Session Report

The First World Landslide Forum

Session7. Education, Capacity Building and Public Awareness for Disaster Reduction

Conveners:
Badaoui Rouhban and Rajib Shaw
UNESCO and Kyoto University
 The First World Landslide Forum
18-21 November 2008
United Nations University, Tokyo
Session7. Education, Capacity Building and Public Awareness for Disaster
Reduction

Conveners: Badaoui Rouhban (UNESCO, France), Rajib Shaw (Kyoto Univ., Japan)

Background
Education is the key element for reducing disasters caused by natural hazards including
landslides and achieving human security in the pursuit of sustainable development.
The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 and “Words Into Action: A Guide for
Implementing the Hyogo Framework” prepared by UN/ISDR emphasize the role of
formal and non-formal education and awareness raising as a core component of risk
reduction initiatives.

Past experience, projects, and programmes have revealed enormously positive effects of
education for vulnerability reduction and disaster risk management. Children and adults
who know how to react in case of a disaster, community leaders who have learned to
warn their people in time, and whole social layers who have been taught how to prepare
themselves for natural hazards have contributed to better mitigation strategies and
dissemination of information on the dangers of hazards. Education and knowledge have
provided people with tools for vulnerability reduction and life-improving self-help
strategies. Furthermore, more stable and disaster resilient education facilities, such as
school buildings, provide a shelter in case of hazards and must be strengthened and
improved through better engineering and technical knowledge.

Education also plays a substantial role in improving risk assessment procedures in

nearby communities, in encouraging people to engage in building up resiliency and to
generally reduce risk elements in communities. For education on risk reduction to have
its desired impact on communities, it needs to reach out to the remotest development
worker in the field. Such education needs to be made accessible and affordable for
frontline practitioners who operate at community level and are often far removed from
conventional knowledge centers such as universities.

Thus, while there is no argument that education is important, and it works, the challenge
is how to effectively incorporate education for disaster reduction in the national and
local government policy and programmes, and how to reduce the gap between
knowledge and practice through experiencing learning. With the above viewpoint, the
proposed session will focus on:
• Importance of education for reducing disasters caused by natural hazards
including landslides
• Strategies for promoting education for natural disaster reduction
 • Raising awareness of school teachers and community leaders
• Development of guidelines and educational tools

Structure of Session
The expected outcome of the session will provide a direct input to the resolution of the
WLF, and defining policy advocacy on education sector for landslide risk reduction.
The session will achieve the following:
- Identifying good practices for the integration of education for landslide
reduction
- Partnerships to implement education for landslide disaster reduction
- Proposals for effective policy dialogue on education for landslide risk reduction
The session will have 90 minutes, and is consists of presentation and discussion.

Program

1. Background and Session Objectives:

Badaoui Rouhban (UNESCO, France) 10 minutes
2. Sustainable community disaster education in Saijo and its effectiveness in landslide
risk reduction:
Rajib Shaw (Kyoto University, Japan) 10 minutes
3. Education for sediment disaster and gender sensitive education in Hiroshima, Japan:
Yukiko Takeuchi (Kyoto University, Japan) 10 minutes
4. Forest management and participatory community education in Reihoku, Japan:
Kumiko Fujita (Kyoto University, Japan) 10 minutes
5. Strategies for promoting education for natural disaster reduction in Indonesia and
ASEAN regions:
Dwikorita Karnawati
(Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia) 10 minutes
6. A methodology for community based disaster risk management:
Surya Prakash
(National Institute of Disaster Management, India) 10 minutes
7. Capacity Building and Awareness Raising for Disaster Reduction through Formal
Education
Etsuko Tsunozaki (ADRC, Japan) 10 minutes
8. An Illustrated Landslide Handbook for Developing Nations:
Lynn Highland
(United States Geological Survey, USA) 10 minutes
9. Capacity Building of Local NGO as Community Leader in the Affected Area of
Pakistan Earthquake of 2005
Koichi Shiwaku (NIED/EDM, Japan) 10 minutes
Sustainable Community Disaster Education in Saijo
City and its Effectiveness in Landslide Risk Reduction
Rajib Shaw and Yukiko Takeuchi (Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan)

Abstract. Many of the Japanese small and medium size cities
are located in the coast, and become vulnerable to both
coastal and mountain hazards. The vulnerability is increased
due to increasing aged population, low resources and lack of
capacity in the local governments. In this scenario, it is
important that the community’s potential should be utilized in
its fullest form through proper awareness raising and capacity
building. Town watching and mountain watching are
considered as useful tools to reduce urban risk in small and
medium sized cities, where participation of local schools, its
students, teachers, parents, resident associations and local
government members collective watch both good and bad
(vulnerable) parts of their cities. This collective watching
and participatory mapping helps the engagement of school
children and communities in risk reduction activities. This
type of neighborhood watching is a process, and it is
important to continue the initiative for effective risk reduction
at community levels. Through sustainable community
disaster education, it is possible to reduce the risk of landslide,
and thereby making the small and medium size mountain
cities safer to both geological and hydro-meteorological
hazards.
and so on. So, it is important for community people to work
together for disaster prevention. But the relationship between
urban area and mountainous area becomes poor. Many people
living in urban area have never been to mountainous area and
don’t know about the area. Saijo City in Ehime Prefecture is
one of such cities.
1.2 Background of Saijo City
Saijo city is located in the eastern part of Ehime prefecture. It
has an area of 509.04 square kilo meters, with a population of
116,059 (2006.10). On the 1st of November, 2004, Saijo City,
Toyo City, Tanbara Town and Komatsu Town from Shuso
County merged to form the new "Saijo City" (Figure 1).
The geography of the city is classified broadly into four parts;
plain area along the coast, hilly area between Saijo City and
Nihama City, hilly terrain ranging in the north side of median
tectonic line along the south side of the plain, and precipitous
mountains in the southern side of median tectonic line. There
is Mt. Ishiduchi, the highest mountain in the western part of
Japan. Two big rivers, Kamo River and Nakayama River,
flow in the center of the city.

Keywords: Community education, Town watching,

Mountain watching, Small and medium size cities, Saijo Japan

1. Background
1.1 Small and medium sized cities in Japan
In Japan, there are a lot of small and medium sized cities.
Two thirds of all cities in Japan have less than 100,000 people
as population. Recently, such local cities had many problems,
for example, faltering local economy, sagging and hollowing
local industry, tight local finance, functional decline of urban
area, and so on. These problems are closely related to each
other. This study belongs to the Master Thesis in the GSGES, Shikoku-area
Kyoto University i .

All over the country, declining birth rate and aging is

proceeding, and population decrease in coming thirty years is
quite certain. In 2030, it is estimated that the population Saijo City

would be about 112 million and aging rate is about 32.4%.
Especially, local cities have the pronounced tendency because
young people are going out of the area. The main reason is
educational advancement and getting employment. At the
same time, old people prefer staying back in the place where
they have lived for a long time. So, the living base and
economic base will become poor.
Aging in local cities affects not only financial problems, but
also disaster prevention. In case of a disaster, young people’s
help is essential. According to the proposal of MLIT
(Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport), characteristic
of recent heavy rain disaster is that, many people who need
help in case of a disaster are affected, system of mutual
assistance in case of a disaster is poor, risk awareness is low,
Ehime
Prefecture (Source: Saijo City)
Figure 1. Location of Saijo city and it’s the rainfall contour of
2004 Typhoon 21.
Saijo city is famous for its spring water called “Uchinuki”.
The river water soaks into underground and pools, then spouts
above ground under pressure. Just by driving a pipe into
underground, water comes out. The amount of the flowing
water is about 90,000m3 per day. Due to the little temperature
change through all seasons, it is used as daily life water,

1
agricultural water and industrial water. “Uchinuki” is one of areas, young people’s help is needed for elderly people to
the 100 best waters in Japan. evacuate.
There is a traditional annual festival called “Saijo Matsuri” in
October, when almost all people, the young and the old, get
wildly excited. Each Jichikai (neighborhood association) has
their own “Danjiri” (floats) and relationships among people in
the communities are strong. “Jichikai” is neighborhood
association which is organized in each area within
municipality at their own initiative. There are 540 Jichikai in
Saijo city and they make 28 Jichikai union.

2. Saijo’s Emerging Disaster Issues

In summer and autumn in 2004, 6 typhoons (no.4, 6, 10, 11,
21, 23) at record high hit Shikoku area. (In Shikoku area, 2
was the most since 1995 and 1.5 is average.) In Seto Island
Sea area where they have little heavy rain damage basically,
there were many concentrated downpours and landslides, high
tide and they cost much precious possession like 61 people’s
valuable lives and houses. Especially, typhoon no.15, 16, 18,
21, 22, 23, numbering 6 typhoons caused damages to Saijo
City and no.21 and 23 caused larger damages.
On 29th September, 2004, typhoon no.21 moved across
Shikoku area. Because of this, in Saijo City, they had record
concentrated heavy rain, 75.5~150mm rainfall per hour.
Avalanche of rocks, earth and driftwood surged which seemed
to have occurred due to slope destruction of intermediate and
mountainous area and forming destruction of natural dam. A
lot of driftwood got stuck with bridge pier and water was held
back and overflowed. As the water level rose suddenly,
surrounding houses were flooded. In the flat part, each area
was flooded above or below floor level. In the mountainous
area, landslide disaster occurred frequently, roads were
severed, many villages were isolated and house destruction
and human suffering were caused. The dead in Ehime
prefecture by typhoon no.21 numbered 14 people and this was
the worst record in human suffering caused by typhoon.
Emerging problems due to the typhoon are as follows.
(1) Ill-maintained forest and thinned wood in the
mountains
Frequent small slope failure by the concentrated heavy rain of
typhoon no.21 added to the damage. While “deep-seated
landslide” which each ground slides is not related to the form
of forest, “shallow landslide” which surface soil slides
directly results from the extent of maintenance. In addition,
in artificial forests which are not thinned for a long time,
sunlight doesn’t reach ground and bottom weed and young
trees are difficult to grow. When it rains there, surface soil is
hit directly by raindrops and clogged, and rain water which
cannot soak through the ground runs on the surface. The
“water road” caused by the erosion forms valley and finally
draws mudslides involving surface soil and fallen trees.
Abandoned thinned wood were also the problem. They flew
into the river by the heavy rain, got stuck with bridge pier and
water was overflowed downstream (Figure 2).
(2) Concentration of elderly people in mountainous area
According to the rate of aging in each area of Saijo City, the
first to forth areas are mountainous areas and it means there
are many elderly people there. In the typhoons of 2004,
especially mountainous area was seriously affected. Some
areas were isolated because the roads were blocked. In such
Figure 2. Disaster issues in Saijo: from top left clockwise:
Landslide in the mountain areas, uprooted trees block the
river, and causing damages to buildings in the downstream.
(3)Dangerous shelter
Some designated shelters turned out to be dangerous. For
example, in Ofuki area, the mountainous area, some people
evacuated to the community center which was a designated
shelter. But one person noticed that the river nearby the center
suddenly changed muddy, so they escaped to a different
building. One minute after they evacuated, the center was
buried in the mud. In Funakata area, mid-mountainous area,
the designated shelter was at the head of the hill and difficult
to get there. So residents evacuated to near meeting house.
Therefore, the designated shelters built by the municipality
should be reexamined and residents should know better about
the area.
(4) Low awareness for disaster prevention
Referring to disaster history of Saijo City, there had been no
such large typhoons in these days. These typhoons caused
first dead since 1976 in old Saijo City. Fading memory of
disasters leads declining awareness for disaster prevention.
Also, judging with one’s own experience is dangerous.
According to the questionnaire survey in Ofuki area (OYO,
2005) ii , many people didn’t evacuate for the reason that they
just thought it was not dangerous or judged from their long
experience and thought it was not so dangerous as to
evacuate.
3. Education as a tool to enhance participation
3.1 Participatory Learning
Yamori iii (2006) states that it is necessary for disaster
education in the future to focus on the process of restructuring
“communities of practice” (J.Lave 1993), and not only just
transfer of knowledge and skill between individuals. That is,

2
it should be an important goal of education or learning to know each other about the circumstances.
establish community in which educator and learner can
“participate” together. For example in school, it will be all
right just to involve pupils, teachers or school system itself to
network with those who teach what one doesn’t know and
organization or group to work with on disaster prevention.
Teachers or school itself don’t need to have all things about
disaster prevention. One of such learning tools will be “town
watching”.

3.2 Town Watching

Town watching is a participatory technique used in
community or neighborhood planning in the context of a
larger administrative unit (such as municipality or city) in
order for residents to recognize problems as a group and put
forward solutions together. The problem solving process is
guided by at least one expert or professional trained in one or Figure 3. Conceptual framework of town and mountain
more aspects of planning iv (Ogawa, 2005). Town watching watching
which has been developed as a technique practiced by For these reasons, mountain watching is proposed to be
Japanese urban planners from the 1970s, has become popular implemented in Saijo City. Mountain watching is just like
as a participatory tool in machizukuri v (Setagaya town watching and it is conducted in the mountainous area.
Machizukuri Center 1993). “Machizukuri” has been Main target is children, and also residents in the mountain,
translated as “community planning” by Evans vi (2001), and teachers, municipal officials and forest workers are involved.
as “town making” participatory community building vii The working field is upper area of a river along school.
(Yamda 2001). “Machi” means town, district, community and Participants watch the site damaged by the typhoon in 2004
“zukuri” means making or building. The origins of and hear the story from victims (Figure 4)
“machizukuri” can be traced as a movement associated with Figure 4. Areas of mountain watching.
organized citizen actions to fight against pollution in the
1960s in Japan; local authorities needed to adapt to include
consultation with its citizens. Lately, machizukuri in some
localities evolved into partnerships viii (Yoshimura 2002). In
recent years, the “machizukuri” movement emerged from
Japanese planning practice with a predominant focus on urban
design that encourages citizen involvement. Concerns in
machizukuri such as access to public road, open space, land
use, etc. are well taken into account by town watching. The
use of town watching has been extended to dealing with
disaster and safety related physical issues such as safe or
unsafe places and evacuation routes; we shall call this disaster
town watching.

4. Participatory disaster education as a risk reduction
measure
4.1 Relevance of Town/Mountain Watching in Saijo City
At the time of the typhoon no.21&23 in 2004, mountainous
area of Saijo City was especially damaged. Land condition
and concentrated heavy rain are major factors, but there are
other reasons concerning so-called software. In the
mountainous area, there live many elderly people and few
young people. So some elderly people had difficulty in
evacuating and needed help of young people. Low awareness
of disaster prevention is also a problem. According to the
research of OYO cooperation ix , not a few people didn’t
evacuate at the time of typhoon. The same problem is faced in
the plain area.
Plain area is rather urban and there are many young people.
So, it is necessary to make “disaster prevention network” (see
figure 3) between the plain area and the mountainous area, so
as to help elderly people in the mountainous area in case of a
disaster. As the driftwood stuck with bridge pier caused flood
to the plain area, disaster in the mountainous area have
bearings with that in the plain area. Both residents have to
At the same time, town watching is proposed to be
implemented in the plain area. The main target is pupils and
teachers, parents, Jichikai and municipal officers. They walk
around the school zone and search for dangerous places,
useful facilities in case of disasters and favorite places which
they don’t notice otherwise in daily life. This time, town
watching is to be implemented in five elementary schools and
mountain watching in three junior high schools as “disaster
education program”, which is an activity of 12-year-old
education project.
4.2 Outline of Questionnaire Survey
The questionnaire survey is conducted to evaluate the impact
of town/mountain watching. Target is all participants; pupils,
teachers, municipal officers, parents, Jichikai, residents in
mountain and forest workers. The questionnaire survey was
conducted both before going to field and after the whole
process on the implementing day. It took about 20 minutes
each, and was not read out. For two elementary schools,
another questionnaire was conducted in November to evaluate
pupils’ awareness a while after town watching.

3
Pupils are to describe what they know about the typhoon in social issues, in-school education and events-oriented
2004. The answers are categorized in 4 groups; a) impact on education.
typhoon itself (e.g., it rained heavily, it caused great damage, Town watching or mountain watching is a suitable tool to
etc.), b) impact on land and infrastructure (e.g., the river was resolve these problems. It involves many stakeholders, such
overflowed, there were lots of mudslide in mountains, etc.), c) as pupils in elementary schools and junior high schools,
impact on houses and properties (e.g., the houses were teachers, parents, Jichikai, residents in mountains, forest
flooded over the floor level, rice fields were flooded, etc.), d) worker, Citizens’ Safety Dept. and Education Board. So, it
impact on human beings (e.g., people evacuated to the school provides a good opportunity to them to communicate with
gym, there were a few dead, etc.). each other. In case of a disaster, such relationship is very
important. Through town watching, participants get interested
Miyoshi Elementary School (N=22) Tanbara Elementary School (N=67) in the local area and also get knowledge about disaster
140
140
120 120 prevention.
100 100
80 add 80 add
But town/mountain watching should not end up with only one
60 before 60 before
40
7
40
6
47
time event. Through a series of continuous actions, it will
20 2 20 6
31 2
0 0
1 17 11 0
1 0
22 21 8 become better and develop disaster resilient area. So, clear
a b c d a b c d
implementing body and guideline is necessary for continuing
Iwane Elementary School (N=20) Iioka Elemenatry School (N=67)
town/mountain watching.
140 140
120 120 In Saijo City, a “teachers’ association of disaster education”
100 100
80 add 80
54
add has been set up. This association consists of teachers who
60 before 60 before
40 10
7
40 18
62
32
8
have incentive to promote disaster education. They study on
20 1 32 20
13 25 27
0 5
a b
6
c
12
d
0
a b c
19

d
the way of disaster education and share information. Now
they have several meetings and make a guideline of
Ohmachi Elementary School (N=100) East Junior High School (N=60)

140 140
town/mountain watching, making use of the past experience.
120
100
120
100
In addition, “Kids Disaster Prevention Club” is proposed to
78
80
60
31
add
before
80
60
48
57
add
before
be set up here. It is different from boys and girls fire club. It
43
40
20 10 52 54
40
20 16 48
27 26
consists of students, teachers, parents, community people, and
14 2 13
0
a b c d
2 0
a b c d
so on who get interested in disaster prevention through
South Junior High School (N=32) West Junior High School (N=68)
town/mountain watching. Students suggest what they want to
140 140
know more about or questions arise in their minds through
120
100
120
100
town/mountain watching in the club activity.
80
60
21
add
bafore
80
60
49

32
add
before
Also with daily learning, they study about disaster prevention.
40 40
20 28
9
43
7 0
20
30
6
55
36 1
A forum of disaster prevention such as Kids Summit is held
0 9 2 0 1
a b c d a b c d once or twice in a year and students from each school in Saijo
City make presentations about what they have learnt.
Figure 5. Impact of town watching and mountain watching In this way, sustainable disaster prevention will start from
school and involve the entire city.
Figure 5 shows the number of the answers in each school.
“Add” area shows the post-answer, excluding the same References (End Notes)
answer as pre-answer. So, it will be the impact of i
town/mountain watching. Each school has characteristics and Yoshida Y. (2007): Study on effective and sustainable community
it is considered to have resulted from the background of the disaster education through town watching in Saijo City, Master
Thesis, Kyoto University
area. ii
OYO Corporation Survey 2005
iii
Yamori Katsuya, et.al: Frontier of disaster education, Natural
5. Conclusion Disaster Science, 24-4, pp.343-386, 2006
iv
Local cities in Japan have some common problems. Young Ogawa Yujiro, Antonio L. Fernandez, Yoshimura Teruhiko: Town
people leave mountainous areas and go to towns, so declining watching as a tool for citizen participation in developing countries:
population and aging become serious problems in mountains. application in disaster training, International Journal of Mass
Also declination of forestry increases ill-maintained forests. Emergencies and Disasters, vol.23, no.2, pp.5-36, August, 2005
v
When a disaster happens in such areas, the damage would be Setagaya Machizukuri Center, Tool box of Participatory Design.
Tokyo, 2003
serious. Landslides are easy to occur because of the weak vi
Neil Evans, “Discourses of Urban Community and Community
ground condition and some elderly people have difficulty in Planning: a Comparison between Britain and Japan”, Sheffield
evacuation without the help of the young people. In such Online Papers in Social Research 3, April, 2003
cases, help of people in the town would be great. But there is Available at www.shef.ac.uk/socst/Shop/evans.pdf
vii
often little relationship between mountainous area and town. Yamada Masaki, “A Philosophy for Community Building”, Aichi
It is important for community to work together on disaster Voice 14, pp.3-7, 2001
viii
reduction. Yoshimura Teruhiko, “Machi-zukuri: New Challenge in Japanese
In the meantime, the importance of disaster education Urban Planning”, Thirtieth International Course in Regional
Development Planning, May 16-June 26, 2002, Nagoya: United
becomes well-recognized and the number of schools which Nations Centre for Regional Development
adopt it increases. But there are some problems in current ix
Questionnaire survey conducted by OYO corporation, 2005
disaster education, for example, lack of teachers’ training,
time pressure in school curriculum, lack of involvements of
parents and family, lack of linkage of scientific studies with

4
The education of sediment disaster generation
process including sediment transport to resident’s
action in Hiroshima City
Yukiko Takeuchi (Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University,
y.takeuchi@fw7.ecs.kyoto-u.ac.jp)

Abstract. Every year sediment disaster occurs in the
mountain areas trigger of heavy rainfall or typhoon. As for
sediment disaster, condition of geological characteristic and
rainfall etc. being the almost same, generation property of the
mass movement differs in each geological characteristic. It
is difficult to announce officially evacuation advice for each
property. It is necessary for the resident to judge the
information without waiting for the official evacuation
advice; they have to judge the information comprehensively
using forerunning phenomenon that is sound and vibration etc.
and the weather forecast, for the independent evacuation. In
the recent researches, recognition for the sediment disaster of
the local resident to be low and tendencies are pointed out
that evacuation starts after the danger approached.
Diversification and complication of the disaster with the
climate change of recent years, construction of the resident
entity disasters software measure for synthetically disaster
prevention system is urgent.
This paper is the report of disaster education at Hiroshima city.
Hiroshima city experienced the damage of sediment disaster
on 1999 June 29th. The author made disaster education
textbook in this area and analyzed about it. As the result,
people can easy understand about local risk information. For
early evacuation, education is important issue. This textbook
will support tool in this area.
For early evacuation and safety life, people have to do
something for prevention. 1st step is getting some information
about hazard and vulnerability from governments. Second is
to understand that information. Third is to prepare action plan
by them, and the final is to do some action.
Risk information is of three types. One is for usual time
information, second is emergency time information, and third
is recovery information. But, Sediment disaster’s one
characteristic is different activity of each valley. People have
to get some information by themselves and decide some
action by themselves. To make decisive actions, people have
to learn some information and make action plan.
However, some people could not get some information in
usual time and if they catch some information, they did not
understand information means. As the result, people did not
evacuate in emergency time. It is a crucial problem about soft
type countermeasure of disaster prevention.
For the evacuation, people have to get right information and
understand it. This is only possible through appropriate
disaster education.

Keywords: Disaster education, Resident’s action, Hazard

map, education tool, Hiroshima-city

1. Introduction
Many sediment disasters happened in every year by Typhoon,
heavy rainfall and heavy rainfall caused by depression.
Sediment disaster’s characteristic is different activity of each
valley. Therefore, it is not possibly perfect defense by
government prevention. For that, the people have to prepare
by themselves; check risk area, get some information,
understand environment condition, etc. People were informed
about government activities and residents action after the Fig. 1 Disaster cycle and prevention action of Rainfall
Nagasaki Disaster in 1982. The government made hazard map Disaster
to help understand disaster information. After Hiroshima
Disaster (1999) and Tokai heavy rainfall disaster (2000), 3. Outline about Hiroshima city
government is looking for intense resident activities to protect Hiroshima city is large city, but like other coastal cities in
loss of lives. For those reasons, people have to understand Japan, the city also lacks enough flat area. From 1970s, there
disaster and how to prevent that. has been a steady population growth till mid 1990s, and
people from different places gathered in the city. As the
2. Soft measures of disaster prevention result, the city was spread over to mountain area. Therefore,
Disaster prevention’s key stakeholder is residents and Hiroshima city has the highest sediment disaster risk area in
government. Main countermeasure is hard type by Japan. Old resident’s knew which part and when the disaster
engineering activities and soft type by evacuation and may happen through the experiences and legacy. But, new
education. Soft type countermeasure is important for residents. residents did not know that information. In the new resident’s
area, people’s average living years is 15 years. Old resident’s
people’s average is 60 years (Takeuchi, 2004). The other issue
is the geology of the areas, which is full of granite, vulnerable
to erosion and one of the main causes for the sediment
disaster.

On 29th June 1999, heavy rain fall (over 150mm/3 hours)

happened in Hiroshima city due to depression. Before this
rain fall, similar heavy rain fall occurred in the same region
two times (23-24th June and 26-27th June). Several debris
flows occurred in the region due to heavy rainfall. This
disaster damage was as follow: debris flow occurred in 139
sites, collapse was 186, death toll was 31 persons, the missing
people was 1 person and house damage was 154 (Fujiwara,
2000). After the disaster, Hiroshima prefecture and Fig. 3 Hazard map by Hiroshima city (2000)
Hiroshima city performed many various soft and hard
countermeasures. 4. Disaster education of Hiroshima city
For early and safety evacuation, people have to get some risk
information and understand those information. Therefore
people need some support tool and system. The author made
disaster education textbook and analyzed those effects in
Hiroshima city.

4.1 Textbook development

Target area is Aratani Mountain (631.3m) at Asa-minami
word on Hiroshima city. There are three specific aims of the
textbook: One is to understand about near environment forces
to characteristic of Granite Mountain. Second is to focus on
how the debris flow happened. The third is how to prepare for
Fig. 2 Study area the disaster.

The author selected one climbing road at Mt. Aratani.

Climbing road is easy access part for resident’s people, and
made research at Mt. Aratani at August and October 2002.
Figure 4 and 5 were prepared through the research. We can
see one pond and two check dams near climbing road
entrance. Climbed 500m, we can check weathering Granit and
bed rock. Some bolder size (3-4m/φ) rocks appear around
300m above sea level. We can see old land slide at same area.
Fudou-temple is position at 364.1m above sea level. This
point is critical point to steep slope and appear Tor type rock
(7-8m/φ). Peak of south part to Top area is gentle slope.

The textbook is the result of these investigations (Figure 4).

(Photo by Kotake) This textbook’s table of contents is as follow:
Photo 1 Mt. Aratani and Study area’s situation - About debris flow
- Debris flow is where happen
- Characteristic of Granite as the bed-rock
- Characteristic of geomorphology at Hiroshima
- Watch map
- Observation of Granit mountain
- Countermeasures of disaster

(Photo by Ootani)
Photo 2 Situation of sediment disaster at Hiroshima, 1999
 suggested that they want use some animation and figure than
character. Fig 8 is request for textbook. In the future, we can
make the education textbook which are easy to be understood
more by adopting the thing which is easy to be understood
visually.

Fig.4 Textbook and its outline

Fig. 6 Attribute of questionnaire result

Fig. 7 Opinion of textbook

Fig. 5 Characteristics of climbing road at Mt. Aratani

4.2 Outline of disaster education to residents

This disaster education take part in 30th August 2003 includes
disaster training by local disaster organization (Jishu Bousai
kai). The author explained debris flow used by the textbook.
Participants known that characteristic of Granite Mountain
and new residential area are high vulnerable area of debris
flow. Hiroshima city published landslide hazard map at 2000.
Participants checked them house on the hazard map.

Disaster training’s participants was about 700 people. Disaster

education’s participants were 200 people. After the education,
the author undertook a questionnaire to participant. Answer
was 103 people.
4.3 Questionnaire result
Questionnaire’s total sample is 103 (Male 94%, Female 6%).
Majority of age is 30-39 years old and 60-69 years old (each
27%). 42% people are live in this area under five years and
63% people are live in this area under ten years. Figure 6
shows the attribute of the questionnaire results, and Figure 7
is opinion and contents about disaster education.
As the result of questionnaire, people accepted this textbook
and understand those needs and information. Some people
1: Many writing type
2: Use some numerical formula type
3: Use many picture and figure type
4: Use detail simulation type
Fig. 8 Request for textbook
5. Proposal of Disaster Education at local community
As the result of this action research, the author proposed flow
of disaster education for local community.
1. Local government and local people have to grasp the
local issue, local disaster characteristic and local activity.
Local means is like elementary school area.
2. Local government and local people have to divide those
issues to government, local and personal.
3. Local disaster education’s target is mulch stakeholder
(local people, local disaster organization, NPO/NGO,
local government and university etc). Disaster
education‘s contents caver disaster mechanism,
countermeasure, role of preparedness and understanding
about risk information etc.
4. Important things is local disaster education include some
local event. Continue is important and multi stakeholder.
Disaster education has to make a balance of “grown local
leader” and “understanding risk information”. Target of
“grown local leader” is local leader and person having interest
about disaster prevention and mitigation. Those education’s
contents is support to grown decision thinking at emergency
situation. Target of “understanding risk information” is person
who stays in the home for a long time and person who care
handicap people. As the result of questionnaire, best target
person is male of 50-70 years old and female of 30-60 years
old.
6. Conclusions
Divers flow disaster happen the meeting point soil sediment
area and human society. Many hard type countermeasures
were made by government. But, sediment disaster’s activity is
different each valley. Resident’s people have to prepare by
themselves. Disaster education is important process to
understand some risk information and support early
evacuation. For good disaster education, we have to make
some easy understand tool and local reader who understand
disaster.
Acknowledgments
This paper is part of doctorate thesis of the author. Thanks to
Prof. Hiroshi Kadomura, Prof. Toshikazu Tamura of Rishho
University, Prof. Kenzou Fujiwara of Hiroshima University
of Economic, Mr. Hrutoshi Nishi of Hiroshima city, Mr.
Terumi Harada of Asaminami word and Prof. Rajib Shaw of
Kyoto University.
References
Yukiko Takeuchi, 2004, Hazard map: Respondents’
perception and requests in the case of Hiroshima, Japan,
JSNDS 23-3, 349-361.
Kenzou Fujiwara, 2000, Analysis of sediment disaster at
Hiroshima city on June 1999, Hiroshima University of
economics, Vol.22, No.4, 3-37.
Effective forest management to reduce landslide risk in
Reihoku Area in Shikoku: A social perspective
Kumiko Fujita (Kyoto University, Japan) ・ Yukiko Takeuchi (Kyoto University, Japan)・ Rajib Show (Kyoto
University, Japan)
Abstract. Japan has been suffered from various natural
disasters such as floods, landslides, typhoons, volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes. We have developed structural
and non-structural measures to prevent and mitigate each
disaster. Recently, global warming and abnormal weather
affect the scale and type of disasters. Because the climate
change has been a hot issue, the Meteorological Agency
analyzed climate data from 1900 and issued as climate risk
map. It says, the number of precipitation more than
100mm/hour is increasing, but average annual precipitation is
decreasing [1]. As another trend, average annual standard
deviation tends to be wide. It means, if it rains, the
precipitation is very high in high precipitation years, on the
contrary, the shortage of water may cause drought in the low
precipitation year [2]. Therefore, occurrence of localized
torrential rain is increasing, and the local areas will suffer
enormous damage. Therefore, big scale local floods and
droughts will be occurred. In addition to the climate change,
social and natural changes cause different types and scales of
damage. Aging issue is one of them. Estimated population
of more than 65-year-old in Japan is 24,310,000 and the ratio
in total population is 19.0 % on Sep. 15, 2003. It is about
one fifth of total population [3]. It is estimated that the ratio
of more than 65-year-old is increasing continuously and reach
to 26.0 % (32,770,000) in total population in 2015, it is about
one fourth of the total population. Especially, the ratio of
old people in mountainous areas is higher than that of old
people in cities. Since old people are vulnerable to disasters,
the number of old victims are increasing. Deforestation and
depopulation are also issues to expand the damages of
mountain disasters. Forestry plays an important part to let
the various forest function work effectively, however, the
environment of forestry is not preferable recently. The
forest production activity is declining because of the
decreasing number of forest workers and aging. Therefore,
now the forest management is important in points of
mitigating mountain disasters to live safely, networking to
help old people living well, and producing goods using forest
resources to gain income. Comprehensive analysis is
needed for sustainable forest management. It is also
important to study policies of related governments and
opinions of the local people. The research field is Reihoku
area in Kochi prefecture, because the area has large forest and
high rate of old population. This research focuses on the
networking mainly among ministries, local governments,
NPOs and local residents.
Keywords. Climate change, mountain disasters, forest
management, networking
1. Background of Reihoku area
Reihoku area is located in the north of Kochi and in the
center of Shikoku island as Fig. 1 shows. It is in upper
Yoshino river basin. The area is about 757 km2 and shares
10.6% of total area of Kochi. There are three towns (Otoyo,
Motoyama, Tosa) and one village (Okawa).
Reihoku
Kochi
Fig. 1 Location of Kochi prefecture and Reihoku area
It is mountainous with steep mountains of 200 to 1,700 m
high in the north. The forest rate of Kochi is 84 %, which is
the highest forest rate in Japan. It is much higher than the
total forest rate of Japan, which is 67 % [4], and the forest
rate of Reihoku is still higher. Forest shares 87.9% of
Reihoku, agricultural land shares 1.7% and residential area
shares only 0.5%, therefore it is a typical mountain village
[5].
The total population has been decreasing from 34,801 in
1965 to 15,270 in 2000 and the ratio of more than 65-year-old
has been increasing from 11.6% in 1965 to 38.7% in 2000.
It is estimated that the population decreases to 12,623 and the
ratio of more than 65-year-old increases to 44.7% in 2015.
As the demographic change in Fig.2 shows, almost half of the
total population will be more than 65-year-old in 2015 as the
dotted line shows.
2. Changing Forest Environment and Impact on
Mountain Disasters
The changing human environment, such as aging and
decreasing population has been creating a vicious circle in
Reihoku area, as Fig. 3 shows. In addition to the aging and
decreasing population, importing cheap lumber has
accelerated weakening the forest industry. Import
liberalization of lumber had been promoted gradually since
about 1955 and completed in 1964. As a result, the import
volume of lumber had increased sharply from about 1955 to
1975.
 Though the key industry in Reihoku area, which forest
ratio is 87.9%, is agriculture and forestry, the number of
workers in primary sector of industry decreased from 8,308 to
1,913, and the ratio in total population decreased by half for
30 years from 1970 to 2000. (Table.1) Because of the
declining agriculture and forest industry, people have no other
choice but to find other jobs in the area or to move out of the
area to find jobs. This causes the forest untreated and forest
road unused. Therefore the owners and foresters have more
1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015 difficulties to enter untreated forest for thinning, cutting and
carrying lumber.

Table.1 Changing number of workers in Primary Sector

Fig. 2 Demographic change in Reihoku area of Industry
http://www.reihoku-k.jp/gaiyou/huruken1-2.pdf workers ratio
1970 8,308 51%
1980 4,224 33%
1990 2,567 26%
2000 1,913 24%

http://www.reihoku-k.jp/gaiyou/huruken1-2.pdf

This human environment affects forest environment. A

vicious circle has also been created in forest environment.
Since the forest is not treated and managed, the forest
Human function, such as preventing mountain disasters, recharging
water source, mitigating disasters caused by weather
Environment
phenomena and securing the biodiversity, is declining. Then
the number of mountain disaster increases and the scale
becomes bigger than before.
In addition to this forest environment and recent climate
change, the scale and frequency of mountain disasters change
and it becomes more difficult to predict the scale and the
frequency.

3. Improving Network and Sharing Information

Changing human environment is needed to improve this
situation. Improving existing network and making new
Impact on forest network is one of the effective ways for improving the human
Environment environment. In addition, change in the thinking way by
involved people is also needed. Legal action is one of
factors to affect networking and improving awareness.
The Devolution of Power Law enacted in 2000 made it
possible to create special taxes for specific purposes for local
prefectures. As a result, prefectures are able to put the levy
into practice as a tax which a local government may
implement for a particular purpose [6]. Because of the
revision of Local Tax Law, prefectures could have more
authority to take measures to meet each local situation. The
Forest forest environment tax is one of them. Kochi is the first
Environment prefecture which introduced forest environment tax. The
purpose is forest conservation by the participation of the
prefectural inhabitants [7]. The tax revenue is used for
preventing the depression of forest function which are
preventing mountain disasters including water source
recharge, mitigating disasters caused by weather phenomena
and securing the biodiversity under the permission of local
residents since they receive the forest benefit [8]. The tax is
spent for forest maintenance project such as thinning and for
Fig. 3 Changing Human Environment and Its Impact on public relations activities [8]. 500 yen has been charged on
Forest Environment each individual and corporation every year from 2003, and
after five years, the taxation term is evaluated [9]. The
prefecture did not choose the special taxes for specific
purposes but earmarked tax with the overassessment tax
system to impose 500 yen on prefectural taxes of individual
and cooperate, and the purpose of the uses are cleared by fund
reserving [8]. 500 yen has been charged on each individual
and corporation every year from 2003, and after five years,
the taxation term is evaluated [9]. The first phase is five
years started in 2003 fiscal year. The annual revenue from
the tax was 140,000,000 yen in 2004 fiscal year. There are
two projects to use this tax. One of them is “the project for
promoting forest management by the people’s participation”
and the other is “the project for forest environment urgent
conservation”. The former mentioned project aims to
educate the local residents how the forest is important, to
enlighten forest owners, and to manage model forests. The
later mentioned project aims to make mixed forest by
thinning [10].
As another project promoted by Kochi prefecture is
“Collaborative Forest Restoration with Environmentally
Progressive Companies”. Kyoto Protocol went into force on
February 16, 2005, and Japan held up a promise to reduce 6%
of greenhouse gas between 2008 and 2012 based on the
amount of greenhouse gas in 1990 as 100%. Japan focuses
attention on the forest as the source of absorbing CO2. As a
result, establishing emissions trading system has been
discussed in Japan. Since Kochi prefecture expects Japan
establishes emissions trading system, “Collaborative Forest
Restoration with Environmentally Progressive Companies”
was started from 2005 fiscal year to promote forest
restoration and interchange among Kochi prefecture, cities,
towns, villages, forestry cooperatives and companies [11].
The Forest Environment Law promotes to educate the local
residents how the forest is important, to enlighten forest
owners, and to manage model forests. This is effective to
networking among Kochi prefecture and local residents.
“Collaborative Forest Restoration with Environmentally
Progressive Companies” is effective to networking among
Kochi prefecture, cities, towns, villages, forestry cooperatives
and companies.
Thus the local residents and companies are encouraged to
be involved in the projects for forest management. As a
result, networking among Kochi prefecture, local residents
and companies becomes stronger. Therefore, the role of
towns and a village in Reihoku area becomes more important
to make actual plans of forest management and forest disaster
prevention. These kinds of information are also necessary to
be shared by every person related to this area as the basic
information to know and to understand more about their
forest situation. Sharing information contribute to the
stronger networking and improvement of individual
awareness.
In this research, existing way of forest planning especially
for mountain disaster prevention is investigated to know how
the local disaster history is collected, used and shared for
forest management planning.
3. Recording and Sharing Information of Mountain
Disasters
When a disaster occur, information is gathered to the town
and village offices and the offices decide how to deal with the
disaster and tell related organization and make reports to
Kochi prefecture as Fig. 4 shows.
Input of information
Kochi
Residents
Prefecture
Town /
Village
Office
Output of information
Kochi
Prefecture
Town /
Fire
Residents Village
Company
Office
Other related
offices, and
oraganizations
Fig. 4 Flow of mountain disaster information
Since the actual plan for mountain disaster prevention is
made by each town and village, hearing was implemented to
the people in charge of planning mountain disasters in three
town offices and a village office. The result was similar.
Each mountain disaster is recorded in detail on papers, and
the paper-based records are copied and sent to the related
organizations and Kochi prefectural office.
Two points for recording information have possibilities to
be improved, one is digitizing and the other is standardizing:
1. Though each office recognizes the necessity of digitizing
and analyzing past data, no office digitized the records in
each office. The reports of mountain disasters from these
offices are not digitized and standardized in the prefectural
office also. The copy is sent to the related ministries, and it
is digitized there. Though the reports are digitized, officers
in town offices, village office and Kochi prefectural office did
not recognized.
2. The reports are categorized in two based on the types of
disasters, and sent to different organizations. For example,
mountain fire is reported to the organizations and departments
which are related to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries. Landslides, debris flow, slope failure and collapse
were reported to the organizations and departments which are
related to the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport.
As a result, there is no system to share all mountain disaster 方. 2002, 高知県総務部 森林局. p. 1.
information among the ministries and departments of Kochi 8. 玉置富一、鈴木雄士、酒川高志、大町征史、上村貴
prefecture. 成、岡本信一、堀松優、佐伯純、遠山由起, 環境税導
入の評価 - 持続的なCO2排出削減を目指して - in
Conclusions
ISFJ政策フォーラム2005. 2005. p.22.
Digitizing and standardizing the record of mountain
disasters is effective for analyzing the situation 9. 森林環境保全のための新税制（森林環境税）の考え
comprehensively and the information is fundamental to make 方. 2002, 高知県総務部 森林局. p. 1-2.
better plan for forest management. Sectionalism among 10. 森林環境保全のための新税制（森林環境税）の考え
ministries and the government-initiated system used to be 方. 2002, 高知県総務部 森林局. p. 2.
more effective for forest and disaster prevention planning, but 11. [cited 2007 Dec. 7]; Available
the changing social background promotes the decentralization from: http://www.pref.kochi.jp/^junkan/kyoudouno_mori/
of power. Therefore local governments and residents need haikei/kyoudounomori_hello.html.
to recognize the recent environment more and to be involved
to make forest management plan. In addition, because of the
aging and decreasing population in Reihoku area, it is
impossible to continue the same system for disaster
prevention and rehabilitation as before. For example, since
members of fire companies, who actually mitigate and
rehabilitate disasters, are also aging and the number of
member is decreasing. The digitizing and standardizing the
record of mountain disasters is also helpful for limited
number of human resource to recognize and make forest plan
effectively. Since major disasters were recorded, digitized
and standardized in Ministries, local offices are able to refer
the way of data management for minor disasters. Because
the information is supposed to be shared and referred by all
related individuals and organizations, basic data should be
simplified with same format. More survey and hearing are
needed for the digitization and standardization of existing
data and data collected in the future.

Acknowledgments
The hearing was implemented with the cooperation of
Reihoku NPO. The increasing number of NPOs and their
activities are also noteworthy, since NPOs support local
activities. Local residents and governments rely on their
support more than before. Therefore they also need to know
the same information. Sharing information makes the
network stronger and more effective.

References:
1. 異常気象リスクマップ 3. 51地点における観測実況
値 3-1 日降水量100mm以上の日数の変化 [cited;
Available from:
http://www.data.kishou.go.jp/climate/riskmap/index.html.
2. 異常気象リスクマップ. 3. 51地点における観測実況
値 3-2 年降水量の変動幅の変化 [cited; Available
from:
http://www.data.kishou.go.jp/climate/riskmap/index.html.
3. [cited 2007, Dec. 17 ]; Available from:
http://www.stat.go.jp/data/topics/topics051.htm.
4. [cited 2007 Dec. 7]; Available from:
http://www.pref.kochi.jp/^seisaku/kinobun2/hp_1/sinrink
ankyouzei.htm.
5. 第２次嶺北広域ふるさと市町村圏計画（平成１７～
２１年度）第１部 総論 第２章 圏域の概況.
6. 秋山孝臣, 森林環境税とその森林環境および林業に
おける意義. 農林金融2005.2, 2005(農林中金総合研究
所): p. 40-108.
7. 森林環境保全のための新税制（森林環境税）の考え
Strategy for Promoting Education for Natural Disaster
Reduction in Indonesia and ASEAN Region
Dwikorita Karnawati and Subagyo Pramumijoyo (Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia)
Abstract. Because of the dynamic geological conditions of
Indonesia and South East Asia Region, many countries in
such region are vulnerable for geological disasters, such as
earthquake, tsunami, volcanic eruption, landslide and floods.
This paper describes strategy to develop appropriate
education program for geological disaster risk reduction in
this region. Formal education program, especially at the
universities and schools, should be enhanced to provide
qualified human resources which capable to improve the
resilience of the society in response to any potential
geological disaster. Program for public education should also
be developed in such effective mechanism by in formal
approach. The real challenge of this education strategy is to
build up the culture for disaster awareness and prevention, by
empowering the society to adapt with the dynamic geological
conditions.
Keywords. Geological disaster, education strategy, society
resilience, culture for disaster awareness and prevention,
adaptive approach.
1. Background of the problems
Because of the active tectonic setting of the region, the
risks of geological disasters inevitably increase in Indonesian
Archipelagoes and other ASEAN countries. Hundred
thousands of people died as the victim of tsunami on the 26th
December 2004. Several more thousands of people were also
died due to the earthquakes in Yogyakarta, Indonesian (2006)
and in China (2008). Indeed, numbers of people buried by
landslides and debris flow continuously increases every year.
Total socio-economical loss as the results of all those
geological disasters has reached billion of US dollars.
Impacts of natural disasters can be prevented or
minimized if it can be properly mitigated and managed
(Abbot, 2004). It was highlighted in the Hyugo Framework
declared in 2005 that development of the nation and society
resilience in response to the disaster is MUST. Thus, the right
of human being to live safely in their environment should be
guaranteed, despite all of the complexity of geological
phenomena at the region.
However, it is also impossible to change the nature of
geological phenomena in Indonesia and ASEAN, which
actively and continuously result in geological disasters.
Therefore, there should be some efforts with appropriate
strategy to increase the community resilience in the
vulnerable areas. Empowering the community living in the
vulnerable area to adapt with the nature of geology will be
rather more feasible, instead of challenging the geological
nature. Indeed, adaptive approach will be the main
consideration, and thus public education on geohazard will be
urgently required to empower human resources living in
geological disaster vulnerable area (Karnawati and
Pramumijoyo, 2005a).
2. Goal of geological education.
Regarding the stated problems above, it becomes an
urgent need to develop appropriate geological education with
the goal for improving the society resilience in geological
disaster prone area, through formal and in formal programs.
By conducting such education programs it is expected that the
social and economical risks due to geological disaster can be
significantly reduced.
3. Design of education program.
Formal Education
At university
Knowledge to anticipate geological disasters, which is
required to be delivered in a special subject so called as
Geohazard Management, has been introduced for
undergraduate program in some universities in ASEAN
countries, such as in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippine, and
Thailand. However, such knowledge has not yet provided in a
special subject (Karnawati and Pramumijoyo, 2004). It is only
integrated as the topics to be discussed in the subjects of
Environmental Geology (under the topic of geohazard
management), Soil Mechanic and Geotechnics, (under the
topic of slope stability related to landslide prediction and
control), Hydrology and/ or Geohydrology (under the topic of
groundwater problems), Volcanology (under the topic of
mitigation for volcanic eruption) and or Seismology (under
the topic of earthquake mitigation). Those topics mainly
discuss several issues on factors controlling the hazard
occurrence (hazard = potential occurrence of geological
disaster), the mechanisms and processes leading to the hazard
occurrence, how to predict, mitigate and control such hazard.
Unfortunately, quite limited practical exercises and field
works can be provided for the students due to the limited
concerns on the importance of geohazard education. Similar
to the undergraduate education, in the postgraduate program
(master program) quite few universities in Indonesia and in
some other ASEAN countries provided special courses on
Geohazard Management. Moreover, most of the existing
geohazard education more emphasizes on the knowledge
enhancement, but less effort to provide effective learning
method which include appropriate field and laboratory works.
Despite some limitations in conducting geohazard
education at the university level, students at the university are
considered as the strategic target for human resource
empowerment and community resilience in geological
disaster prone area. Indeed, the students will become the
potential future researcher to develop appropriate technology
for disaster prevention and control, as well as the as potential
analysts and policy makers to anticipate and to manage
geological disaster in their regions. Thus, they should be
considered as the seeds for future agents to further develop
the national culture for disaster awareness and prevention.
Clearly, mechanism and method of geohazard education in
1
the universities need to be further enhanced through several
stages as follows:
• Enhancement the syllabus (content) and learning
method on geohazard subject, which provide more
opportunity for the student to study the real field and
society problems related to geological disasters.
• Provide more research opportunities to stimulate the
development of appropriate technology for disaster
prevention.
• Establish the national and regional education network
on geohazard education.
Indeed, the interactive learning method through student
working groups by providing case studies needs to be done in
order to improve not only the student’s knowledge and
practical skill but also to develop their attitude and spirit for
disaster awareness. Indeed, introduction of real case problem
and field work, working group discussion and seminars can
be an excellent media for the students to learn to apply their
knowledge as well as to creatively improve their analytical
skills, and to provide sound decisions to solve complex
problems related to geological disaster
Supports from government agency and some other
relevant research institutes are also required as the internship
program to provide facilities and opportunities for students to
explore more knowledge and experiences from the real
problems in the field and communities. Interdisciplinary
approach also needs to be elaborated by inviting relevant
experts from other disciplines as the external resource person,
due to the complexity of geohazard management problems.
Obviously, establishment of networks for geohazard
educations at national and ASEAN levels are crucial to
facilitate the effective learning and research program on
geohazard education. Since the year of 2003, ASEAN
University Network/ the South East ASEAN Engineering
Education Network (AUN/SEED-Net) has also established
the Field of Geological Engineering Networks consisting
several universities from Member Institution Countries such
as from Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Philippine, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam as well as from
Japan. In this network, education and research on geohazard
has been carried out. Due to the leading experience to deal
with geohazard problems, Gadjah Mada Universities in
Indonesia has been assigned as the Host Institution for the
network where students from other countries in the network
are now conducting the learning and research on geohazard to
obtain Master and Ph.D. Degrees (Karnawati et all, 2005b).
Academic and research support from Kyushu Unversity,
Kyoto University, Tokyo Institute of Technology and
Hokkaido University are available to warrantee the quality
and effectiveness of such research and education programs.
Eventhough, since the year 2008, Integrated Fields of
Disaster Mitigation has been established by this ASEAN
University Network to accommodate the needs to improve
research based education for disaster risk reduction.
As a part of this program school on the move and long
distance learning program now are proposed to further
develop the existing research and education programs,
especially for postgraduate programs through the ASEAN
network. Through this program, students can have
opportunity to move from one research institutes to the others,
either conducting in their own-country or outside of their
countries for having research training in geohazard education.
More opportunities for the students to be exposed to the real
geohazard problem within the ASEAN regions can also be
provided. The student will have quite various experiences on
geohazard management before completing their Master
degree. Their communication skill and capability to adapt
with the new environment also can be improved by having
school on the move program.
Nevertheless, financial consideration remains to be the
obstacle of this program. Therefore, the cost sharing within
the ASEAN countries are required.
At school
Basic and simple knowledge on geology to understand
some Geohazards such as flood, landslide, and soil erosion
have been introduced as a part of Geography Subject at
schools since the primary school in Indonesia (Karnawati and
Pramumijoyo, 2004), Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia
and Thailand. Meanwhile the knowledge about volcanoes and
earthquakes also introduced at schools in Indonesia and
Philippine. However, it is apparent that such education has
not yet successfully improving student’s skill and attitude for
geohazard awareness and preparedness. This existing
education program mainly emphasize for the development of
knowledge aspects related to the definition and the cause of
flood, landslides, soil erosion, earthquake and volcanic
eruption. The contents and syllabus as well as the method of
delivery and learning process of geohazard at schools need to
be further evaluated and enhanced.
Fruthermore, Karnawati and Pramumijoyo (2004)
suggested that practical knowledge about geohazard
mitigation and preparedness should be provided in a simple
but attractive method of teaching and learning. The most
important aspects need to be learned by the pupils at school
include several important points as below:
• Mechanism of occurrence of any geological process
that result in geohazard,
• Symptoms of such geohazards,
• Practical knowledge on hazard mitigation,
preparedness and emergency responses.
It was also suggested in the National Workshop on
Geohazard Education held in Indonesia last August 2005 that
the new curricula is not necessary to be developed to provide
special subject on geohazard awareness and preparedness at
school (Gadjah Mada University, 2005). It was suggested that
the knowledge of geohazard can be integrated in the syllabus
of the existing subjects such as in the subjects of Geography,
Natural Sciences, Language or Religion. Practical exercise for
emergency responses is also important to be included in the
existing subject of Physical Exercise. Visit to the field and
institutions dealing with geohazard management will also be
useful to provide students with more visual examples on the
real problems of geohazard. In fact, some schools in
Indonesia also highlight their needs for obtaining special
module on Geohazard Awareness and Preparedness which
will be delivered in the extra-curricula activities.
Moreover, some revisions on the content of Geography
books are suggested as well by Karnawati and Pramumijoyo
(2004), because some un-appropriate explanations of some
geological terms and processes related to geohazard. It was
found some misleading information about lava and lahar.
Correction on the definition of lava and lahar is crucial
regarding that some volcanoes in Indonesia are actively
2
produced lava and lahar with different potential impacts. In
response to this situation, training for teachers on Geography
and Geosciences has been conducted regularly every year
during the last five years to improve the teachers’ knowledge
and skills, as well as to provide the field experience.
on geohazard as well as the development of appropriate
master plan and regulation will effectively drive the changing
behavior and the development of adaptive culture in
geohazard prone countries.

Informal education
Approach and mechanism
Lack of information about the phenomena and symptoms
of geohazard are one of most critical problem, which leads to
low community awareness and finally results in the high
numbers of geohazard victims. Despite there have been quite
many research outcomes related to geohazard predictions and
mitigation, most of the research outcomes and information
have not yet reached to the community living in the
geohazard prone area. Thus, communication and
dissemination of the outcomes of geohazard research should
Figure 2. Mechanism of geohazard education by improving
be effectively carried out as a part of the informal education
communication effectivity (Karnawati, et al. 2005a)
program. As illustrated in Figure 1, effective link between
source and receiver of information are crucial to support the
Method of knowledge dissemination
effective mechanism of geohazard education program.
More active involvement of Geologist in disseminating
Research institutes, government agency as well as the
their research outcomes, especially those related to geohazard
universities are the prominent source of information related to
management is also crucial to raise public awareness. The
geohazard. Meanwhile, the Universities, NGO and some
disseminated materials should include information about
identified key person are very potential to be a media for
mechanism of the geological process leading to geohazard,
transferring and disseminating the information of geohazard
the symptoms of geohazards, and also practical knowledge on
to the schools, communities, and families. Indeed, the
hazard preparedness and emergency responses.
universities also have an important role to enhance the
This dissemination should reach the children and the
understanding on geohazard phenomena to support public
youth at schools, through various mass media, such as
awareness and preparedness.
leaflets, booklets, popular books (comics, poems, etc), TV,
However, the key persons from the religion, ethnic and
radio, internet (website),or through the several activities such
community groups who have the traditional knowledge or
as Boy and Girl Scout and via direct communication with
wisdom are also important to raise the sensitivity of the
children at schools. Regarding that the cycle of geohazard
community to recognize symptoms of geohazards. Thus,
occurrence can be quite short time (only within few years)
integration of knowledge based on modern science delivered
and also can be long term cycle (for hundred years),
from the university and the traditional wisdom exist in the
development of museum or exhibition of any geohazard that
local community is required.
has been occurred or potentially occur will also be important
to transfer and sustain the message of geohazard awareness.
Understanding enhancement Recently, Indonesian Ministry of National Education has
S ource of established the Earth Science Olympiad for High Schools as
information Recei ver of information
the national agenda that should be conducted annually, with
Research Universities NGO
Institutes & school family respect to the International Earth Science Olympiade for the
NGO
Government high school students established since the year of 2007.
Universities Key persons NGO
community
Obviously, this Earth Science Olympiad is considered as one
(religion, ethnics, strategic mechanism to initiate the improvement of geohazard
community groups) Willingness
education program at schools, which finally can also
Sensitivity and
enhancement Culture stimulate the school and student awareness for disaster risk
to local wisdom reduction.
Figure 1. Mechanism on geohazard public education with the
Conclusions
emphasize on the effectiveness of communication (Karnawati,
Appropriate public education for Geohazard awareness
et al. 2005a).
and preparedness is the urgent need to empower the
community living in geohazard vulnerable areas, and to
Transfer of information by the Government, research
reduce the numbers of victims and loss. Adaptive approach,
institutes and universities to the planner and policy maker
instead of challenging approach, is considered to be most
should also be effective to support the development of
appropriate strategy for such education. University has
appropriate regional master plan and regulation in geohazard
important roles as the resources or provider and also as the
prone areas. Such master plan and regulation should become
media for transferring geohazard information to communities.
the guideline to drive the efforts to build up the attitude and
This education program should be designed to reform the
culture of the communities, families and individuals to adapt
communities’ behavior and to build up the culture for
with their nature which is prone to geohazard (Figure 2). It is
geohazard awareness and preparedness.
expected that the improvement of community understanding

3
Acknowledgments
The efforts to elaborate the development of strategy for
geohazard education can be undertaken due to the supports
from ASEAN University Network/ South East Asean
Engineering Education Development Program (AUN/SEED
NET) during the period of 2003 - 2012, as well as from the
Indonesian National Ministry of Education and Gadjah Mada
University.

References
Abbot, Patrick L. (2004). Natural Disaster, Fourth Edition.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 460p.
Gadjah Mada University. (2005). Strategy Formulation for
Natural Disaster Anticipation and Education. National
Workshop, Yogyakarta, August 29-31, 2005.
Karnawati, D. and S. Pramumijoyo (2004). Earth Science
Curricula in Primary School Education System in
Indonesia. Proceeding of the Seoul Conference for Int.
Earth Science Olympiad (IESO) Conference Proceedings,
page 143-146.
Karnawati, D. and S. Pramumijoyo (2005a). Public
Education on Geoscience for sustainability of life in
geohazard vulnerable area Indonesia. Proceeding of the
AGSO 2nd Annual Meeting. Singapore, June 20-24, 2005.
Karnawati, D. K. Aoki, N. Vameurn, V. Long, Su Su Ky, K.B.
Suryolelono, S. Pramumijoyo and H. Hendrayana.
(2005b). Towards development of sustainable slope
protection in tropical soils; Stratigraphy and slope
hydrological analyses on rain-induced landslide in
Kalibawang Irrigation Channel, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Proceeding of Fieldwise Seminar on the Field of
Geological Engineering – AUN/ SEED NET JICA.

4
A Methodology for Community Based Disaster Risk
Management
Surya Parkash (National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi – 110 002, suryanidm@gmail.com)
Abstract. One of the lessons drawn from past disasters is that
active involvement of the local people in the affected areas
during disasters has been lacking and formed the weakest link
in all risk management strategies. Despite the advances in
science & technologies for disaster prevention, mitigation and
management, the actual levels of successfully dealing with
any disaster have been found to be low. This realization led
the author to think for a workable methodology for
community based disaster risk management which may be
applied effectively by the rural communities in a part of
Rudraprayag District, Uttarakhand State, India. The paper
aims to discuss the methodology, its potential application in
similar situations and the limitations therein.
The methodology has basically six distinct activities proposed
in two phases: Hazard, Vulnerability, and Capacity
Assessment in the first phase and Hazard Prevention /
Mitigation, Vulnerability Reduction and Capacity Building
are the subsequent activities for the second phase. The first
phase requires informing people through awareness and
sensitization campaigns about the impending risks due to
disasters so that their self interests are aroused in this activity.
Subsequently, inspire them to act against these risks and
ensure them outside support to gain necessary knowledge,
technologies, resources, and skills for managing these risks.
Thereafter, the methodology explains how communities in
rural areas can assess, plan and manage disaster risks by
active participation / partnership of the public with support
from professionals, administrators and other stakeholders.
Finally, a proactive continuum plan with necessary
socio-economic, scientific and technical considerations as
well as implementation, monitoring and review strategies for
effective disaster risk management is available for deriving
self initiatives and actions on the part of local communities to
eliminate / reduce losses or threats from potential disasters.
Keywords: Hazard, Vulnerability, Capacity, Risk,
Community, Management
1. Introduction
No part of the earth is free from natural hazards that
adversely affect the life, economy and environment. But these
hazardous events become catastrophic and termed as disasters
when they strike any built environment & affect population
that is not made safe to these hazards.
Despite all the scientific and technological innovations, it
has been difficult to reduce the impacts of these disasters.
Rather the frequency and intensity of disasters appears to
have increased due to rise in population density, occupation
of hazardous areas, unplanned developments, human
interventions and hostile actions, and neglect of unforeseen
hazards etc. Since most of these concerns are anthropocentric
and relate to development of a sustainable environment for its
survival, most hazards in remote and unpopulated areas are
not cared for and all efforts focus towards disaster
management of populated and built areas. India’s most
population lives in villages and hence, the present attempt is
primarily oriented towards a rural community to build
capacity and reduce disaster losses.
Disasters are linked not only to hazardous events but also
to the vulnerabilities of the exposed elements and capacities
within the society to cope with them. Thus, there are three
major operating factors that influence the degree of disaster in
any area i.e. hazard character (magnitude, frequency &
duration), vulnerability of different elements (resident /
mobile, degree of exposure, resistance to impacts and
proximity to hazardous sources) and the capacities
(techno-economic status & coping mechanisms). The paper
focuses on possible methods of hazard identification and
assessment by the community in its locality, by virtue of their
natural experiences with these disasters in the past and
present that affect their lives, livelihood, livestock, living
shelters and environment. A history of past disasters and their
impacts on community, its resources and environment are
recorded through a community meeting and spatial
assessment of all the hazards is depicted in a sketch called
community based multi-hazard sketch of the village. The
sketch shows not only the hazards but also the physiographic
details, natural & social resources, infrastructure and
community facilities. The second step in the approach relates
to collection of information and data on different elements
(physical, human, livestock, environment etc.) in a
presentable form, thus, providing an idea of degree of
vulnerabilities of different elements to all the hazards
collectively as well as individually. In the third step,
capacities within the community in terms of skills, resources,
knowledge & information to face or cope with the disaster are
evaluated. These three steps give a very good assessment of
the potential risks due to future disasters in any locality and a
plan is then prepared to prevent, mitigate or manage these
potential disasters so that losses are reduced to a minimum
possible.
The planning strategy again worked out on the basis of
the aforementioned three steps. The fourth step (first in the
planning strategy) makes an attempt towards hazard
management i.e. to explore if the hazard can be avoided,
prevented, mitigated, or monitored. The community looks for
various options that can be applied using the local skills,
resources, knowledge and techniques. The fifth step attempts
to strengthen the existing elements or reduce vulnerabilities
through the use of anti-disaster or disaster resistant
technologies. The last step envisages that despite all the
efforts, disaster may continue to inflict upon the society,
ensures that the community is aware and prepared to face the
residual risks in a planned way rather than being caught
suddenly in a rash manner.
2. Why Community Based Disaster Risk Management?
The need for a Community Based Disaster Risk
Management (CBDRM) has been felt in the study area due to
reasons given below.
Shortcomings in the present approach
a. Same plan regardless of the regional characteristics is
implemented / imposed everywhere.
b. Local / indigenous knowledge, experience, skills, resources
and techniques are not given due importance. Rather external
resources and techniques are proposed to be utilized.
c. Negligence about local cultural instincts and heritage.
d. Prioritization is decided by an outsider and not the
stakeholders or the community itself.
e. Local community does not have any information about the
disaster management plans for their area and the role of
different sectors in helping the community during disasters.
Advantages of CBDRM
a. Feelings of coordination and self belonging to the society
are developed.
b. Local geo-climatic and socio-cultural characteristics get
attention of the people in development and disaster
management.
c. Local initiatives begin and community provides assistance
to the executing agencies involved in disaster management.
d. There is exchange of knowledge, information, skills &
techniques between the community and the experts.
e. Community comes forward to put its ideas and suggestions
for selection of appropriate programs suitable to their locality
and society.
f. Community can keep a watch / monitor the quality of
works being done in its locality. It will also generate a sense
of responsibility among the community.
g. It leads to capacity building of the community on issues of
disaster safe developmental activities.
3. Development, Testing and Application of Methodology
Although several scientific and technological
methodologies are available for hazard identification,
assessment, monitoring and control; yet the community is
barely benefited by their application. Therefore, an attempt
has been made to use the community’s experiences,
information and knowledge in dealing with the issues of
disaster assessment and management while applying scientific
principles of disaster management along with it. Hence, a
suitable methodology for use by the community was
developed, tested and applied in an affected locality. Broadly,
six steps were identified – three of which involve assessment
of hazards, vulnerability and capacity within a community
and the other three steps deal with action planning for
modification or management of the first three issues. To make
it practical and easier for the community to adopt, a tool
called Participatory Learning and Action was applied during
development of the said methodology. The raw methodology
was taken to an interior village wherein the community was
apprised about its objectives and usage. The village
community took keen interest in the proposed activity and
carried out the whole task without much difficulties in less
than two days at a community gathering. The results of this
test were quite encouraging and hence, it was planned to
extend the methodology to the community in other villages
through a training of master facilitators from the members of
task forces for disaster management in these villages. The
format of the methodology was designed in a way so that it
can cover all the necessary steps for community based
disaster planning and management yet kept in an open style
so that the community should be able to add or alter any
information necessary to make it more effective and
applicable to any given locality. After drafting the plan, it was
proposed that it should be presented before the community in
a gathering of all the villagers and then tested and reviewed.
The work plan and schedules of these plans should be
available for public information. Further, the roles and
responsibilities of the community members involved in
planning, testing, review, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation were also well defined.
4. Procedure for using methodology for CBDRM
The procedure for community based disaster risk
assessment; planning and management has following steps.
At the onset of this process, some key actions are required
to be taken by the community to initiate the work in an
organized and systematic way. It involves formation of task
forces and supporting groups, their affiliation with village
development committee, community mobilization and
disaster assessment.
A dedicated village level disaster risk management
committee gathered necessary information about disasters and
their impacts in their locality and sensitized people through
awareness campaigns. They gained confidence among
community and involve the community in drafting CBDRM
plan, testing, review, monitoring, revision, implementation
and evaluation of such a plan. The work plan and schedule
involved the following actions.
Drafting the Plan: It involves following actions.
• Disaster Campaign and Community Mobilization
• Information about locality, community and the
environment
• Multi-Hazard Identification & Assessment
• Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment
• Risk Identification & Classification (Determine the levels
of risks and their prioritization)
• Existing Protection Systems (Identify what is already in
place – What are we already doing?)
• Where are gaps in our protection? - Identify what is not
being done
• What Action can be taken? – Brainstorming alternatives
Testing and Review: What is feasible? Evaluate Actions.
ƒ Who else is doing this? – Coordinate with others
ƒ How the implementation priorities will be set?
Implementation Strategy
During the process of plan preparation, community
determines the WHY, WHAT and WHERE of the plan; WHY
damages occur, WHAT is required to be done, and WHERE
to implement the measures to reduce losses. To ensure that
the plan will be implemented effectively, the additional
questions like WHO, WHEN and HOW are also answered.
Decisions are made regarding requirements for permits /
approvals, resources, sources of funding, time required and
need for expert advice.
Initial implementation strategy is re-evaluated in the light
of above-said factors for effective follow up of the plan.
5. Phase-wise Activities
As indicated earlier, the process for community based
disaster risk management has been described in two phases in
this methodology.
Phase 1: Hazard, Vulnerability & Capacity Assessment
It emphasized on collection, compilation and analysis of
information, data, and maps for the purpose of assessing the
hazards, vulnerabilities and capacities in a locality. Some of
these activities are briefly described here.
Disaster Campaign and Community Mobilization
In order to involve the whole community in the process of
disaster assessment and preparation of plan for disaster
management, the people are made aware about the impacts of
hazards and need for preparedness to reduce losses.
Community mobilization or motivation has been done
through street plays, skits, posters, meetings, interactions,
campaigns etc.
Information on Locality, Community & Environment
It includes information population density / distribution,
age distribution, mobility, vulnerable groups, and emergency
resources etc. Environmental information includes water
sources, climatic conditions, landforms, fauna and flora.
Community based Multi-hazard Assessment
Based on knowledge and experiences of local people, an
attempt is made to depict the village boundaries,
physiographic features, natural resources, social or individual
resources, community facilities, infrastructure and hazards of
all kinds. Such a sketch would be useful in displaying a very
good picture of the resources, hazards and the development in
the locality. Following steps are taken to achieve this goal.
List of Past, Existing and Potential Disasters
A list of the past, existing and potential disasters that have
affected or may affect the life, economy and environment in
the locality is prepared. The list would serve as a basis for
indicating the affected or susceptible elements and collection
of necessary information on these disasters and their impacts
on the community which will ultimately help in planning and
management.
Preparation of Multi-hazard Sketch of the Locality
Preparation of Community Based Multi Hazard Risk
Assessment Sketch requires
ƒ List of disasters (past, existing and potential)
ƒ Village territory / boundaries and physiography (drainages,
ridges, valleys, slopes, lake, ground cracks, landforms,
rivers etc.)
ƒ Natural Resources – Forests, Mines, Water sources such as
falls, springs, lakes, medicinal plants
ƒ Social / Individual Resources or properties – Human
population, live-stocks, Agricultural fields, Cowsheds,
Watermills, Open lands, Building sites, Houses, shops,
factories
ƒ Community Facilities – Panchayat Bhawan, Community
Centre, Temples, Schools, Society or government offices,
Police Station, Forest Post
ƒ Infrastructure / Basic Amenities – Roads, Hospitals,
Electric lines, telecommunication (phones, WLL, mobiles,
wireless, Post office), Water pipelines
ƒ Hazardous areas / Susceptible zones – indicate areas that
are or may be affected by any hazardous event and put a
symbol for that disaster e.g. landslide, earthquake, forest
fires, hailstorms
Vulnerability & Capacity Assessment
Vulnerability assessment is done by determining the
proportions of each group as part of the whole population,
identifying any specific localities where there are
concentrations of vulnerable people, e.g. schools, temples, in
proximity to a hazard source. For each group identified,
problems which might be expected under emergency
conditions are noted. Community information also provides
data on those groups in the community that have specialist
skills or knowledge that may be useful in emergency
management.
Risk Categorization & Prioritization
Based on the cumulative risk assessed on the basis of
degree of severity of the hazards and the class of vulnerability
of different elements, the various levels of risk can be defined
as acceptable, tolerable, adaptable, and non-acceptable or
intolerable risks. The categorization will help prioritizing the
focus of disaster risk management plans.
Phase 2: Preparedness & Management Plan
Phase 2 of the procedure for use of CBDRM methodology
involves application of the information and data obtained
through the exercises in phase-1 for planning and
management of disasters in the locality in a way so that
impacts are minimized.
Hazard Prevention Plan – It may involve the following
activities.
ƒ Hazard Zonation – Incentive and Performance Zoning
ƒ Regulating Development Controls / standards
ƒ Enforcement of Building codes & Landuse Byelaws
ƒ Promotion of Disaster Resistant Technologies
ƒ Awareness and Dissemination of Safety Guidelines
ƒ Sensitize about hazards impacts & build human capacity
ƒ Structural Mitigation Measures
ƒ Non-structural or Regulatory Measures
Hazard Mitigation & Vulnerability Reduction Plan
Disasters that can not be prevented are considered for
mitigation and vulnerability reduction planning. Activities
which aim to reduce the impact of a hazard on vulnerable
communities, and address the related vulnerable conditions
and their underlying causes are known as mitigation.
Mitigation planning may include diversification of incomes /
livelihood alternatives, food security, training for community
in disaster planning and management, disaster resistant
housing programmes, advocacy to government and
community, building codes, and environmental protection. On
the other hand, vulnerability reduction includes activities
pertaining to strengthening of elements and reducing their
weakness and exposure to hazards.
Disaster Preparedness Plan
The objective of disaster preparedness is to:
ƒ Ensure that appropriate systems are in place to provide
prompt and effective response during and post disaster.
ƒ Prepare the community to handle the disaster in the first 48
hours or so when outside help has not reached.
ƒ Establishment of Emergency Resources and Operations
Centre with facilities and functions such as list of skilled
and trained human resources, available emergency
resources, information & data on past, existing and
potential disasters; a copy of the community based disaster
management plan, its schedules and progress with time;
training materials for disaster management, facilities for
collection and maintenance of disaster funds etc. It should
also carry out activities like celebrating disaster reduction
day and conducting mock drills or exercises.
ƒ Action plan for warning and evacuation - Methods used for
disseminating the warning may include media messages,
door knocks, community networks, audible and/or visual
 signals. Consideration should be given to warning special
needs groups.
a. The stages of evacuation which are: warning;
withdrawal; shelter; reunion; and return.
b. Identification of sites suitable as assembly areas; sites
suitable as evacuation centres; evacuation routes between
the above; organizations responsible for conducting and
assisting with the evacuation; registration teams;
c. Organizations responsible for arranging and coordinating
transport; and
d. Organizations responsible for operating evacuation
centres.
Disaster Response Plan (with local capacities)
Response is the activation and implementation of
operational systems which includes activating and staffing the
Emergency Operations Centre, activating the communications
system, collecting, processing, and disseminating information,
alerting support organizations, preparing and disseminating
warnings and other public information, activating liaison
arrangements, coordinating and deploying resources and
arranging outside assistance, and providing assistance to other
areas. The response plan should include information on
ƒ Reflex Action to disaster and information
ƒ Emergency Communication and Transportation
ƒ Search Rescue, Emergency Relief & First Aid
ƒ Safe / alternate routes for evacuation
ƒ Safe Accommodation, Temporary Shelters with basic
amenities like food, water, light, ventilation (air),
communication, health facilities (medicines), sanitation etc.
ƒ Security of private properties and weaker sections
particularly young women
ƒ Carcass disposal, disinfectant spray and immunization
ƒ Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation
ƒ Consolation to the victims
ƒ Damage Assessment and Relief Distribution
ƒ Reconstruction, Resettlement, Rehabilitation, Recovery,
Redevelopment
6. Limitations in implementation of CBDRM methodology
The experience of local community can help in
developing a formally structured information infrastructure.
Implementing such a process, however, will not be so simple.
It will take time and commitment on the part of all those
involved because there are some sources of frustration that
will need to be addressed before it can become a reality.
A recurring view was expressed by the village community
that they had ‘heard it all before’ at various times, but nothing
practical had ever eventuated. They are looking for a
worked-through example that they can follow and the
resources to do it. That can not be achieved in any meeting,
training or workshop; it can only be achieved on the ground
in a real-world situation. The lack of communication reaching
both down to, and up from, the village level was also seen as
a major source of frustration, and consequently a major hurdle.
For a process that is all about information and improving the
effectiveness with which it may be disseminated and used, the
sharing of information about the process is critical – and that
depends on communication.
Another frustration revolves around a stated lack of
coordination and cooperation between the people and
agencies that should be working together to improve
community safety. This was seen as part of the power and
political processes that tend to build barriers, rather than
bridges. Frustration also relates to the perceived lack of
resources – human, financial and technical. This is probably a
universal frustration for all disaster managers. Typically, they
are allocated only limited resources because senior policy
makers seem to hold the view that a disaster is unlikely to
happen during their term in office, so why spend too much
money on a disaster management system that does not bring
significant votes with it. This may be a simplistic and cynical
view, but it seems to correlate well with reality. These are not
technical issues, they are human issues. Fortunately,
frustrations can be overcome, even those as seemingly
intractable as the ones identified here.
These established foundations are very sound indeed, and
provide an excellent base on which to build an appropriate
and sustainable information infrastructure that can address
issues from the village level to the level of the district and
beyond. There are undoubtedly frustrations and problems that
will need to be addressed along the way; however, it is clear
that the communities are committed to embarking on this
journey. It is also clear that they will make a good job of it
because they are committed to the task.
Another limitation of this hazard assessment approach lies
in the fact that the local knowledge at the level of community
can not always be sufficient to assess large scale phenomena
especially if their origin lies away from the zone of perception
of the community or if it results from an exceptional situation
(e.g. flooding due to bursting of a landslide dam on upstream
side of the community). Therefore, the logic of the concept
should clearly indicate the possibility of integrating
information received from outside the community (national /
state / district level disaster warning centers), even if it is of
scientific origin and not expressed in terms to which the
community is used to, as another major contribution to the
reassessment of a hazardous situation.
Conclusions
The successful application of this methodology in more
than 50 villages by the community itself is evidently a good
indicator of the acceptability of the approach as well as its
outcome in the forms of large amounts of actual data and
information generated through the process. If the
methodology is applied in other areas in a similar fashion, the
country will have, no doubt, a very large database on disasters
and a culture of aware and prepared communities in all
villages. The approach is open for further modifications to
suit to specific requirements of any area as is permitted in any
context specific approach. Technical and financial support
from outsiders will further boost the efforts of these villagers
in fully implementing their strategies for disaster risk
management in their localities and communities.
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to Shri P.G. Dhar Chakrabarti,
Executive Director, National Institute of Disaster
Management, New Delhi for his kind support and
encouragement in publishing this paper.
References
Draft Manual on Disaster Preparedness (2005), Community
Based Disaster Risk Management Society, Dehradun,
India, (Unpublished Report).
Capacity Building and Awareness Raising for Disaster
Reduction through Formal Education
- Lessons learned from the Indian Ocean Tsunami -
Etsuko Tsunozaki (Asian Disaster Reduction Center)
Abstract. The unprecedented tsunami disaster occurred on 26
December 2004 was attributed to the absence of tsunami early
warning system in the Indian Ocean as well as lack of
knowledge about tsunami among the people. However, the
latter had not been proved with evidence prior to the Tsunami.
Therefore, the Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC)
conducted a survey on tsunami awareness in 2005, first in Sri
Lanka, then in Maldives, and lastly in Indonesia, targeting at
residents, school children, teachers and government officials.
The results of the survey showed that in Sri Lanka, for
example, 93.5% of residents did not know about tsunami
before the disaster event, and 90% of them answered that they
could have reduced the loss and damage if they had known
more about it. 49% of school children answered that they had
never learned about tsunami at school and 90% of them
wished to study about natural disasters at school. Further,
94% of children answered that they discuss what they have
learned at school with their family. 77% of residents in Sri
Lanka answered that the most effective way to utilize for
preventing a future tragedy was the integration of disaster
study into school curriculum.
Based on the findings of the survey and as the first step
towards the promotion of disaster education at school, ADRC
carried out school education projects in Thailand, Sri Lanka
and Indonesia. The activities included developing tools
(educational materials for school children and manuals for
teachers in the local languages), organizing workshops, drills
and seminars for capacity building and awareness raising.
These capacity building and awareness raising activities
should be carried out together with structural and
non-structural measures. Recent catastrophic disasters in
Myanmar and Sichuan Province in China reminded us again
of the importance of and the need for immediate actions to
develop and implement a comprehensive school safety
programme.
Keywords. Awareness, Disaster Education, Training of
Teachers, Emergency Drill, School Safety, Culture of Safety
1. Background and the Disaster Awareness Survey
The unprecedented tsunami disaster occurred on 26
December 2004 was attributed to the absence of tsunami early
warning system in the Indian Ocean as well as lack of
knowledge about tsunami among the people. However, the
latter had not been proved with evidence prior to the Tsunami.
Therefore, the Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC)
conducted a questionnaire survey on tsunami awareness in
2005, first in Sri Lanka (Galle District), then in Maldives, and
lastly in Indonesia (Aceh Province, Simeulue and Nias
Districts), targeting at residents, school children, teachers and
government officials.
The main objectives of the survey were:
(1) To identify the current status including community’s
capacity to respond to natural hazards in the
tsunami-affected countries; and
(2) To propose strategies for disaster reduction and recovery
and to suggest effective disaster reduction activities such
as the dissemination of knowledge about natural hazards
and raising public awareness.
To complement the questionnaire survey, interviews were also
conducted.
The questionnaire contained the following components:
z For residents: reaction at the occurrence of the Tsunami,
information during evacuation, knowledge on tsunami,
measures for disaster reduction, etc.;
z For school children: awareness of natural disasters,
knowledge on tsunami, communication with family
members on disasters, etc.;
z For school teachers: curriculum for disaster study,
educational materials for disaster reduction, etc.;
z For government officials: training/seminar on disaster
reduction, measures for disaster reduction, measures for
protecting tourists, etc.
According to the survey results, 93.5% of the respondents
from Sri Lanka and 82.8% from Maldives answered that they
had never heard about tsunami before the disaster. Effective
early warning systems are highly dependent on such basic
knowledge and preparedness of people. Without awareness,
people would not respond properly to warning thereby
exposing them to higher risks and vulnerabilities.
1
 In addition, the survey testified that 90.4% of the school
Results of Disaster Awareness Survey children wish to study about natural disasters, which revealed
in Sri Lanka, Maldives and Indonesia ( May–Dec 2005) the children’s high interest for learning about natural disasters.
In addition, 94.2% of the respondents answered that they
Residents discuss what they learned at school with their family
Q. Had you heard about tsunami before the 26-Dec-2004 event? members. This means that through the formal education of
children at primary and secondary schools, we can expect
Sri Lanka Maldives
information to be disseminated widely to the community.
Yes. From Yes.
Experiences Not responded Yes.
family/friends Yes. Studied Not responded
0.5% Experiences
1% 0.9% at school 0.2% 2.6%
1.8%
Yes. Studied Others
at school Others 0.6 1%
1.8%
0.3% Yes. From
family/friends3
School Children in Sri Lanka
.4%
Yes. Books/TV Q. Do you want to study about Q. Do you discuss what you have
2% natural disasters such as flood, learnt in the school with your family
landslide, earthquake and tsunami in at home?
Yes. Books/TV
Never 8.6%
Never the future?
93.5% 82.8% No answer
No No Not responded No No
N=1,324 N=1,061 0.2%
0.2%
9.4%9.4% 5.6%5.6%
Note: Survey in Maldives was conducted by ADRC for UNDP Maldives.

Fig. 1 Results of Disaster Awareness Survey by ADRC:

Question for residents about the knowledge of “tsunami”
Yes
Yes YesYes

On the other hand, a ten year old school girl on N=1112 90.4%
90.4%
N=1112 94.2%
94.2%

vacation near Phuket, Thailand, saw the signs of the receding

sea and warned her parents and others of possible tsunami to Children are now highly concerned Disaster education contributes to the
occur, having studied about tsunami in a geography class at about natural disasters. education of children’s families.

school. Her warning saved hundreds of people’s lives. This

episode testifies that disaster education has great importance.
Fig. 3 Results of Disaster Awareness Survey by ADRC:
At the same time, a young boy on the Indonesian island Question to school children about their attitude toward
of Simeulue had learned from his grandfather what to do disaster study
when an earthquake strikes. He and all the other islanders ran
to higher ground before the tsunami struck, sparing all but
eight members of the community. Only one quarter of the school teachers’ group in Sri
Lanka responded that the existing disaster education
The said survey revealed that education would be vital programme was effective enough. Another one quarter said
for disaster reduction: 77.3% of the residents group in Sri that there were subjects for disaster reduction but they needed
Lanka, 61.5% from Maldives, and 46.6% from Indonesia improvement. About 22 % of teachers answered that there
recommended the integration of disaster education into the was no programme for disaster reduction and that it would be
school curriculum as the most effective way to utilize the necessary to create one. We should also pay attention to the
lessons from past disasters and for preventing/mitigating a fact that almost 90% of school teachers considered evacuation
tragedy from recurring. drills on a regular basis is effective for disaster reduction.

Questionnaire Survey to Residents

Q. What is the most effective way to utilize the lessons for
preventing/mitigating a future tragedy? School Teachers in Sri Lanka
Sri
Sri Lanka
Lanka Maldives
Maldives Indonesia
Indonesia Q. Do you have subjects for teaching Q. Do you think evacuation drills
Percent
Percent Percent
Percent Percent about natural disasters in the on a regular basis are effective for
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50
curriculum? disaster education?
Integrating of the Tsunami disaster studies into Intergration of Tsunami disaster studies into 1.Integrating
School school
Curriculum 77.3% 61.5%of the
61.5% 46.6
curriculum school 77.3% 46.6% No, we don't have. No, we don't have. No, I think they
Tsunami disaster No
0 10on the 20
Distributing of the posters/leaflets 30 40 50
I think they are (No reference to Yes,
Yes, we have. I
aren't effective.
unnecessary. necessity) 11.1%
Poster/Leaflet
1.Integrating ofTsunami
the
14.2%
Distrbuting
14.2% of the posters/leaflets on Tsunami 38.0% 2.Distributing of the
38.0% 14.1
14.1% 2.8% 2.8% effective
think they are
11.1%
posters/leaflets on effective.
Community-based
Tsunami disaster 46.6 No, we don't have.
No, they are 25.0% 25.0%
Holding
studiescommunity-based
into school workshops on 3.Holding But I think they are
26.7% based workshops regularly
Holding community
26.7% 43.0%
43.0% 10.0%
10.0
workshopregular basis 14.1 community-based necessary
necessary.
22.2%
22.2%
Warning/Evacuation
3.Holdingwarning/evacuation signs
Displaying Tsunami Displaying Tsunami warning/evacuation
67.5% signs
67.5% 48.5% 4.Displaying
48.5% 8.98.9%
community-based 10.0 Tsunami
Signsworkshops on Setting up a memorial monument on Tsunami
Yes, we have. (No
Setting up of a memorial monument on 5.Setting up of a reference to
5.1% 12.6%
MemorialTsunami Monumentdisaster 8.9 disaster
memorial
12.7
12.7% effectiveness)
8.3%
5.Setting up
Establishment of aofmemorial
a museum on Establishment of a memorial museum on Yes, we have. But
4.7% 4.9% 6.Establishment of Yes, butto need
Memorial Museum
memorial
Tsunami
12.7
Tsunami 7.7
7.7% Yes, we have. But they need be
monument on a memorial museum Yes,I think
butthey are improved.
improvement Yes, I think they
unnecessary. 25.0%
7.7 Not responded 16.7% unnecessary 25.0% N=36 Yes
are effective.
Not responded Not responded 1.3% Not responded 00.0% 13.9% N=36
88.9%
13.9% 88.9%
N=1,324 N=1,061 N=1,000

The majority of people consider that the most effective way is a disaster
education program at school followed by putting warning/evacuation signs. Only one quarter of teachers answered Most of the teachers feel the necessity of
Note: Survey in Maldives was conducted by ADRC for UNDP Maldives. that the existing subjects are effective. evacuation drills on a regular basis.

Fig. 2 Results of Disaster Awareness Survey by ADRC:

Question for residents about future activities for disaster Fig. 4 Results of Disaster Awareness Survey by ADRC:
reduction Question for school teachers about disaster education at
school

2
 The survey, overall, demonstrated the need to strengthen
the following: Step 1

(1) Promotion of disaster education including introduction Compiling and analyzing existing disaster
of disaster education in school curriculum, training of education materials
school teachers and officials, and implementation of
evacuation drills;
(2) Raising of public awareness including community-based Step 2
hazard mapping (Town Watching) and designation of
evacuation sites and display of warning/evacuation signs Drafting educational materials in
to make early warning effective; consultation with experts of both DM and
(3) Enhancement of information management system education
including improvement of communication system among
government officials, and establishment of information
dissemination system among government officials and Step 3
residents; and
(4) Improvement of coordination mechanism in national and Conducting pilot classes to evaluate and
local disaster management systems including
finalizing the materials
reinforcement of disaster management

Step 4
2. Development of Educational Materials for Disaster Organizing a seminar to disseminate
Reduction materials to teachers and educators
Based on the above survey results, ADRC selected
promotion of school education for disaster reduction as a Step 5
priority area of its activities, and recommended the
integration of disaster education into school curricula to the Distributing materials to schools and
ADRC member countries in Asia. libraries and promotion of comprehensive
ADRC then carried out a project in Thailand in 2006 and disaster reduction programme
developed a methodology for the promotion of effective
disaster education at school and the development of
educational materials for disaster reduction. Fig. 5 Methodology for developing school educational
materials
1. Step 1: First consultative meeting on promoting disaster
education and reviewing the existing educational
materials for disaster reduction. This involves officials in
disaster risk management and education in the central
and local governments, experts and school teachers in
these areas within and outside the country;
2. Step 2: Drafting of educational materials at the local
workshop with the involvement of both experts and
officers in disaster risk management and education;
3. Step 3: Pilot lessons and training of teachers including
explanation of hazards as natural phenomena (with
scientific information), disaster simulation exercises and
emergency drills, and dissemination of knowledge on the th th
implementation of disaster education to participating Fig. 6 Textbook and Teacher’s Guide for 4 -6 graders
teachers; developed in Thailand in 2006
4. Step 4: Second consultative meeting to introduce the
education materials and the evacuation plans developed
through the project, inviting school teachers, officials Conclusions
and experts in disaster risk management. This exercise
includes introduction and review of the results of the Since the completion of the pilot project in Thailand,
pilot lessons and presentation of disaster education ADRC has received many requests to implement similar
action plans; and projects and, so far (by September 2008), the projects in Sri
5. Step 5: Dissemination of educational materials and Lanka and Indonesia have already been completed. The
promotion of comprehensive education programme for educational materials were developed in their local languages
disaster reduction as school curriculum. adapted to their local context. ADRC plans to implement
more projects to promote disaster education for disaster risk
reduction in the Association of South-East Asian Nations
(ASEAN) countries.

Making disaster risk education part of national primary

3
and secondary school curricula is key to promote the priority
area No. 3 of the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), “Use
knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of
safety and resilience at all levels.” We know from past
experience and also from the result of the above survey that
children who are taught about natural hazard risks play an
important role in saving lives and protecting members of the
community in times of crisis.
In most societies, in addition to their essential role in
formal education, schools also serve as a community’s central
location for meetings and group activities, in normal times,
and as centers or places of refuge and shelter in times of
disaster. Thus, ensuring school safety, including structurally
disaster resilient schools, is vital for developing
comprehensive disaster education and school safety
programmes, contributing to building culture of safety.
Acknowledgments
ADRC would like to extend our sincere appreciation to
the Governments of Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Indonesia for
their support and cooperation to implement the survey. We
would also like to thank the technical and scientific
institutions and experts for providing technical assistance to
the survey teams. We also wish to thank all the local people
who assisted the survey through the coordination of field
activities including translation of questionnaires and serving
as interpreters during interviews.
ADRC also wishes to express our gratitude to the
Governments of Thailand, Sri Lanka and Indonesia for the
support provided to carry out the projects for the promotion of
educational programme for disaster reduction and the
development of educational and teaching materials for school
children and teachers.
Special thanks will go to all the donors who kindly and
generously supported these projects to be implemented
successfully.
References
Asian Disaster Reduction Center (2005), Report of the Survey
on Tsunami Awareness in Sri Lanka,
(http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/Srilanka_survey/en/I
ndex.html)
Asian Disaster Reduction Center (2006), Final Report on
Multi-national Mission to the Tsunami Affected Areas in
India
(http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/india_mission/india_
multi_eng.html)
Asian Disaster Reduction Center (2006), Report of the Survey
on Tsunami Awareness in Indonesia (1) --Banda Aceh
and Aceh Besar area of Aceh Province--,
(http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/Indonesia_Survey/B
anda%20Aceh/en/index.html)
Asian Disaster Reduction Center (2006), Report of the Survey
on Tsunami Awareness in Indonesia (2) -- West Sumatra
(Nias District) --,
(http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/Indonesia_Survey/NI
AS/en/index.html)
Asian Disaster Reduction Center (2006), Report of the Survey
on Tsunami Awareness in Indonesia (3) -- West Sumatra
(Simeulue District) –
(http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/Indonesia_Survey/SI
MEULUE/en/index.html)
Asian Disaster Reduction Center (2006), Report of the Survey
on Tsunami Awareness in Indonesia (4) -- West Sumatra
(West Aceh District) –
(http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/Indonesia_Survey/W
EST%20ACEH/en/index.html)
Ben Wisner (2006) Let our children teach us!, A Review of
the Role of Education and Knowledge in Disaster Risk
Reduction,
(http://www.unisdr.org/eng/task%20force/working%20g
roups/knowledge-education/docs/Let-our-Children-Teac
h-Us.pdf)
Ben Wisner (2006), Summary challenges and actions based
on a larger desk-study for the ISDR System’s cluster on
Knowledge and Education for Disaster Risk Reduction,
(http://www.unisdr.org/eng/task%20force/working%20g
roups/knowledge-education/docs/Summary-findings-des
k-study-review-knowledge-education-DRR.doc)
United Nations (2006), Press Kit, 2006-2007 World Disaster
Reduction Campaign, Disaster risk reduction begins at
school,
(http://www.unisdr.org/eng/public_aware/world_camp/2
006-2007/pdf/WDRC-2006-2007-English-fullversion.pd
f)
United Nations (2007), Towards a Culture of Prevention:
Disaster Risk Reduction Begins at School, Good
Practices and Lessons Learned,
(http://www.unisdr.org/eng/about_isdr/isdr-publications/
11-education-good-practices/education-good-practices.p
df)
4
An Illustrated Landslide Handbook for Developing
Nations
Lynn M. Highland (U.S. Geological Survey) • Peter Bobrowsky (Geological Survey of Canada
Abstract. As landslides continue to be a hazard that
account for large numbers of human and animal
casualties, property loss, and infrastructure damage, as
well as impacts on the natural environment, it is
incumbent on developed nations that resources be
allocated to educate affected populations in less
developed nations, and provide them with tools to
effectively manage this hazard. Given that the
engineering, planning and zoning, and mitigation
techniques for landslide hazard reduction are more
accessible to developed nations, it is crucial that such
landslide hazard management tools be communicated to
less developed nations in a language that is not overly
technical, and provides information on basic scientific
explanations on where, why and how landslides occur.
The experiences of the United States, Canada, and
many other nations demonstrate that, landslide science
education, and techniques for reducing damaging
landslide impacts may be presented in a manner that
can be understood by the layperson. There are various
methods through which this may be accomplished–
community-level education, technology transfer, and
active one-on-one outreach to national and local
governments, and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), who disseminate information throughout the
general population. The population at large can also
benefit from the dissemination of landslide information
directly to individual community members. The United
States Geological Survey and the Geological Survey of
Canada have just published and will distribute a
universal landslide handbook that can be easily made
available to emergency managers, local governments,
and individuals. The handbook, “The Landslide
Handbook: A Guide to Understanding Landslides” is
initially published as U.S. Geological Survey Circular
1325, in English, available in print, and accessible on
the internet. It is liberally illustrated with schematics
and photographs, and provides the means for a basic
understanding of landslides, with clearly-presented
examples and explanations. The handbook will first be
translated into Chinese, Spanish, and French and as a
“public domain” document, it may be used without
copyright issues, and will be free of charge to users.
Support for users will be provided by both United
States and Canadian geological surveys and those
desiring more information will be urged to contact
landslide personnel at these two agencies, through
several means—email, telephone, and (or) FAX.
Keywords. Landslides, guidebook, education,
developing world
1. Introduction
As population expands into rural areas, its impact on
the natural environment will be profound. In turn, these
changes will strongly affect man and his community life,
and the exposure to natural hazards such as landslides
will increase. Technological planning for this expansion
is no longer a matter of choice; it has become an urgent
necessity. Environmental management techniques to
combine the physical environment and natural resources
with social needs and limitations must be developed and
implemented. It is not enough to react to environmental
crises when they occur. There must be planning and
education in order to anticipate problems and plan for
their solution.
To this end, the U.S. Geological Survey, in
cooperation with the Geological Survey of Canada, and
the International Consortium on Landslides (ICL), (see
http://icl.dpri.kyotou.ac.jp/ for more information on
ICL) has developed a handbook that provides an
introduction for understanding basic principles about
landslides, and presents practical steps that homeowners,
emergency managers and other decision makers can
take to mitigate hazards from landslides. The handbook,
“The Landslide Handbook: A Guide to Understanding
Landslides,” published as U.S. Geological Survey
Circular 1135, is aimed at educating people in
developing urban and rural communities, and covers
information for both the built and natural environments
around the world. It can also serve as a useful tool for
more developed nations where appropriate. It is written
at the level of a layperson, but attempts have been made
to keep an appropriate level of technical references. The
handbook will be first published in English, Chinese,
and Spanish and then translated as funds permit, to
other languages, such as French for example. It is hoped
that decision makers at the local level will find it a
useful tool in imparting knowledge and in
disseminating information that they can adapt to the
needs and approaches of each particular community. It
is planned that a follow-up study be initiated to assess
the usefulness of the book–its mode of distribution,
whether it is effective in educating people, and what
sort of modifications need to be made for future
editions, or for ongoing, more effective distribution of
the first edition.
Landslides, by their nature, tend to be local events,
often involving failure of a single mountainside or hill,
and thus do not compete easily with large regional
disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes, for
national attention. However, many landslide-prone
areas can be managed by land-use planning if landslide
susceptibility is known, and by techniques such as
avoidance, required grading of slopes, addition of
drainage apparatus, instrumental monitoring, warning
systems, or conversion of hazardous areas to parks and
other public usage. This book will help define the
discussions that local communities can have about what
type of hazard level and risk from landslides is
acceptable and to what extent losses can be mitigated.
2. Overview of Current Landslide Information for
the Layperson
There are some similar precedents to this landslide
handbook published by various entities, in English,
throughout the past 50 years, many of which are aimed
at emergency managers, urban planners, and municipal
officials–Sidle and Ochiai (2006), Cornforth (2005),
Schwab et al. (2005), McInnes (2000), Turner &
Schuster (1996), Olshansky (1996), Wold & Jochim
(1989), Jochim et al. 1988). Other books of this type are
aimed directly at homeowners Creath, (1996), Handy
(1995), Tyler (1995), Los Angeles Department of Public
Works (1993), and Nuhfer (1993).
There have been a few books published on the subject
of Landslide Hazard and Risk, which take the subject of
landslides a step further, and present the concepts of
risk management solutions–Glade, et al, (2005), Hungr,
et al (2005). There may be similar publications in other
languages that haven’t come to our attention. The 50
United States each fund and maintain a state Geological
Survey, and many of these Surveys offer brochures,
leaflets, and practical advice for homeowners on the
topic of landslides. However, the publications usually
do not go into much detail. An example of this type of
publication can be viewed on the Pennsylvania
Geological Survey’s website:
http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/topogeo/hazards/es9.pdf
Many of these homeowner publications provide
rudimentary suggestions for homeowners to reduce
slope instability, for example, through the
implementation of improved drainage, and/or the
watering of vegetation away from structural foundations.
Some of them describe ground movement indicators
such as leaning trees, or newly-formed springs, which
can indicate that a problem may be occurring and the
homeowner might want to initiate further investigation.
One of the most useful guidebooks is published by
Los Angeles Department of Public Works (1993): the
Homeowner’s Guide for Flood, Debris, and Erosion
Control, which contains very practical advice with how-
to graphics for improving drainage around a residence,
and, for example, recommends the species of native
plants that are especially well-suited for strengthening
soils, and which thrive in the southern California area.
As the book refers to very site-specific methodology for
the southern California experience of floods, debris
flows and erosion, the Los Angeles authors warn that
the book’s methods cannot be necessarily applied to
every place in the world, as every place has its own
unique morphology, soils, rainfall patterns, and
vegetation. However, the Los Angeles County book
does not present basic information on types or
triggering mechanisms of landslides; its aim is
primarily simple mitigation solutions for homeowners,
and it suggests how the average person can help his
own situation by taking a proactive stance.
Several geotechnical and engineering societies
feature books for sale on their publications lists that
deal with engineering aspects of landslide mitigation,
but most are not written for the layperson. Many also
deal with only one specialty topic such as landslide
monitoring, and it is assumed that readers of these
books are well-versed in most aspects of landslide
science, as the target audience is engineers, geologists,
and soil specialists. The American Society of Civil
Engineers, (ASCE) features a comprehensive
publications list that those wishing to get more
information about one particular topic can purchase
(see:
https://www.asce.org/bookstore/subject_act.cfm?strSubj
ect=10
Federal agencies such as the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) and U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS) feature pamphlets and websites that are
provided for the education of citizens and decision
makers, but they do not give a comprehensive
presentation of landslide science and mitigation to the
extent that this new landslide handbook will.
3. Handbook Contents
The handbook draws on aspects of the previous
publications cited here, and includes an introduction to
basic landslide science and the causative processes. It
includes an extensive glossary of terms, an overview of
technologic evaluation methods such as hazard maps
and monitoring, and it covers the concept of multiple
hazards (how landslides are related to floods, tsunamis,
and earthquakes, for example). It contains a section on
how managers may communicate landslide hazard
through the use of town meetings, warning systems, and
public education. It also contains a section about the
effects of landslides on the natural environment, as well
as the the effects on new construction and (or) the urban
environment. As previously mentioned, the unique
aspect of this book is that it will be translated into at
least four languages, and more, if additional funds can
be obtained.
Other unique topics discussed include such
phenomenon as landslide dams resulting from
landslides which block waterways and suggested
approaches to mitigation of such. There is also a section
on low-impact, environmentally friendly methods of
slope stabilization, for example, planting of Vetiver
grass to strengthen the soil on flat land, as well as
hillslopes. There has been much research into Vetiver
grass as a soil stabilizer, as it is easy to grow, and it
thrives in a variety of climate regimes. This type of soil
stabilization helps to reduce the costs of expensive
engineered reinforcement, where it is impractical or too
expensive to use.
The book will be spiral bound, and easy to refer to,
as the pages will be smaller than a standard-size
publication so that it will be portable and easy to page
through.
The following figures are excerpts from the
handbook and illustrate the manner of presentation.
Figure 1 shows one of many schematics in the book that
illustrate, for example, commonly-accepted
nomenclature for parts of a landslide. There are other
schematics accompanied by photos which show what a
rotational, translational, debris-flow, and other types of
landslides look like. to an unstable slope in the Democratic Republic of the
Congo in Africa. The handbook provides a reference
for the reader to find out more about this method of
slope stabilization. The Photos are from the Vetiver
Grass website, http://www.vetiver.org

Fig. 1 A simple illustration of a rotational landslide that

has evolved into an earthflow. Image illustrates commonly
used labels for the parts of a landslide.
(from Varnes, 1978, Reference 43).
Fig. 3 A Vetiver grass system is being used in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo for gully control in
Figure 2 shows an example of the types of landslide urban areas and for Highway stabilization. These gullies
mapping in use around the world, and the handbook are a major problem in this area and other West African
provides examples of mapping that the reader can easily countries.
comprehend, and perhaps apply to their own unique
situation.

Fig. 4 The same slope now has improved drainage, and

the slope has been planted in Vetiver grass.

Fig. 2 An example of a landslide susceptibility map.

This map shows an area in Canada, the Mackenzie
River Valley, Northwest Territories.
Graphic by Réjean Couture, Geological Survey of
Canada.

The handbook provides an overview of mitigation

methods that can be used in dealing with landslide
hazards. The examples can be easily understood and
evaluated for applicability to local situations. One
example is the illustration of the planting of Vetiver
Grass to help stabilize slopes, which has been found to
be effective, and encourages the use of bio-engineered,
environmentally low-impact methods to lessen the
impacts of landslides. Figures 3, 4, and 5 show a
succession of Vetiver grass growth, after it was applied
Fig. 5 This planting of Vetiver grass is about 3 months
old. Vetiver grass has been shown to be an effective
means of stabilizing slopes in many areas of the world
and it is low-cost and relatively easy to apply.
Figure 6 and 7 shows one of a series of schematics
that feature examples of materials and methods that can
be used to reinforce a dwelling to lessen the impacts of
flooding and debris flows.
Fig. 6 Typical materials, usually available in many
regions of the world, for helping to reduce damage
from flood/debris- flow events.
Fig. 7 This is a timber deflector, which is more
permanent than sandbags.
The handbook also features an introduction to more
traditional engineering methods for slope stability, and
shows a series of figures that show the schematic of
the method, together with a photograph of the finished
structure.
Fig. 8 A schematic and photograph of a Gabion wall
along a highway. (Schematic from Reference 11.
Photograph of Gabions located in the Pocono
Mountains, Pennsylvania, USA by Lynn Highland, U.S.
Geological Survey).
The following is a textual excerpt from the
Handbook on the topic of Landslide Dams:
Part 4 – Landslide Dam Mitigation
As previously mentioned, the primary hazard from
landslide dams is flooding that can occur when a
landslide dam fails, or flooding that occurs when the
dam is overtopped by the ongoing flow of water backing
up behind the dam. The following measures can be
implemented when communities are faced with potential
hazards from landslide dams:
1. Diversion of inflow water before it reaches the lake,
formed by the landslide dam—
This can be done by diverting water from the stream
into upstream reservoirs or irrigation systems.
Although usually only a temporary measure, diversion
may slow the filling of the lake enough to allow the
application of a more long-term solution.
2. Temporary drainage from the impoundment by
pumps or siphons—
The rising water level can be controlled temporarily by
means of pumps or siphons, causing the water to flow
over the low point of the dam. This is usually a short-
term (less than 1 to 2 years) measure that provides time
for more extensive, long-term solutions.
3. Construction of an erosion-resistant spillway—
The most common method of stabilizing a landslide dam
is to construct an erosion-resistant open-channel
spillway either across the dam or across an adjacent
abutment. When the overtopping by water occurs, flow
is controlled by the spillway in much the same way that
emergency spillways are constructed on engineered
dams works to control water level. An additional
advantage of this type of spillway is that it allows for
the lowering of the water level behind the dam, which
helps lessen the upstream flooding that landslide dams
may cause.
Spillways are not always successful in preventing dam
breaching and downstream flooding; they sometimes
fail due to retrogressive erosion (erosion from the
spillway outlet to its intake) caused by high-velocity
outlet flow. To prevent erosion by minimizing flow
velocity, the spillway should be wide and shallow. If
possible, it should be lined with erosion-resistant
materials (commonly riprap), especially at the outlet or
inlet. Often, check dams are installed along steeper
grades of the spillway to prevent erosion. Spillways
that fail due to erosion may have been partially
successful because they limit the total volume of the
water behind the dam, thus reducing total discharge
even if the dam breaches entirely.
Open-channel spillways across the landslide dam
commonly are excavated by bulldozers; however,
draglines, backhoes, explosives, and hand labor all
have been used. Excavation can be dangerous in rough
terrain, so an access road has to be constructed.
4. Drainage tunnel through an abutment—
A long-term method of preventing overtopping and
breaching of a landslide dam is construction of a
diversion tunnel through an adjacent dam abutment.
Because large landslide dams commonly occur in
mountain canyons, they usually have bedrock
abutments; thus rock-tunneling methods commonly are
used. Figure C53 shows the Thistle, Utah, landslide in
the United States, triggered by the El Niño conditions of
1983. Heavy rains the previous autumn and rapid
snowmelt caused the massive failure. For further
reading please see Reference 31.
4. Distribution of the Handbook
World-wide literacy rates vary widely, especially in
developing countries – it is acknowledged by the
authors that a landslide handbook will primarily be used
by people who can read or write, and who have access
to an appropriate translation. Although the book will
feature many photos, graphic illustrations, and how-to
ideas, (for example, a step-by-step guide to filling and
securing sandbags and a section on digging simple
drainage ditches), it will probably be mainly distributed
to municipal officials, whose job is to provide for the
safety of individuals. It may be that the handbook will
be distributed to national-level officials, allowing them
decide the best way for distribution. An overview of the
U.S. Department of State website which provides
country profiles of worldwide nations
(http://www.state.gov/travelandbusiness/) outlines
government structure and literacy rates for most
countries in the world, and we plan to begin with a
careful evaluation of the most optimum distribution
method for the handbook. The United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) will be a valuable resource for the possible
management and distribution of the book, as they are a
sponsoring member of the ICL and have an interest in
furthering the goals of the ICL in reducing the impacts
around the world from natural hazards.
References
Chatwin, S.C., Howes, D.E., Schwab, J.W., & D.N.
Swanston, eds. 1994. AGuide for Management of
Landslide-prone Terrain in the Pacific Northwest,
second edition, Ministry of Forests, Victoria, British
Columbia, Canada, 220 p.
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Lmh/Lmh1
8.htm
Cornforth, Derek, H. 2005. Landslides In Practice:
Investigation, Analysis, and Remedial/Preventative
Options in Soils, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken,
New Jersey, USA, 596 p.
Creath, Wilgus B., 1996. Home Buyers’ Guide to
Geologic Hazards, American Institute of
Professional Geologists, Mido Printing Company,
Inc., 30 p.
Glade, Thomas, Anderson, Malcolm, Crozier, Michael
J., 2005, Landslide hazard and risk,
John Wiley and Sons, 824 pages
ISBN 0471486639, 9780471486633
Handy, Richard L. 1995. The Day the House Fell:
Homeowner Soil Problems From Landslides to
Expansive Clays and Wet Basements, The American
Society of Civil Engineers, 230 p.
Harris, Raymond C. and Pearthree, Philip A. 2002. A
Home Buyer's Guide to Geologic Hazards in
Arizona, Arizona Geological Survey, Down-to-
Earth 13., Arizona Geology, Winter 2004, vol. 34,
no. 4.
Highland, Lynn M., and Bobrowsky, Peter, 2008, The
Landslide Handbook: A Guide to Understanding
Lanslides, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1325,
130 p.
Hungr, Oldrich and Fell, Robin, Joint Technical
Committee on Landslides and Engineered Slopes
(Vancouver, B.C.), Rejean Couture, Erik
EberhardtProceedings of the International
Conference on Landslide Risk Management,
Vancouver, Canada, 31 May-3 June 2005, Taylor &
Francis, 776 pages.
ISBN 041538043X, 9780415380430
Jochim, Candace L., & Robert L. Wold, Jr., eds. 1988.
Colorado Landslide Hazard Mitigation Plan,
Colorado Geological Survey, Dept. of Natural
Resources, Bull. 48, Denver, CO, USA, 149 p.
LOS ANGELES COUNTY DEPT. OF PUBLIC
WORKS 1993. (in English andSpanish),
Homeowner’s Guide for Flood, Debris, and Erosion
Control, Alhambra, CA, USA, 35
p. http://www.ladbs.org/faq/frequent_req_pub.htm
McInnis, Robin 2000. Managing Ground Instability in
Urban Areas: A Guide to Best Practice, Isle of Wight
Centre for the Coastal Environment, cross publishing,
Walpen Manor, Chale, 81 p.
Nichols, Donald R., & Catherine C. Campbell, eds. 1971.
Environmental Planning and Geology, Proceedings of
the Symposium on Engineering Geology in the
Urban Environment, sponsored by the Association of
Engineering Geologists, October, 1969, San
Francisco, CA, U.S. Department of Housing and
Urban Development, and U.S. Geological Survey,
204 p.
Nuhfer, Edward B., Proctor, Richard J., & Paul H. Moser
1993. Citizens Guide to Geologic Hazards, The
American Institute of Professional Geologists,
Westminster, Colorado, USA, 134 p.
http://www.aipg.org/scriptcontent/index.cfm
Olshansky, Robert B. 1996. Planning for Hillside
Development, Planning Advisory
Service, Report Number 466, American Planning
Association, Chicago, Illinois, USA, 50 p.
Schwab, James C., Gori, Paula L., and Sanjay Jeer, Eds.
2005. Landslide hazards and Planning”, American
Planning Advisory Service Report number 533/534,
American Planning Association, Chicago, Illinois,
USA, 209 p.
Sidle, Roy C., and Hirotaka, Ochiai, 2006. Landslides –
Processes, Prediction, and Land Use, Water
Resources Monograph 18, American Geophysical
Union, Washington, D.C.
Turner, A. Keith, & Robert L. Schuster, Eds. (1996).
Landslides: Investigationand Mitigation,
Transportation Research Board Special Report 247,
National Research Council, American Academy Press,
675 p.
Tyler, Martha Blair, 1995. Look Before You Build:
Geologic Studies for Safer Land
Development in the San Francisco Bay Area, U.S.
Geological Survey Circular 1130, 54
p. http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1995/c1130/
Wold, R.L., JR. and C.L. Jochim 1989. Landslide Loss
Reduction: A Guide for State
And Local Government Planning, Federal
Emergency Management Agency,
Earthquake Hazards Reduction Series 52, 50 p.
Capacity Building of Local NGO as Community Leader
in the Affected Area of Pakistan Earthquake of 2005
Koichi Shiwaku (EDM-NIED, Japan) (Earthquake Disaster Mitigation Research Institute, National Research
Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention)
Abstract. Kashmir area is the affected area of Pakistan
Earthquake of 2005. But Kashmir is located in mountain
area. Kashmir has landslide risk as well as earthquake.
Actually, Kashmir had landslide caused by the earthquake.
ADRRN (Asian Disaster Reduction and Response Network)
conducted the reconstruction project named as “Training and
Capacity Enhancement of Local Governments in the
Earthquake Affected Areas of Pakistan” in Bagh District in
Kashmir from August 2006 to April 2007.
Main purposes of the project are to provide training program
to local people including local government and to establish
knowledge centre. Finally, 3 Village Knowledge Centres
(VKC) and District Knowledge Centre (DKC).
The author was a member of SEEDS Asia (NGO based in
Japan and one of the member organizations of ADRRN) and
the project manager to complete the project. At that time, a
local staff was employed as assistant.
The assistant of ADRRN project established his own NGO
named as STAR Foundation after the project although he was
just college student before and during the project. STAR
Foundation is working in DKC established in ADRRN project,
providing school safety drills and disaster risk reduction
training to local community, and contributing community
development activities. It means that the assistant was
motivated through the project and realize disaster
management is important for his community.
It is successful case of awareness rasing and capacity building
of local NGO although he was just one of affected persons
when the project started. This paper identifies roles of
actors in capacity building and proposes effective capacity
building process. In capacity building process, motivation,
confidence building, and making connection are necessary
and close discussion between trainer and trainee are important
factors in capacity building.
Keywords. Capacity building, NGOs, Reconstruction,
Pakistan
1. Background
The devastated earthquake attacked Kashmir area of Pakistan
on 5th October in 2006. According to UN ISDR (2008),
more than seventy thousands people were dead and more than
three million people were affected. Six hundred thousands
house, more than seven thousands school building, and five
hundreds medical institutions were attacked (National
Disaster Management Authority of Pakistan, 2008). The
earthquake gave devastated impacts to human being in
Pakistan.
In addition to direct impacts of the earthquake, landslides
were also occurred in many places because of the earthquake.
Landslide covered roads and people could not pass roads.
Some people lost land because of landslides. They could not
remove rocks or slid land by themselves lack of equipments
or fund. Such people had to move for new house
reconstruction.
The author, who was a member of NGO based in Kobe, Japan,
conducted the reconstruction project from August 2006 to
January 2007 in Bagh, Pakistan as a project manager. The
project was named as “Training and Capacity Enhancement
of Local Governments in the Earthquake Affected Areas of
Pakistan”. The project was one of projects by ADRRN
(Asian Disaster Reduction and Response Network) and was
funded by UN ISDR.
During the project, the author employed one of college
students as project assistant. He was not eager to be
involved in the project. But he established his own NGO
after the project. The NGO is working for disaster reduction
and community development in the earthquake affected area
including villages attacked by landslides. His mental change
and his and his NGO activities in local level can be regarded
as one of good practices of capacity building process.
This paper identifies roles of actors in capacity building and
proposes effective capacity building process.
2. Case of the Reconstruction Project
2.1. Overview of the Project
Main purposes of the project are to provide training program
to local people including local government and to establish
knowledge centre. The roles of knowledge center were to
provide information of disaster management and to collect
and transfer village information. It means knowledge center
is community center for disaster management. In the project,
three Village Knowledge Centres (VKC) and District
Knowledge Centre (DKC). VKC is managed by VKC
committee and local NGO. DKC is managed by local
government and project assistant (refer to Fig. 1). In the
project, three training programs (community based disaster
management, safer construction, and disaster education) were
provided through involving local government, local NGOs,
Fig. 1 Linking among local government, DKC, and VKC
and local people. assistant. Therefore, it was necessary to share works among
The implementation process of the project includes main five them and communicate with each other to have same
activities as below (UN ISDR et al., 2007); intention to success the project. But it was difficult in the
・ Meeting with local government beginning of the project because the assistant did not have
・ Need assessment survey/Focus group discussion any knowledge on disaster management and have any
・ Site selection of VKC experiences to be involved in such projects. In the
・ Implementation of training beginning of the project, assistant’s work was mainly
・ Establishment of DKC and VKC interpretation between English and Urdu so that local people
Main achievements are following; understand of the project. Through working with project
・ Awareness raising of local government, local NGOs, and manager closely, the assistant had deep understanding the
local people for disaster management project and realized importance of disaster management. He
became active and could work independently. In the
・ Establishment of VKC and DKC
beginning, negotiation or discussion with local government or
・ Communication among stakeholders
local people was responsibility of project manager. But a
part of such works could be done by assistant at the end of
2.2. Role of Actors
project.
Table 1 shows the detail activities done by the author (project
manager) and the assistant of the project. The project was
3. Activities of Local NGO
implemented through continuous discussion with local
At the end of the project, the assistant established his own
government and local people and information transmission to
NGO named as STAR Foundation (Sustainable Development
them. The project was completed by project manager and

Table 1 Role of project manager and assistant to implement the project

Activity Project manager Assistant
・ Discussion with college professor to find project
assistant
Meeting with local Before activity Before activity
government ・ Explanation of the project to local government
・ Negotiation with local government During activity
・ Participants arrangement ・ Taking photos
・ Arrangement of meeting venue
During activity
・ Discussion with local government
・ Fixing project sites with local government
Need assessment Before activity Before activity
survey/Focus group ・ Visiting proposed sites and selection of sites for ・ Taking training as surveyors
discussion survey During activity
・ Preparing survey sheets ・ Conducting survey as surveyor
・ Negotiation with village leader ・ Interpreting during discussion with village
・ Training of surveyors leader
During activity ・ Participants arrangement with village leader
・ Discussion with village leader for core village meeting
・ Date entering
Site selection of VKC ・ Discussion with the assistant ・ Discussion with Project manager
・ Selection of three sites based on discussion and the ・ Discussion and arrangement with key persons
results of survey in each villages
・ Making VKC committee
Implementation of Before activity Before activity
training ・ Finding resource persons ・ Participants arrangement
・ Negotiation with resource persons During activity
・ Developing training module ・ Helping training program as staff
During activity
・ Conducting one of training programs as resource
persons
・ Presiding during training
Establishment of DKC Before activity Before activity
and VKC ・ Discussion with local government to select local ・ Discussion with local government to select
NGOs local NGOs
・ Discussion with committee members to select ・ Discussion with committee members to select
location of VKC location of VKC
During activity During activity
・ Providing education materials, poster, and brochure ・ Establishment of VKC
・ Negotiation with international organization to
get container for utilization as DKC
and Response) (hereinafter, STAR) and he became president
of STAR. Currently, STAR has more than 30 members and
9-10 members out of them are contributing STAR’s activities.
After establishment, the NGO started their own programs
including management of DKC and distribution of brochure
developed during the project. Following are parts of their
programs;
・ Training for safer construction: This program was held
in one of VKC. Local NGO and the president of STAR
acquired knowledge of safer construction through the
training during the project. Training module during the
project was used. Based on the training module, both
NGO trained local masons and community people to
provide knowledge of importance of safer construction
and skills of construction.
・ Disaster education to school students: During the project,
the author provided education materials developed by
NIED for DKC and VKCs. STAR utilized one of
materials as school disaster education (refer to Fig. 2).
・ Training on school safety: The president got knowledge
of school safety drill from other organization and
provided this program. STAR provided lecture on
disaster management and exercise of first aid, evacuation,
and rescue (refer to Fig. 3). In addition, STAR helped
Fig 2 School disaster education on buildings and their
proper period (copyright: STAR Foundation)
Fig 3 First aid in the training on school safety drill
(copyright: STAR Foundation)
to establish school safety council including community
people and school teachers.
・ Making community organization: Local government has
promoted to establish community organization (CO)
under CDP (Community Development Project). It is
not difficult for STAR to know the project of local
government because STAR is in charge of DKC located
in local government. STAR had established CO with
close interaction with community key persons.
・ Disaster management event: This program was held in
October 2007 to remember the earthquake of 2005.
STAR invited 12 schools and organized speech
competition.
The activities of STAR are divided into two types. One is
activities based on the project which the president was
involved as assistant. The other type is activities which
STAR developed or local government requests. The roles of
the NGO can be regarded as trainers and coordinators among
community. UNCRD (2004) was considered Policy makers,
national disaster managers, local disaster managers, trainers,
and community worker as main actors for community based
disaster management. The activities of STAR play roles of
trainers and community worker. Bagh is the remote and
mountain area and the local government does not high
awareness on disaster management. In such situation,
activities of STAR is very important for communities.
4. Capacity Building Process
4.1. Proposed Capacity Building Process
The important point is that the president of STAR was just a
college student in the affected area when the project started
but that he established his own NGO and has continued
NGO’s activities. He did not have any knowledge on
disaster management and know importance of disaster
management (personal communication, 2008). He became
project assistant because a college professor appointed him as
the assistant. It does not means that he is motivated person.
Becoming assistant is one of opportunities to earn money for
him. In his comments as followed, there are important
points to consider capacity building;
1. After starting working, I realized importance of working.
Therefore, I can work hard even if work is much.
2. When I started working in the project, I did not have
any confidences. I had not thought I can do anything.
I had not thought I have any abilities.
3. Through working, I could meet many persons and great
persons who I could meet if I had not working in the
project. It is great pleasure to meet such person while
I am working now.
The first comment was showed after several month working
(around October 2006). The second comment was showed
at the end of the project (December 2006). The third
comment was showed in 2008.
In this paper, his mental changing and activities of STAR is
regarded as one of good practices of capacity building for
disaster reduction. Based on his comments, capacity building
process can be proposed as below
1. Motivation for disaster reduction
2. Confidence building
3. Connection making
Next, the effective factors which can achieve each stage
mentioned above are examined and discussed.
1. Motivation for disaster management: Through the
activities mentioned in Table 1, he could get knowledge
on the project and disaster management. At the
beginning of the project, his main task was interpreter
between the project manager and government or
villagers. He was required to get concrete knowledge
not only to translate but also to explain. Discussion
was always done between project manager and him.
Discussion was effective to transfer knowledge and to let
him consider disaster management. Discussion was
good opportunities to consider what is useful or
advantage for local people. Shiwaku and Shaw
emphasized discussion in a process of disaster education
(in press). Capacity building can be regarded as a kind
of education. He realized importance of disaster
management because of close discussion.
2. Confidence building: From the middle of the project
duration, his tasks were increased and his responsibility
was also increased. He had opportunities to negotiate
with local government or local villagers. These
opportunities required him to have more concrete
knowledge and negotiation skills. Through the
negotiation by himself, he could make strong connection
with local government, local NGOs, and local people.
In addition, his work succeeded for the project.
Through his activities, he could build confidence by
himself. It is important not only to transfer knowledge
but also to let person have responsibility in the field.
3. Connection making: Through the working, he negotiated
and discussed with the highest person or person in UN
ISDR. Even if he was not involved in the project, he
could not meet such people. It is great opportunities for
him to meet them and can motivate him to be involved in
disaster management. In addition, he could make
connection with various people. He could conduct
many activities, utilizing connection with stakeholders.
To continue NGO activities, help or cooperation from
stakeholders is necessary. Additionally, making good
relationship or meeting with persons who it is difficult to
meet in daily life is great opportunities for the president.
Such opportunities are pleasure for him and motivate
him more.
4.2. Role of Outside Organization
When outside organization conducts project, it is necessary to
consider sustainability of project. As for sustainability, key
persons are community involved in project and local staffs.
Therefore, it is necessary that they realize usefulness and
importance of sustainability. It means that outside
organizations should play role of trainer for local people. In
the project conducted by the author, the assistant realized it
and is doing various types of works for disaster reduction and
community development. Currently, EDM-NIED and STAR
are doing two research projects. EDM-NIED is providing
small fund to STAR.
STAR is a new NGO. It is difficult for new NGOs to
acquire project fund by themselves. Even if NGO has good
skills or abilities, NGO has difficulties to survive. It is
important for NGO to continue work and increase their
experience and knowledge. Therefore, the roles of outside
organizations can be proposed as below;
・ Motivate local person
・ Give responsibility
・ Discuss closely to understand each other
・ Work (Support) continuously
・ Bridge with related persons
Close discussion is necessary to make good relationship
among stakeholders, for example, between project manager
and assistant or between practitioner and community. Good
relationship is necessary to conduct projects (Center for
Disaster Mitigation, Instituit Teknologi Bandung, 2008).
But it is necessary for capacity building process as well as
implementation of project.
5. Conclusion
Onda (2001) mentioned that capacity building includes
conscientization and self-empowerment. According to his
description, self-empowerment is in the basis of self-reliance,
self-help, and self-determination. Three steps proposed as
capacity building process in this paper has similar parts of
conscientization and self-empowerment. Motivated for
disaster management is conscientization. Confidence
building is self-reliance. Through making connection, the
NGO could conduct their activities. This process is self-help
and self-determination. Therefore, capacity building process
for STAR can be regarded as good practices.
This paper propose motivation, confidence building, and
connection making as capacity building process and close
discussion is effective factors. In the future, monitoring of
capacity building of STAR is required. The process is useful
for development of NGO activities for future research.
References
Center for Disaster Mitigation, Instituit Teknologi Bandung
(2008). Final Report Disaster Reduction Technology in
Indonesia, pp. 12
National Disaster Management Authority of Pakistan (2008).
Pakistan: Learning from Disasters to Build a Disaster
Resilient Pakistan,
http://www.unisdr.org/eng/isdr-system/docs/ecosoc-19jul-P
akistan%20.ppt#256,1,Pakistan: Learning from Disasters to
Build a disaster Resilient Pakistan (accessed in 2008)
Onda M. (2001). Development sociology: Theory and
implementation, Minerva Publishing CO., Ltd, pp. 96 (in
Japanese)
Personal communication (2008). Discussion between
EDM-NIED and STAR Foundation
Shiwaku K., and Shaw R., “Proactive Co-learning: A New
Paradigm in Disaster Education”, Disaster Prevention and
Management (to be published)
UNCRD (2004). A USER’S Guide: Sustainable Community
Based Disaster Management (CBDM) Practices in Asia
UN ISDR, ADRRN, and Kyoto University (2007). Final
Report on Training and Capacity Enhancement of Local
Governments in the Earthquake Affected Area of Pakistan,
pp. 26 – 32
UN ISDR (2008). Pakistan 8th October Earthquake,
http://www.unisdr.org/eng/task%20force/tf-meetigns/12th-
TF-mtg/item2-Pakistan-IATF-12.ppt#261,3,Earthquake
Statistics (accessed in 2008)
Session Summary:
Following issues were discussed in the session:

1. Three major issues of disaster education are discussed

- School Education
- Community Education
- Higher Education

2. Disaster education context

- Disaster education is process based
- Disaster education is participatory and needs involvement of different
stakeholders
- There are common elements of different types of disaster education (landslide,
earthquake, tsunami, cyclone etc.)
- Disaster education should be gender sensitive

3. As the product of disaster education, there are several alternatives:

- Curriculum and information data base
- Risk Communication Tools
- Public information (poster and brochure and video)
- Handbook for people and policy makers

4. Different Actors
- Teachers
- Local Government
- Local NGOs

5. Missing issues and way forward

- Policy dialogue
 Appendix: Book Chapter

Shaw R., Takeuchi Y. and Rouhban B. (2009): “Education, Capacity Building and Public Awareness for
Disaster Reduction”: In: Landslide Disaster Risk Reduction, Sassa K. and Canuti P. (eds). Page 499-516,
Springer Publication.
Education, Capacity Building and Public Awareness for
Disaster Reduction
Rajib Shaw (Kyoto University, Japan), Yukiko Takeuchi (Kyoto University, Japan), and Badaoui Rouhban
(UNESCO, France)・
Abstract
Education is the key element for reducing disasters caused by
natural hazards including landslides and achieving human
security in the pursuit of sustainable development. The
Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 and “Words Into
Action: A Guide for Implementing the Hyogo Framework”
prepared by UN/ISDR emphasize the role of formal and
non-formal education and awareness raising as a core
component of risk reduction initiatives.
Past experience, projects, and programs have revealed
enormously positive effects of education for vulnerability
reduction and disaster risk management. Children and adults
who know how to react in case of a disaster, community
leaders who have learned to warn their people in time, and
whole social layers who have been taught how to prepare
themselves for natural hazards have contributed to better
mitigation strategies and dissemination of information on the
dangers of hazards. Education and knowledge have provided
people with tools for vulnerability reduction and
life-improving self-help strategies. Furthermore, more stable
and disaster resilient education facilities, such as school
buildings, provide a shelter in case of hazards and must be
strengthened and improved through better engineering and
technical knowledge.
Education also plays a substantial role in improving risk
assessment procedures in nearby communities, in
encouraging people to engage in building up resiliency and to
generally reduce risk elements in communities. For education
on risk reduction to have its desired impact on communities,
it needs to reach out to the remotest development worker in
the field. Such education needs to be made accessible and
affordable for frontline practitioners who operate at
community level and are often far removed from conventional
knowledge centers such as universities.
Thus, while there is no argument that education is important,
and it works, the challenge is how to effectively incorporate
education for disaster reduction in the national and local
government policy and programs, and how to reduce the gap
between knowledge and practice through experiencing
learning. A pro-active co-learning approach of linking
school and formal education to community is the essential for
the success of disaster education.
Keywords
Disaster Education, Participatory, Community based,
Co-learning, Experiencing learning.
“Education, including formal education, public awareness
and training, should be recognized as a process by which
human beings and societies can reach their fullest potential.
Education is critical for promoting sustainable development
and improving the capacity of the people to address
environment and development issues.
While basic education provides the underpinning for any
environment and development education, the latter needs to
be incorporated as an essential part of learning. Both
formal and non-formal education is indispensable to
changing people’s attitudes so that they have the capacity to
assess and address their sustainable development concerns”.
Chapter 36 of AGENDA 21, on ‘Education, Awareness and Training (1992)
1. Introduction
The vision of education emphasizes a holistic,
interdisciplinary approach to developing the knowledge and
skills needed for a sustainable future, as well as the necessary
changes in values, behaviors and lifestyles. However,
education for sustainable development in not restricted to the
transmission of knowledge and skills. It should be about
learning how to obtain and synthesize the knowledge that
equips us, individually and collectively, to forge a sustainable
coexistence with our social and ecological environments
(Shaw 2008a). Disaster risk reduction education can be
documented since the 1970’s as scientists, engineers,
technical experts, economic development workers and
humanitarian aid responders began to produce guidance in the
form of brochures, handbooks, and lesson plans for
community outreach, public campaigns, and classrooms, on a
relatively small scale (Petal 2008).
During the International Decade of Natural Disaster
Reduction (IDNDR) in the 1990’s significant public
education efforts emerged in many nations, and 'hazards
education' took root in science classes in schools. The quality
and quantity of publications expanded as desktop publishing
made production more efficient. Since the turn of the
millennium, especially as a result of communication and
information-sharing opportunities facilitated by the Internet,
disaster risk reduction champions have produced a plethora of
educational materials for school children and the general
public alike.
A major breakthrough in disaster education was observed in
2005 onward when the important of education was vividly
recognized in the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA:
2005-2015). One of the major pillars of HFA was education,
training and capacity building. HFA identified selected
issues of education, training and public awareness programs
as follow:
- Providing easily understandable information on disaster
risks and protection options, especially to citizens in
high-risk areas, to encourage and enable people to take
action to reduce risks and build resilience. The
information should incorporate relevant traditional and
 indigenous knowledge and culture heritage and be
tailored to different target audiences, taking into account
cultural and social factors.
- Strengthening networks among disaster experts,
managers and planners across sectors and between
regions, and creating or strengthening procedures for
using available expertise when agencies and other
important actors develop local risk reduction plans.
- Promoting and improve dialogue and cooperation among
scientific communities and practitioners working on
disaster risk reduction, and encourage partnerships
among stakeholders, including those working on the
socioeconomic dimensions of disaster risk reduction.
- Promoting the use, application and affordability of recent
information, communication and space-based
technologies and related services, as well as earth
observations, to support disaster risk reduction,
particularly for training and for the sharing and
dissemination of information among different categories
of users.
- Promoting the inclusion of disaster risk reduction
knowledge in relevant sections of school curricula at all
levels and the use of other formal and informal channels
to reach youth and children with information;
- Develop training and learning programs in disaster risk
reduction targeted at specific sectors (development
planners, emergency managers, local government
officials, etc.).
- Promoting community-based training initiatives,
considering the role of volunteers, as appropriate, to
enhance local capacities to mitigate and cope with
disasters.
- Promote the engagement of the media in order to
stimulate a culture of disaster resilience and strong
community involvement in sustained public education
campaigns and public consultations at all levels of
society.
It can be said that school education is one of “disaster
prevention in daily life”. Everyone has chance equally to get
school education. It leads to be a long-term countermeasure
for disaster prevention for children to acquire knowledge and
skill about it. Recently, some schools in Japan make disaster
education using integrated learning period or collaborating
with community. There are varieties of educational materials,
such as “disaster education challenge plan (CP 2005)” which
shows good practice examples on the homepage. Some
teachers say that they don’t have confidence to teach disaster
prevention even there are some educational materials. But it is
not necessary for teachers or school itself to have all things
about disaster prevention. There are some examples like
Maiko High School, Otsu High School etc. that network with
experts of disaster prevention such as municipality and
university, and community support the education. It will be all
right just to involve pupils, teachers or school system itself to
network with those who teach what one doesn’t know and
organization or group to work with on disaster prevention.
Town watching and disaster game which gather attention in
these days are applicable to this.
In this chapter, different means of disaster education are
discussed focusing on formal and non-formal education
system. School and university education processes are
described with reference to the formal education.
School-community interaction is analyzed as a unique model
of disaster education. For awareness raising and capacity
building, community based disaster education and indigenous
knowledge system are focused. Finally, a few suggested
directions are provided for effective use of knowledge system
in developing disaster education, capacity building and
awareness raising programs.
2. UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development
The United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the
ten-year period from 2005 to 2014 as the United Nations
Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD
2005). Governments around the world are invited to use the
Decade to integrate education for sustainable development
into their national educational strategies and action plans at
all appropriate levels.
UNESCO is designated as the Lead Agency in the promotion
of the Decade, and is required to consult with the United
Nations and other relevant international organizations,
governments, non-governmental organizations and other
stakeholders to develop a draft international implementation
scheme for the Decade, bearing in mind the relationships
between education for sustainable development and current
international educational priorities.
The Rio Declaration from the World Conference on
Environmental and Development 1992 began by stating:
“Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable
development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive
life in harmony with nature”.
The Johannesburg Declaration at the World Summit on
Sustainable Development in 2002 built on this aspiration and
expressed the commitment of world leaders “to build a
humane, equitable and caring global society cognizant of the
need for human dignity for all.” Sustainable development is
a dynamic and evolving concept with many dimensions and
interpretations and reflects locally relevant and culturally
appropriate visions for a world in which development “meets
the needs of the present without comprising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs”. The
Millennium Development Goals provide targets for
international actions to bring such visions into reality by:
overcoming poverty; improving child, maternal and sexual
health; expanding educational provision and redressing
gender inequalities in education; and developing national
strategies for sustainable development.
Then Secretary General of the United Nations, Mr Kofi
Annan, argued that: “Our biggest challenge in this new
century is to take an idea that sounds abstract – sustainable
development – and turn it into reality for all the world’s
people”.
Making the abstract real, and developing the capacities of
individuals and societies to work for a sustainable future is,
essentially, an educational enterprise. Indeed, the four
principles for achieving sustainable human development
enunciated at the World Summit for Sustainable Development
in 2002 reflect the four pillars of education described in the
Delors Report as in Table 1 (Delors 2002):
Table 1. Four pillars of education described in Delros Report
Achieving sustainable Education provides the
development requires: skills for:
Recognition of the Learning to know
challenge
Collective responsibility Learning to live together
and constructive
partnership
Acting with determination Learning to do
The indivisibility of human Learning to be
dignity
Thus, education is the primary agent of transformation
towards sustainable development, increasing people’s
capacities to transform their visions for society into reality.
Education not only provides scientific and technical skills, it
also provides the motivation, justification, and social support
for pursuing and applying them. The international
community now strongly believes that we need to foster -
through education - the values, behavior and lifestyles
required for a sustainable future. Education for sustainable
development has come to be seen as a process of learning
how to make decisions that consider the long-term future of
the economy, ecology and equity of all communities.
Building the capacity for such futures-oriented thinking is a
key task of education.
Education for Sustainable Development has four major
domains, reflecting diverse goals and audiences: promotion
and improvement of: 1) basic education, 2) reorienting
existing education at all levels to address sustainable
development, 3) developing public understanding and
awareness of sustainability, and 4) training. Thus, the focus
of DESD activities will be advocacy, communication and
networking directed at facilitating all educators to include
sustainable development concerns and goals in their own
programs. These issues constitute the priorities for planning
programs and activities that will support the objectives of
DESD, and include: 1) Overcoming poverty, 2) Gender
equality, 3) Health promotion, 4) Environmental conservation
and protection, 5) rural transformation, 6) human rights, 7)
intercultural understanding and peace, 8) sustainable
production and consumption, 9) cultural diversity, and 10)
information an communication technologies (ICTs). These
many areas of overlap and common interest, both in
approaches to education and in areas of substantive objectives,
suggest that joint initiatives across DESD can add value to the
common effort of each individually.
To achieve these goals and target these diverse issues, it is
essential to promote the DESD through partnership.
Partners in the DESD include all those organizations,
networks, bodies and alliances that share the conviction that
sustainable development depends to a large extent on
broad-based awareness through educational and learning
processes. It is required to mention one point that disaster
risk education is not explicitly mentioned in the DESD scope
and focus areas, however, there are several overlap areas of
environment and sustainable development, which needs focus
on risk reduction, and therefore needs disaster education.
3. Disaster Risk Education: Evolution and Challenges
Up until now, most of the educational efforts directed towards
the public and children have neither been systematically
conceived nor tested, nor has their impact been scientifically
evaluated (Petal 2008). Disaster risk reduction education is
not yet an integral part of disaster risk management policy,
planning and implementation. Often scientific and technical
experts have taken the tasks of developing educational
materials upon themselves with very little evidence of
cross-disciplinary inputs from public health, communications,
marketing and education professionals with experience in
allied efforts. It is time now to begin to give substance to the
terms “public awareness” and “disaster risk reduction
education”, to lay out some of the “do’s and don’ts” that we
have already identified, to identify the range of methods that
are open to us, and to discuss how we might identify
promising practices, evaluate our impacts, and scale-up to the
level needed to achieve a tipping point in establishing a
culture of safety. A new cadre of researchers and
research-support will be needed to advance this goal.
Disaster risk education has different components and
challenges. There are two specific types of risk education:
one is to show the occurrence of hazards, which is more as
the physical phenomena. Most parts of these are taught in
schools as a part of geography curriculum. The other is to
know the social environment, and to understand the impacts
of disasters, which is more like a process based education.
Two major issues related to earthquake disaster pose the real
challenge to the earthquake professionals. The first one is
the nature of the event, which, unlike flood or typhoon,
cannot be predicted in advance. The other issue is its
occurrence, which, again unlike other events, occurs once in
10 or 50 or even 100 years. Thus, the priorities of preparing
for the earthquake disaster in advance is relatively low in
many countries. For the developing countries, while the
post-disaster reconstruction exercise provides an opportunity
for development, pre-disaster preparedness and mitigation
measures are the only solution for earthquake risk reduction.
However, the painful question is: how to motivate an
individual and/or community to take pre-disaster risk
reduction actions?
This question is not only critical for the developing countries,
but also found to be relevant for the developed country like
Japan, which has a high risk of earthquake, experiences of
major earthquake disasters, and significant technical expertise
and resources. Still the question arises: ‘Is Japan prepared
for the next big one?’ The same question will possibly be
valid for other developed countries and obviously for the
developing countries as well.
At the core of disaster risk reduction education is the axiom
that disasters are not inevitable (Petal 2008). We already
know of and are continuously discovering a broad range of
preventative actions that can be taken at every level to avert
terrible losses of life, livelihood and community.
The mission of disaster risk reduction, both for children and
for adults in all walks of life, is to convey an understanding of
the natural and environmental conditions and the human
actions and inactions that lead to disaster, to stimulate
changes in individual and group behavior, and to motivate
advocacy and raise expectations of social policy to reduce
these threats. Since disaster risk reduction cannot be
accomplished by any one sector or strata of society, it calls for
the widest possible participation. The scope of disaster risk
reduction education therefore includes every single
stakeholder who may be affected by disaster in his or her
lifetime, or their children or grandchildren’s lifetime, and
everyone’s whose opinions and decisions affect others.
Each individual, family, organization, community, agency,
department, jurisdiction, and policy-making body must come
to recognize and embrace it's own role in a large cooperative
effort. Information must be sought and shared and each must
feel that there are effective measures that they are able and
responsible to undertake.
4. Components of Education and Public Awareness
Shiwaku K. (Earthquake Disaster Mitigation Research
Institute, Japan)
Shaw R. (Kyoto University, Japan)
Shaw et al. (2004) argued that knowledge, awareness and
code of conduct are perceived in the sequence of: knowing,
realizing, deepening, decision, and action, as the gradual
change in behavior from knowing to code of conduct.
Knowledge comes from two sources: experience and
education. Experience here denotes not only experiences of
damaging earthquakes, but general experience of earthquakes.
Education has four parts: school, family, community and self
education. School education is divided into two parts:
education from teachers, and pro-active education with
participation of teachers and students. Family education
originates from parents, and other family members.
Community education is related to education in the
neighborhood, community organizations, NGO activities,
research workers, and voluntary activities, etc. Self education
is acquired from books, Internet, newspaper, TV and other
sources through the student’s own initiative. All these lead to
‘‘knowing’’ about earthquakes and its impacts (Shiwaku
2008).
Thus, the components can be categorized as: Formal and
Non-formal education. Formal education has a wider range,
from the school to higher education in the university.
Non-formal education, on other hand is extremely broad,
having its components to community education, training, and
capacity building. Following sections will show that even if
there exists the broad category of formal and non-formal
education, there are often overlap, especially the formal
education needs to break its traditional boundary, and needs
to be merged with the community education.
5. School Education
Fujita K., Takeuchi Y and Shaw R. (Kyoto University,
Japan)
Speaking of disaster education in school, most people
imagine the evacuation drill. It is almost uniform training,
where students huddle under the table by alarm bell and
evacuate to the school ground with teacher’s instruction. In
most schools, it is done on 1st Sept., “the Disaster Prevention
Day”. It is a memorial day based on the Great Kanto
Earthquake happened in 1923. There are two problems of the
Disaster Prevention Day; one is that students think of disaster
only for one day in a year; and the Great Kanto Earthquake is
rather difficult to imagine in local context (Yoshida 2007).
While disaster education draws attention gradually and
adopted in some schools, the number is not so large on a
national basis. There is thought to remain some problems as
follows.
(1) Lack of teachers’ training
Awareness-raising of teachers will be the starting point of
disaster education (Fukuwa, 2005). At first, teachers
themselves should study and make a menu of disaster
education. In Japan, there are about 24,000 elementary
schools, 11,000 junior high schools, 5,500 high schools.
Teachers are about 410,000, 280,000, 330,000 in the
elementary schools, junior high schools and high schools
respectively. They are professional of talking and education,
and the best human resource for improvement of
disaster-resistance both in quantity and quality. Understanding
and realizing the urgency of earthquakes and crisis lead to
their awareness raising and willingness increasing and be a
starting point of serious study and education.
To conduct proper disaster education, it is necessary for
teachers to have enough knowledge about disaster education
(Takahashi, et.al, 2004). It is thought to be important to set up
a forum regularly for teachers to study knowledge about
earthquake and the way of effective disaster education. While
disaster education is conducted through many opportunities,
there is a problem of lack of human resource who stands on
the side of teaching (Shigekawa, 2003).
(2) Time pressure in school curriculum
While school education is under time pressure and by the
introduction of five-day week system, class hours are cut, its
role is more and more expected and it becomes impossible to
spare much time especially for disaster prevention, in fact.
(3) Lack of involvements of parents and family
School education is related to motivate students and their
parents or family to take countermeasures for disasters
(Takahashi, et. al, 2004). To involve parents or family to
school disaster education will lead to disaster resilient town
development.

(4) Lack of linkage of scientific studies with social issues
According to the official curriculum guideline, 3rd and 4th
grade elementary school students learn about disaster
prevention of earthquake and volcano in social science. 6th
grade students learn about natural phenomenon in unit of
“earth and space” in science. Here, they can choose either
“land change by eruption” or “land change by earthquake”.
There needs linkage between science and social science.
(5) In-school education
Though the importance of cooperation between school and
community to conduct disaster education is recognized, there
are not so many practical examples. One reason is considered
that school, parents, community people respectively worry
about the security and hesitate to collaborate.
(6) Events-oriented education
Typified by evacuation drill, events-oriented disaster
education is common. Students may temporarily get
knowledge or raise awareness for disaster prevention, but it
gradually fades as time goes by. On the other hand, in
process-oriented education, they study toward a goal which is
given or they themselves set. Such kind of education becomes
popular with introduction of integrated learning period.
Although the above factors are described in context to
Japanese school education, author’s experiences in the
developing countries, especially in Nepal, Pakistan, India,
Indonesia and Vietnam tells the same story. Thus, to have an
effective school education, it is required to address the above
mentioned problems.
But disaster education in school began to change in Japan,
especially since the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (GHE)
in 1995. This earthquake caused devastating damage, but
brought us many lessons. Existing disaster education is
positioned as one of safety education by Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT).
There are conducted to acquire necessary skills to protect
one’s own life from disasters and to raise awareness for
disaster prevention. In the area which experienced the GHE
including Kobe, disaster education is practiced adding letting
them consider one’s lifestyle as human, which was not
included in the area of existing disaster education defined by
MEXT. That is, it aims to make use of many examples which
can be education materials, such as mutual cooperation, spirit
of volunteer, importance of life, reverence for nature, and so
on, which was not assumed before the earthquake, and to
nurture zest for living (Fujiwara and Onishi, 2002).
Introduction of integrated learning period, “Sogo Gakushu” in
Japanese, was also an opportunity to find new way of disaster
education. In 2002, integrated learning period starts from 3rd
grade in elementary school to high school. According to the
official curriculum guidelines for elementary school (MEXT,
2003), its aim is to nurture the abilities to find problems, learn
and consider by pupils themselves, be proactive in judging
and solving problems in a better way. Also, to acquire the way
of learning and thinking like collecting information, research,
summary, report, presentation and discussion, to nurture the
attitude to address problem solving and searching activities
creatively and actively, to deepen awareness of one’s own
lifestyle. As the examples, international understanding,
information, environment, welfare and health are given.
Disaster education is not listed, but it is considered to be
suitable for the integrated learning period, as it cuts across
information, environment and welfare (Umeda et. al, 1999).
There is a good practice of disaster education using the
integrated learning period. Otsu Elementary School in Kochi
Prefecture conducted “Project of developing disaster resilient
town in 2004 (Disaster Education Challenge Plan, 2006)”.
This is on scheme of “project learning (Suzuki, 2003)”, using
integrated learning period for 50 classes for 6th grade pupils.
The contents are; to make evacuation route maps of the local
area through DIG (Disaster Imagination Game), to implement
“The 3rd Otsu Kids Disaster Prevention Drill” which pupils
themselves plan and operate (for example, evacuation drill
from affected room, proposal of disaster prevention idea
products, and so on), to make and perform “puppet show of
disaster prevention” for small children, activities for raising
money and writing encouraging letters for victims by the
Nigata-Chuetsu Earthquake, proposal of “disaster prevention
cooking” and spreading to pupils and parents, to report their
practices, propose and urge disaster prevention in the lecture
for disaster prevention hosted by Kochi Prefecture, in which
about 500 citizens participated.
6. Community Based School Education
Shaw R. (Kyoto University, Japan)
Shaw (2008b) has emphasized the need of community based
school education. Among recent years, 2004 was the worst
typhoon year, where more than 13 events hit the mainland
Japan. Among these, Typhoon no 21 and 23 moved across
Shikoku area. Because of this, in Saijo City of Ehime
Prefecture, it recorded heavy rain, 75.5~150 mm rainfall per
hour. Avalanche of rocks, earth and driftwood surged which
seemed to be occurred by slope destruction of intermediate
and mountainous area and forming destruction of natural dam.
A lot of driftwood got stuck with bridge pier and water was
held back and overflowed. As the water level rose suddenly,
surrounding houses were flooded. In the flat part, each area
was flooded above or below floor level. In the mountainous
area, landslide disaster occurred frequently, roads were
severed, many villages were isolated and house destruction
and human suffering were caused. The casualty in Ehime
prefecture by typhoon no.21 amounted to 14 people and this
is the worst record in human suffering caused by typhoon.
Three emerging problems due to the typhoon were as follows.
(1) Ill-maintained forest and thinned wood in the mountains
Frequent small slope failure by the concentrated heavy rain of
typhoon no.21 added to the damage. While “deep-seated
landslide” which each ground slides is not related to the form
of forest, “shallow landslide” which surface soil slides
directly results from the extent of maintenance. In addition, in
artificial forests which are not thinned for a long time,
sunlight doesn’t reach ground and bottom weed and young
trees are difficult to grow. When it rains there, surface soil is
hit directly by raindrops and clogged, and rain water which
cannot soak through the ground runs on the surface. The
“water road” caused by the erosion forms valley and finally
draws mudslides involving surface soil and fallen trees.
Abandoned thinned wood were also the problem. They flew
into the river by the heavy rain, got stuck with bridge pier and
water was overflowed downstream (Figure 1 and 2).
Figure1. Widespread landslide in Saijo covering the tunnel
and national expressway.
Figure 2. Poorly maintained forest uprooted by strong wind
(top left), transported land masses (top right), timber and
other waste blocking the river flow (bottom left) and uprooted
trees causing significant damages to buildings (bottom right).
(2) Concentration of elderly people in mountainous area
According to the rate of aging in each area of Saijo City, the
first to forth areas are mountainous areas and it means there
are many elderly people there. In the typhoons of 2004,
especially mountainous area was seriously affected. Some
areas were isolated because the roads were blocked. In such
areas, young people’s help is needed for elderly people to
evacuate.
(3) Low awareness for disaster prevention
Referring to disaster history of Saijo City, there had been no
such large typhoons in these days. These typhoons caused
first dead since 1976 in old Saijo City. Fading memory of
disasters leads declining awareness for disaster prevention.
Also, judging with one’s own experience is dangerous.
According to the questionnaire survey in Ofuki area (OYO,
2005), many people didn’t evacuate for the reason that they
just thought it was not dangerous or judged from their long
experience and thought it was not so dangerous to evacuate.
At the time of the typhoon no.21&23 in 2004, mountainous
area of Saijo City was especially damaged. Land condition
and concentrated heavy rain are major factors, but there are
other reasons concerning so-called software. In the
mountainous area, there live many elderly people and few
young people. So some elderly people had difficulty to
evacuate and needed help of young people. Low awareness
for disaster prevention is also the problem. According to the
research of OYO cooperation, not a few people didn’t
evacuate at the typhoon. The same problem is considered in
the plain area.
Plain area is rather urban and there are many young people.
So, it is necessary to make “disaster prevention network”
between the plain area and the mountainous area, so as to help
elderly people in the mountainous area in case of a disaster.
As the driftwood stuck with bridge pier caused flood to the
plain area, disaster in the mountainous area have relations
with that in the plain area. Both residents have to know each
other about the circumstances.
For these reasons, mountain watching is proposed to be
implemented in Saijo City. Mountain watching is just like
town watching and it is conducted in the mountainous area.
Main target is children, and also residents in the mountain,
teachers, municipal officials and forest workers are involved.
The working field was upper area of a river along school.
Participants watched the damaged site by the typhoon in 2004
and heard the story from victims.
At the same time, town watching was proposed to be
implemented in plain area. The main target was students and
teachers, parents, Jichikai and municipal officers are involved.
They walk around the school zone and search for dangerous
places, useful facilities in case of disasters and favorite places
which they did not notice in daily life (Figure 3).
Town watching was implemented in five elementary schools
and mountain watching in three junior high schools as
“disaster education program”, which was an activity of
12-year-old education project.
 emergencies rapidly, efficiently and fairly, and therefore the
resources will be used economically. Maskrey (1989)
pointed out that ‘top-down’ programs in which communities
are not involved tend not to reach those worst affected by
disaster, and may even make them more vulnerable. This is
found to be similar in both developing and developed
countries, as argued by Shaw and Goda (2003).

Community involvement is often faced the problem of

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of collective community based
education (town watching and mountain watching).
Students were asked to describe what they knew about the
typhoon in 2004. The answers were categorized to 4 groups;
a) impact on typhoon itself (e.g., it rained heavily, it caused
great damage, etc.), b) impact on land and infrastructure (e.g.,
the river was overflowed, there were lots of mudslide in
mountains, etc.), c) impact on houses and properties (e.g., the
houses were flooded over the floor level, rice fields were
flooded, etc.), d) impact on human (e.g., people evacuated to
the school gym, there were a few dead, etc.).
sustainability (Shaw 2004). Government, non-government
and international organizations implement various programs
before and after the disasters. Most of them are very
successful during the project period, and gradually diminish
as the years passed. There are many reasons for gradual
decrease of people’s involvement in a project. The most
common elements are partnership, participation,
empowerment and ownership of the local communities.
Unless the disaster management efforts are sustainable at
individual and community level, it is difficult to reduce the
losses and tragedy. While people should own the problems,
consequences and challenges of any mitigation and/or
preparedness initiative, it is necessary to see people’s
involvement in a broader perspective, which is related to
policy and strategy.

The results showed that the schools having more interaction

with the local community, the impacts of the town and
mountain watching was high. The importance of disaster
education becomes well-recognized and the number of
schools which adopt it increases. But there are some problems
in current disaster education, for example, lack of teachers’
training, time pressure in school curriculum, lack of
involvements of parents and family, lack of linkage of
scientific studies with social issues, in-school education and
events-oriented education. Fujita et al. (2008) has pointed out
similar approaches in Reihoku areas of Kochi prefecture.

7. Community Based Disaster Education

Takeuchi Y. (Kyoto University, Japan)

Prakash S. (National Institute of Disaster Management,
India)
As more research on development has been conducted in
various fields in recent years, the approach to disaster
mitigation is becoming more and more community-based
(Blaikie et.al (1994), Twigg and Bhatt (1998), Quarantelli
(1989), Mileti (2001), Shaw and Okazaki 2003), and much
more effort has been put into incorporating disaster
management aspects into the holistic development of
communities. Maskrey (1989) has rightly pointed out that,
disaster management should not be treated as one single issue
but should be incorporated into the socioeconomic activities
of local people. The rationale for community involvement or
community-based activities is now well rehearsed (Twigg,
1999). Because community-based activities (and Figure 4. Community Hazard Map for Risk Information
community-based organizations) are deeply rooted in the Sharing
society and culture of an area, they enable people to express
their real needs and priorities, allowing problems to be defined The first and most important issue of community based
correctly and responsive measures to be designed and education is sharing of risk information to the local
implemented. Twigg (1999) also argued that the existence of community (Takeuchi 2008). Figure 4 shows the
community-based organizations allows people to respond to community hazard map, which shows potential of landslide
risk in the community. This hazard map can be use together
with the vulnerability map to develop community risk
mapping. The key point here is share risk information,
which is the first step of rick communication.

Figure 5. Landslide-prone area (left), which is identified by

the pillar on the right diagram.

Figure 5 shows the display of risk information in the

community. This is the second step of risk communication,
where the risk elements are shown in the field. The display
of the pillar identifies the risk areas, and thus, aware the local
community to undertake appropriate pre-cautionary measures.

Disaster information or memories are often forgotten. It is
important to display disaster memory and experiences in the
field, which in turn raises awareness of the people and
communities towards risk reduction, and urge to undertake
pro-active stance to risk. Figure 6 shows the flood pole in
Tokooka, which is often used by the local students and
community members to discuss about the historical flooding
of 2004.
Figure 6. Flood-pole in Toyooka-city to demonstrate the flood
height in 2004 Typhoon 24.
Prakash (2008) has also pointed out the need of the
community based disaster risk management and education in
different parts of India.

A few issues which emerged from successful community 8. Examples of Geo-Hazard Education in University
based implementation are (Shaw 2006): leadership and local
knowledge, teamwork and common voice, right information Karnawati D.（Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia）
and appropriate ways of communication, institutionalization
Karnawati (2008) described the formal disaster education in
and participation, people’s attitude and incentive, economic
higher education. Knowledge of geo-hazard mitigation has
cycle and local contribution, local government and policy
been introduced for undergraduate program in some
integration, and theory and application. Figure 5 shows the
universities in ASEAN countries, such as in Indonesia,
conceptual framework of community sustainability and
Malaysia, the Philippine, and Thailand. However, such
up-scaling, incorporating the issues of flood impacts and
knowledge has not yet provided in a special subject. It is only
interventions. In one hand, policy and institution are key
provided as one topic of discussion which is integrated in any
factors for its sustainability at government level, while the
one of the subjects of Environmental Geology, Soil Mechanic,
incorporation of change agents and appropriate information
Geotechnics, Hydrology, Geohydrology, Volcanology and or
make it sustainable at grass-root level. A synergy of these
Seismology. Discussion on Geohazard topic is focused on
two elements is required for long-term impact of
factors controlling the hazard occurrence, the mechanisms
community-based initiatives. In case of both Bangladesh
and processes leading to the hazard, how to predict, mitigate
and Vietnam, this synergy is ensured by working with local
and control such hazard. Unfortunately, limited practical
government. The institutional issues in both cases
exercises and field works are provided for students due to the
emphasize the need to strengthen the local institutions rather
limited concerns on the importance of geohazard education.
than creating new institutions. Capacity building of change
Similar to the undergraduate education, in the postgraduate
agents is observed in both cases. Crucial information
program (master program) quite few universities in Indonesia
dissemination to different stakeholders was also found to be
and some other ASEAN countries provided special courses on
important.
Geohazard Management. Moreover, most of the existing
geohazard education more emphasizes on the cognitive aspect
of teaching for the enhancement of knowledge, but less effort
to provide effective learning method which include sufficient
field and laboratory works.
Despite some limitations in conducting geohazard education
at the university level, students at the university are
considered as the strategic target for human resource
empowerment in geohazard prone area. Indeed, the students
will be the future analysts and policy makers for geohazard
management in their countries. Thus, they will be the seeds
for agent of change to further trigger the development human
resources on geohazard management in the countries. That is
why mechanism and method of geohazard education in the
universities need to be further enhanced through several
stages as follows:
• Enhance the learning method on geohazard education.
• Provide more research opportunities on geohazard
educations
• Establish the education network on geohazard
education.
• Establish the school on the move to support the
enhancement of research and education on geohazard
management.
Interactive learning method through student working groups
by providing case studies needs to be done in order to
enhance the existing learning method. More effective learning
process can be stimulated by introducing real case problem
supported by field work, working group discussion and
seminars. This learning program should be a media for the
students to learn to apply their knowledge as well their
thinking skills critically and creatively to make sound
decisions and to solve complex problems on geohazards.
Even though, the case studies for the final year students to
conduct their research works are also important. Supports
from government agency also required as the internship
program to provide facilities and opportunities for students to
deal with the real problems in the field and communities.
Since problems on geohazard management are complex, so
interdisciplinary approach also need to be elaborated by
inviting the related experts from other disciplines to be the
external resources. Obviously, establishment of networks for
geohazard educations at national and ASEAN levels are
crucial to facilitate the effective learning and research
program on geohazard education. Not only government
agency, but also research institutes or research center, private
companies, nongovernmental organization/ agency, schools
and universities are required to be actively participate
collaborate in the network for geohazard education.
Establishment of collaborative research and education on
geohazard management by integrating several disciplines
such as Geology, Civil Engineering, Agriculture and Forest
Science, as well as Social Science and Psychology are
important to support the education program on geohazard
management. This collaborative research and education could
be facilitated through the networks. Since the year of 2003,
ASEAN University Network/ the South East ASEAN
Engineering Education Network (AUN/SEED-Net) has also
established the Field of Geological Engineering Networks
consisting several universities from Member Institution
Countries such as from Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Philippine, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam as
well as from Japan. In this network, education and research
on geohazard has been carried out. Due to the leading
experience to deal with geohazard problems, Gadjah Mada
Universities in Indonesia has been assigned as the Host
Institution for the network where students from other
countries in the network are now conducting the learning and
research on geohazard to obtain Master and Ph.D. Degree.
More active involvement of Geologist in disseminating their
research outcomes, especially those related to geohazard
management has been argued to be the key to raise public
awareness. The disseminated materials should include
information about mechanism of the geological process
leading to geohazard, the symptoms of geohazards, and also
practical knowledge on hazard preparedness and emergency
responses.
9. Indigenous Knowledge and Public Awareness
Indigenous knowledge research aims to facilitate the targeting
of development resources more effectively on the poor. The
compatibility of local ideas with scientific ones is a central
issue. It is absolutely necessary to facilitate communication
between scientists and local people, on the assumption,
fundamental to development interventions, that science may
have something to offer them in tackling their problems.
Furthermore, it is possible that if scientific and indigenous
knowledge are comparable, and if scientists are able to access
local knowledge, this might enhance new development of
research practices (Takeuchi and Shaw 2008). While, the
perception of indigenous knowledge varies, following are
some of selected popular definition of indigenous knowledge.
Indigenous knowledge is defined as “... the unique, traditional,
local knowledge existing within and developed around the
specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a
particular geographic area ...” (Grenier, 1998). One of the
major issues of the IK is that, in many cases, it survived as
part of process of the people and communities. Thus, IK is
very much characterized by multi-disciplinary nature, and is
based on food security, human and animal health, education,
natural resource management, and various other community
based activities. The other issue of IK is its dynamic
evolution. IK is the result of a continuous process of
experimentation, innovation, and adaptation. It has the
capacity to blend with knowledge based on science and
technology, and should therefore be considered
complementary to scientific and technological efforts to solve
problems in social and economic development.
In above-mentioned situation, in alluvial plain and delta area
flood disaster happens every year. In the past, people have no
control over the river, still, they guarded there life and assets
by small scale technology, knowledge, wisdom, tradition and
cooperation within community. For example, in the early 19th
century (Edo period), flood fighting activities were mandated
through the practice of “goninggumi”, a unit of mutual
assistance, cooperation and monitoring consisting of five
families in a given community. There were several
programs, including bamboo plating to prepare for and
mitigate flooding (Settu city, 2007). Also, forest management
in the flood plains is another such activity. During late 19th
century (Meiji period), many flood control technologies
implemented by engineers from Netherlands. People attained
better safety of life and assets by these technological
interventions like - concrete dikes, check dams, water gates
and pump facilities and others.
In the present modern era, construction of large dike and
dams by concrete is adopted as major technological solution.
This policy aims at no-flooding from river. However, in
earlier times, flooding from river was considered a natural
phenomenon in which people never tried to block the flood
rather developed some knowledge based tools to reduce the
damage. Flood used to bring fresh coating of silt and mud
helping soil regeneration and improved agricultural yield
Looking at present threat posed by climate change, it is
expected that mere technological options may not be
sufficient to reduce disaster impacts. Moreover, some of these
structures have failed in recent disasters and left people
helpless. These experiences suggest that, in vulnerable area’s,
people should protect their life and asset by utilizing some
historical indigenous knowledge and technology.
Although the application of traditional technology,
knowledge and its application is gradually reduced in most
parts of Japan, but there are several shortcoming to depend
only on the modern disaster reduction technology. The
traditional knowledge has been proven to be useful in the
local cultural, socio-economic context, which may change
from time to time, but the principles remain unchanged.
Since most of these traditional knowledge and technologies
are modified over a period of time, it has higher resilience and
redundancy. Moreover, people and community’s
involvement is the key to the success of the indigenous
knowledge. We have seen in recent days that too much
dependency on the modern technology makes people
dependent on the system. Thus, community’s capacities get
reduced and self-help concept often gets less importance.
Many of the recent disasters have shown the failure of the
system, and thereby making people helpless and causing
larger damages. Thus, an ideal situation disaster reduction
measure should incorporate balanced mixture of the modern
technology and traditional knowledge.
10. Ways of Safety Culture
Tsunozaki E. (Asian Disaster Reduction Center)
The key factors of disaster risk management are risk
perception, risk assessment and risk mitigation. Risk
perception is very much linked to the education and
awareness at different levels, starting from the community to
the high-level decision makers. Risk assessment needs the
intervention for both hazard and vulnerability. It is
important to incorporate to risk perception and risk
assessment in the development planning at different levels,
including local, regional and national. Risk mitigation
includes formulation of policy, strategy, and thereby
enhancing decision-making. Thus, actions at local level
should include capacity and institution building of local
government, and confidence building of the community,
while the actions at international level includes networking,
training and dissemination of best practices. The key point
of risk management is critical information. This information
is generated by academic and research institutions, through
scientific and technical innovations. However, there should
be a direct link between the research and development and the
policy making and decision making, since the end users of the
research results will be the decision and policy makers. It is
also important to turn the decision and policy into actions
through the implementation process. Thus, the risk
management can be seen as a dynamic process, where
different stakeholders have its role and responsibilities. This
is reflected in the disaster education program in other
countries as well as for other types of hazards (Tsunozaki
2008). It is argued that formal education plays an important
role in developing the safety culture.
Risk communication is a two-way interactive tool for sharing
risk information amongst government officials, researchers
and local people. To reinforce the risk communication,
government, researchers and local people must build upon
each other knowledge. Government departments and
researcher community usually possess much higher level of
‘risk information’ compared to local communities. On the
other hand, local communities are rich in terms of local
knowledge. Available risk information needs to be
complemented well with local wisdom to effectively reduce
disaster risks of the communities. Even if there is a need to
implement new technology for disaster reduction, local
people must be involved to let understand the advantages as
well as shortcomings of the technology (with specific details
pertaining to new material used, investment required, time
consumed and others). Government as well as academic
disciplines needs to appreciate existing traditional practices
and techniques to propose context based improvements most
appropriate for a particular area.
The most affected people from disasters are the most
vulnerable people in society. Elderly people, children, or
handicapped people are regarded as vulnerable people, as
example. They have many problems or troubles even in
daily life and need support from family members or
community people in order to live comfortably without any
uneasiness or worry. In disaster situation, such problems or
troubles emerge more obviously and they become more
serious. Therefore, disaster education should contribute to
building community which can help the most vulnerable
people (Shiwaku 2007). Here, this disaster education
focuses on not only disaster situation but also daily life.
Disaster education aims to that all people can live safely and
comfortably. Such community can be resilience in disaster
situation as results. Disasters make current problems on
community more serious and visualize underlying risks or
problems. Therefore, what is the most important is
considering community in daily life.
School is a place where children, who are vulnerable people,
spend much time next to their own houses. Students can
acquire various kinds of knowledge during their infant stage
to adolescence. It means that school contributes to
character-building of people and that school should be
emphasized for future generation. In addition to this, school
has other roles. Community people come to schools for
school events or their community activities. School is a
cultural and spiritual center for community as well as
education facility, and can be expected to build community
linkage among community people including school children.
Therefore, it is expected that the effects of disaster education
can be transferred to community people as well as children if
school become main place for implementation of disaster
education.
Yamori (2006) states that it is necessary for disaster education
in the future to focus on the process of restructuring
“communities of practice” not on transfer of knowledge and
skill between individuals. That is, it should be an important
goal of education or learning to establish community in which
educator and learner can “participate” together. For example
in school, it will be all right just to involve pupils, teachers or
school system itself to network with those who teach what
one doesn’t know and organization or group to work with on
disaster prevention. Teachers or school itself don’t need to
have all things about disaster prevention.
The goal of education is to change people’s behavior (Nathe
2000). Awareness about risks and dangers needs to start in
early education before abilities to address them can become
part of growing civic and professional responsibilities as
people mature (UN/ISDR 2004). The responsibility of
decision making from central government to local
government varies at different levels. It can be said that
only government cannot take all actions for prevention and
mitigation. In the time of disaster, the most vulnerable
people have the most serious effects. Now the importance
of community based disaster management is recognized
widely. The role of education should not be confined within
the school itself, but should be promoted to family and
community. The education should focus on students
different items including importance of community and
family, emphasizing to build a good relationship with
community through its classes. The high awareness and
actions in the students shows the success of the proactive
co-learning process (Shiwaku and Shaw 2008). It is thought
that a pro-active co-learning education process which
incorporates both school and community education can be the
model type of disaster education in other schools.
Acknowledgments
This paper is the collective work of several years in the field
of disaster risk education. We are grateful to different
academic, local governments and non-government
organizations. The work is also benefitted with the
collaboration from Saijo city government, and the research
grant of JSPS/MEXT (Water Community) is highly
acknowledged. The authors are also thankful to the
contributors of the Session 7 of the World Landslide Forum,
which form part of this chapter.
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