.

How can we do our solar cell?

Solar cells get into a module in which it is connected and encapsulated. In this
kind of devices the pass of the light obtains by a semiconductor material. They are
sometimes connected in series, creating an additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel
will yield a higher current. Modules are connected one to another, in series or parallel,
or both, to create an arrangement with the desired peak DC voltage and current.
In order to understand the operation of a photovoltaic cell, we need to consider the
nature of the material and the nature of the sunlight. The solar cells are formed by two
types of material, generally silicon type p and silicon type n. The light of certain
wavelengths can ionize atoms in silicon and the deep field produced by the union that
separates some of the positive charges (“holes”) of the negative charges (electrons)
within the photovoltaic device. The holes move towards the positive layer or layer of
type p and electrons towards the refusal or negative type n. Although these opposite
charges are attracted mutually, most of them can only be recombined happening through
an external circuit outside the material due to the internal barrier of potential energy.
Therefore if one becomes a circuit can be produced a current from the illuminated cells,
because the free electrons have to pass across the circuit in order to put with the
positives holes.
 Temperature affects in a solar cell, because when the temperature increases the
current also rises, but the voltage decreases. The current is steady in high temperatures,
but the voltage decreases, also, the rise of the cell temperature gives a decline in the
potency. The temperature between the sunlight rises is around 6000K and a solar cell
works at 300K. As the temperature of a solar cell increases the open circuit voltage,
efficiency, and output power of the cell decrease.

Graphic about
temperature dependence of
the open circuit voltage
 Graphic about the current vs. temperature of a solar cell
Mechanic operations
In order to obtain the efforts and deformations of our solar panel, the principal
efforts by the mohr circle, we will use our obtained knowledge in the mechanics of
materials class.
The diagram will be like that:

We only have one torsion moment, in which affects our base; with this operation
we will obtain not only the principal efforts but also another principal efforts, when the
angle moves because of the sun; the maximum angle will be to 30 and the force that hits
the panel will be of 8952.077 N and its diagram would be:
 We will begin to use the air pressure equation in order to obtain air velocities
forces; then our purpose will be that the highest velocity would be around 150km/hr,
converted into meters 41.667m/s and the air density is of 1.1902 kg/ m3.
The formula used in order to obtain the
air pressure is:
P = ½ * d * v2
P = ½ * (1.1902 kg/m3) * (41.667 m/s)2
P = 1033.17 kg/ms2
F = P * A * sen(a)
Sen(a) will be in this case 1 because the founded area is perpendicular to the pressure.
F = (1033.17 kg/ms2) * (10m * .15m) = 1549.7643 N
For the second part, if the angle changes the force too:
F = (1033.17 kg/ms2) * (10m * .15m) * sen(120º) = 1342.127 N
Now, we will obtain the principal efforts; first we obtain the torsion moment.
T = .25m * 1549.7643 N = 387.44 Nm
t = 2T / ¶ * c3
txy = 2 * (387.44 Nm) / (¶ * .53) = 774.88 / .392699 = 1973.216 Pa
Obtaining the results we have that the principal efforts are equal, such as:
+1973.216 Pa
-1973.216 Pa
Because of we didn’t obtain efforts
in axis X or Y.
Conclusions
Our project about solar cells must be on the roof of aulas 3, where it will can
absorb the light sun without obstacle, also apply a layer of glass, like a dome, which
intensify solar beams for a better quality, also a cooler for the solar panel temperature
does not exceed the limit and deliver a low level voltage because of its down; the solar
panel reloaded the source for later be used in aulas 3 and take less CFE electric energy
consumption, also no spend more in diesel. For material of photovoltaic panel does not
have corrosions, it will use cathode protection; the cathode protection is a method to
protect iron structures against corrosion, it is apply to bridges, pipelines, buildings,
reservoirs, perforations and railway lines. To reach the cathode protection it is applied a
small negative voltage to the iron structure and it avoids that it oxides. The source
positive terminal is connected to an galvanic anode or the sacrifice that is generally a
piece of iron, that is corrode instead of the structure that is wanted to protect.
In general, a solar panel has 36 photovoltaic cells interconnected. Which one of
these absorb energy of the solar beams and it releases the light into electric current to
obtain the sufficient tension like to charge a battery of 12 volts, that is equal to a
automobile battery. The sunlight insides about the cells, some particles release electrons
when it enters in contact with the silicon crystal of the cell surface. Of there, electrons
that pass to an extern circuit and, in the way, emit energy in form of useful work, like on
a lamp. It estimates that a square meter of solar cell catches on the earth, at the midday
and with clear sky, 1000 watts; in the space, 1350 watts
Although the sun produces approximately, 1,000 watts of energy per
square foot on a sunny day, a solar cell only use the 25 percent of that energy. The great
problem is in the light itself. The sun follows a complete spectrum of frequencies and
forces. Solar cells with multiple band gap absorber materials are able to more efficiently
convert the solar spectrum. By using multiple band gaps, the solar spectrum may be
broken down into smaller bins.
The material and construction of a solar cell of that size, the cooler and the
crystal dome will have a high price, but, this one could be recovered because people
would not have to pay bills of electricity in the C.F.E. When the source of the cell is
totally charged, it would be used in classrooms 3 and it would decrease the consumption
of the buyer energy. Out alternative help to pay a low cost of energy and we can use our
natural source: sunlight.
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