TV & FILM FORMAT

Introduction-General framework

The huge amount of work standing behind the small and large screen is referred as

format, a real innovation in the TV field. The audience is thus granted a product which is

the result of a hard, long and multilayered process. In this context, we will analyse the

sociological aspects of this widespread audiovisual product. Moreover, the media system

is called to cope with cultural, political and economical responsibilities and with

repercussions its messages and outputs can bring forward at international level though, so

far, surveys which could probe into this issue are still very few. In order to go over with the

various stages that lead to the development of a format, analysing every single tv output is

not enough: we need to look at the broader framework of the international markets, which

are those places where the licence for producing the idea of a tv product, the so-called

format, is purchased.

In the Italian TV history there are many examples of programs created by foreign

industries, then aired by the Italian broadcasters; the format market represents the last

step of a TV system which has by now turned from local (nationwide) into global. The

Italian TV system gone through many historical phases before it permanently opened itself

to these markets. In fact, the broadcasters modified their production procedures from time

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to time, first complying with the current legislations at national level, then adapting

themselves to the globalisation of the technological innovations and of the audiovisual

products. It is necessary to compare this virtual inter-action to identify the stages an

original idea goes through before it is sold for an eventual localization as well as to

understand the dynamics of this peculiar market. It is also necessary to distinguish the

different players involved in order to identify them: the parent companies - or the owners of

the format’s licence - the film production company - which finance them at a national level

and obviously the broadcasters.

Furthermore, the so-said “pitch”- the moment when a TV production company

offers a particular format to another broadcaster - cannot be disregarded.

From now on we enter the various phases of the “operating planning”, that is when the

possible localization is negotiated, with a view to the financial coverage and the

modifications to be carried out to the original production scheme. After that, the core issue

can be envisaged in the moments of choice and discussion, from that between the two

main players (broadcaster and production company), to the one between the different

components of the organizational structure (production, editorial unit and authorial group).

Once the agreements have been made, the program can start. In Italy, the dynamics for

staging a production scheme were totally unknown before the format was used in this

country.

WHAT IS A FORMAT
The research on the production of media’s contents

has got an illustrious history, which has its roots in

sociology. The studies conducted on this issue, the sociology of the broadcasters, has

found in the newsmarking – including the journalistic production process - its ultimate

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expression. “nowadays, in television, we are experiencing a number of shifts in the

production’s methods, business patterns, planning of the product life cycle and advertising

as well as marketing strategies that had never seen before”1.

The history of the “inside image factory” research was usually based on “who decides

the process that creates media texts”, or “who decides the newspaper’s opening news, or

if a kiss between two competitors of a reality should or should not be showed on TV”.

When started analysing the media’s production, the sociology mainly focused on a

particular professional figure: the journalist. It also deepened a particular profile of media

organization, the editorial offices, devoting attention on how the crucial choices for

preparing and presenting news are made. It began analysing the gate keeping: it is a

selection process of the sources aimed at selecting the events to be written on the

bulletins. In other words, who decides which contents will appear on the newspaper is an

organisation and no longer a single individual. After that, next step relates to the “primary

definition” concept.

In 1978, Hall2 assigned the role of secondary definers to journalists and the

sources with the primary definition through which events and news are related. When a

government enacts a decree law on immigration, the journalists look for relevant details by

interviewing a Minister or his spokesman in order to collect information from qualified

sources. According to Hall, these qualified sources can both provide a primary definition

imposing the organizational steps to those who manage information. The journalists are

not direct witnesses of the reported affair; the most consulted sources are limited and

specific; they are well organized and often very close to circles of political power: they are

able, in other words, to control the data’s flow. We hereby analyse how formats reach the

local production from the international markets. The study makes use of the analysis
1
Keane M., e Moran A.- from “Television’s new engines”.
2
Hall S., “Culture, Media, Language”- “Encoding/Decoding”.

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instrument of the primary definition, re-interpreting how formats are shaped and adjusted

for the local production. In practice the format can be seen in the routines of who works in

the production sector as a primary definition. The product's localization shall comply with

the national TV system and the agreements between the two players of the negotiated

budget (which is often decisive for the product's quality).

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1.2- DEFINING A FORMAT:

- the Economic level: Whenever a TV station purchases the copyrights of a format, it

also buys the so-called format package, including the following elements:

1. Concept: the brief idea is expressed in few lines with a general description that explains

the rules, how it will be developed, its duration as well as its leading idea and its

ending goal, etc. The Big Brother's leading concept, for example, lies in monitoring

ten people in a house for a defined number of days, etc.

2. Demonstrative video: It is often the recording of broadcasted episodes in other

countries, from which useful additional information and tips are taken.

3. Program's TV history and the ratings are data referred to the audience, typology of

audience or network identity.

4. Production bible: An exhaustive set of tips useful to make up the program, even

concerning casting, scripts, etc. Who purchased the format is then called to include

in the team individuals/figures who worked at the same program though with the

parent company, in order to offer a consulting service.

- Legal aspects: Who sells formats shall protect its copyrights and its “format’s

right”. There are many ways of monitoring, but many violations still exist; the

Italian justice mainly focused on the protection of the raw idea, but there is

still a weak safeguard by the SIAE. This is a market in which piracy is

widespread. During the Cannes festival, the Format Recognition and

Protection Association has been set up as the body responsible for coping

and preventing the format’s plagiarism.

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- the sociological level: In 2008 Moran3 defined the format as a “trade technology”,

because purchasing its licence not only means buying an asset for one’s own network, but

also bindings and limitations, i.e. guide lines on the cast, graphic art and set design. It is

becoming a concrete communication project and it can be regarded as a “transcultural

object” capable to communicate in different TV systems though preserving its peculiar

identity. So “its adaptation consists of a cute work in cultural translation, which ranges from

a simple linguistic level - pertaining to the script translation - to the whole twisting of the

original format”4.

1.3 – FORMAT’S POLITICAL ECONOMY

The political economy involves the analysis of the organization (production, distribution,

adjustment) of a program, related to the State laws and market; the level of a State

involvement in a TV production also imply asking which role public television has. In the

political economy it is affirmed that the means of communication are necessary to transmit

the desired reports; the economic dynamics are not the only initiator of a program: it is also

linked to political, social and cultural competences. The multimedia and broadcasting are

so opportunities for those who compose. A current outstanding example is represented by

“The big brother”, when a huge percentage of public, spurred by the elimination of a

competitor, followed a single episode, which resulted to be the most followed in the British

TV.

– BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ITALIAN TELEVISION

The 80’s have been crucial for the Italian television; the Italian TV, created in the post-

war period, i.e. the 50’s, was strongly limited by compulsory rules related to contents and

organization. Basically, the purpose of the programmes was cultural, finalized to teach
3
Keane M., e Moran A.- “Television’s new engines”.
4
“Fare tv con i format”, Marroncelli, 2006.

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models, behaviours, social rules and concepts to be learned. Moreover, they were aimed

to entertain and with time passing by they resorted to the instruments of marketing and

began to study the audience’s preferences and leanings.

Sorice had drawn on this division between culture and entertainment and traced a

framework that summarizes the indications during the stage market:

-the media are means to distribute and circulate the product;

-foreign cultural forms are used as parameters for the “finished product” (format);

-response of the real audience in order to evaluate the product;

-production’s organization as a function of the response to the public;

-development of serial products and consumption chains.

Before the 80’s, when only the RAI (the Italian State TV) and the black and white TV

existed, an advanced TV marketing had not yet developed and understanding the needs

only relied on the intuition. A decisive turning point came with the introduction of the colour

and when the TV became state monopoly. The 80’s second half was marked by the

increasing presence of private networks which attempted to monopolize the RAI. But even

before the 80’s a certain interest for the foreign programming had already emerged: the TV

stations started to build their programming based on movies, telefilms and soap operas

copied by the US television, quiz and game shows styled after the British model, but

adapted to brand new programs they tried to trust in a specialised team. During those

years, Silvio Berlusconi began to affirm himself buying the private Lombardy network

Telemilano. Furthermore the VHS (videotapes) system emerged, consisting in

broadcasting a recorded programme aired at the same time by the local repeaters in a set

hour; unfortunately this system turned out illegal and Bettino Craxi, the then Italian Prime

Minister, put into force a decree which re-established the ordinary repeaters. From that

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time the commercial TV affirmed itself with such a success that the public service couldn’t

compete with.

At the end of the 90’s a new legislation was adopted, with a view to re-organize the

radio-television system; it was mainly aimed at forbidding advertising during the movie’s

screening and imposed strong restrictions, like denying access to market to media groups

thus facilitating the private sector. And for this reason it was dismissed. The format

changed the production process: due to it many options can be chosen and be compared

with those in other countries. From their success, experience and mistakes (above all with

USA, the model of that time) much has been learnt. Only after the “Tangentopoli” (the so-

called bribesville) – the large judicial inquiry against the corruption of the Italian political

system which had its heyday between late 80s and early 90s until the Mani pulite

investigation delivered it a deadly blow in 1992 - a new politician emerged: Silvio

Berlusconi, the major owner of private TV networks. During those years, his double role

of politician and producer leads to a substantial change in the media functioning and

broadcasting, almost getting them to have an electoral fallout.

The year 2000 marks the digital era, the TV channels are remarkably improved, and

now both Mediaset and Rai open themselves to the format market. But it should be noted

that Rai had resorted to it only when the format was already affirmed and developed. The

Italian market was much naive, and when RAI took part to the format, the international

maturity of the Italian TV rise. The format has no limits also regarding the contents, but

they reveal to be suitable only in determined national contexts; for example, Spain and

Italy have two similar television structures, though in Spain formats affirmed earlier and not

through the reality shows, as happened in Italy, but through games, quiz, etc…. On the

other hand, in particular Asian markets the formats led to a diversification of the TV

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products. One could wonder if the formats corrode the cultural diversity or if they stimulate

new productions.

1.5- THE FORMAT’S CREATION PROCESS

The “manuale della televisione”5 offers an excellent review of the creation process

through which ideas become format. Taggi classifies the ideas in six levels divided into:

original, or ideas found out in every field; derived, or ideas developed by programs

already seen; tainted, made by attempts and hypothesis; combined, produced by the

combination of different genres; and finally, the impossible combinations, which

challenge the possibility to create them. The derived, combined and tainted are the most

frequent.

1.6 – THE FORMAT’S STAGES OF PRODUCTION

The main stages are four:

• Research and development: when the broadcasters look for formats in the

international markets;

• Pitch: when who owns the programme’s copyrights offer them to a broadcaster;

• Operating planning: when the involved players decide the details linked to the

assignment of the copyrights and licence;

• Pre-production, production and postproduction:

localization of the format.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT: the

market of ideas
Around 2000, the three main Italian TV programme

schedules had to deal with Sky, the satellite TV, which imported

programmes from other countries reducing at the same time the

5
“Manuale della televisione. Le idee, le tecniche, i programmi.” Taggi, P. Roma, 2003, Editori Riuniti.

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spaces of the national programmes. The first production phases of a program is deeply

rooted in this market, which is called research and development and was found out by

Holland6 in its model. Consequently, the format’s market has become progressively

multifaceted, involving a growing range of entertainment’s genres – lately it is essentially

centered on games and reality shows. The most noteworthy and outstanding examples

of our days are undoubtedly “Who wants to be a millionaire?” or “Celebrity survivors”, very

popular in the North Europe and USA. However, this huge flux of TV programs imported

from America not only produced hybrid genres, but brought forward a trans-cultural

homogeneity of contents in the whole Europe.

2.1- THE FORMAT’S MARKET PHASES

Are three:

-Expansion (1995-2000): it is when the market deals with the first impact, which depends

on the reaction to broadcasting of particular formats like realities. Now the concept of

“economic exploiting of an idea” comes out involving production companies throughout the

world, often excluded during negotiations.

- The contraction (2000-2004): during this stage the market starts to define itself; most part

of these unknown companies, called outsiders, are driven to withdraw from the market

due to the lack of spaces. On the other hand, the great companies – also at international

level- prevail, settling for their creators a privileged place. Only very few ideas become a

real program. If this market has represented an opportunity for many, it has become a

failure for others. The decrease of participants is due to the fact that the demand vastly

overwhelmed the request. For example, one of the most popular reality, ”Who wants to be

a millionaire?” of the Celador English company was so popular that the company itself was

6
“The television handbook”, London-N.Y., Routledge, Holland P., 1997.

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 not able to manage the success and

was thus forced to sell the rights to the

ABC, another famous company.

-The consolidation (2004- today): in

this stage the main players are three:

the first source who holds the copyrights; the production (often Italian), who can be either

independent or part of the company; and the broadcaster, which is the final stage.

Companies like Endemol turned their purpose into business always holding the

format’s distribution; they also tried to establish themselves as producers of their own

formats, creating a more solid reality than the one subjected to the assignment of rights,

which is more unstable.

2.2- THE MAIN COMPANIES IN THE INTERNATIONAL MARKETS

According to Steemers 2006 statistic data, the USA lead the foreign sales, covering

about 70% of the market, followed by the UK - with 2,5%, Canada, France and Germany.

It is also estimated that European broadcasters spend nearly 2,25 billion for the import of

American TV programs and further 3 billion for movies. Vice-versa, the export of programs

from Europe to USA reached 500 thousand dollar in 2002.

Therefore, the main markets for the TV program’s exchanges are essentially two:

the American and the European one, though the latter clearly shows a deficit. When a

company sells the format’s copyrights, it just obtains the “format fee”, equivalent to the

20% of the total. From 2001

to 2004, Endemol resulted

the spearhead company

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with its Big Brother, followed by FreemantleMedia, BBC, Granada and Strix. Growth and

success of these companies can be envisaged in their capacity of domestic production.

The main international markets are represented by the Mipcom in Cannes and NATPE in

Los Angeles, both claiming their sellers’ increase. The first one takes place twice a year

and consists of an exhibition developed in 4 stages: when the market “introduces itself”, a

meeting point where “those in charge” can be approached by non-experts, interested to

know more and better or to promote their products; secondly, it becomes the ground for

relationship and exchanges and the spectrum itself of power dynamics among the major

companies with a leverage on sales, purchases or merges (in the course of last edition, for

example, people were wondering who would have bought “Who wants to be a

millionaire?”). Thirdly it represents the ground for trade among all players, and the place

where contracts under negotiations are often finalised and signed. The fourth stage is

dedicated to the unplanned negotiations, where also the outsiders can submit their ideas

to the companies. It is worth recalling that access into this market requires huge costs.

This is the reason why little companies often resort to other companies’ support, mediation

and credit. In Italy these secondary companies are estimated in 169, including Einstein

Multimedia Spa, Endemol Italia, Magnolia Spa e Triangle production.

2.3- “SUBSIDIARY” MULTINATIONALS SEEKING OWNERSHIP

The broadcasters and the production companies get

in touch in two moments: when the rights for the

localization of a format are assigned and the stage of the

pre-production, when actors, producers and film-makers

agree on ways and place where the format is to be

produced. The broadcaster is commonly the producer, or

who decides the final lines of the program. He also has to

take into account the reasons of the dealer: he has to act

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as a mediator, striving to overcome tensions, disagreement or often inevitable straining. In

other terms, localizations turn into effective co-productions.

Those who invented the format tend to exploit their position by creating branches all

over the world in order to localize the formats of which they own the copyrights. There are

two types of production chain: those with a national entity and the multinational ones.

These multinationals are referred as “subsidiaries” because they are facilitated in the

localization of their own products. In Italy the production companies are most national.

The localization of a format lasts according to the contract: should a program turn

unsuccessful it ends when the contract expires; the production companies thus lose their

income. For this reason an ad hoc format department was set up, and those in charge

take part to the markets, particularly the Mipcom, carefully observe the success of a

format, evaluating or seeking new ideas and programs. The choice of broadcasting or not

a program is based on two considerations: a program could turn to be better than another

or it substantially differs from others.

The marketing area decides if and how to localize a format; the department, in line

with the outcome of the negotiations, it keeps on monitoring the program or make changes

and adjustments in order to suit it to its own network identity. Once all the departments

have been consulted, all they need is to decide if proceeding to the bargaining for the

format’s copyrights or not. The formats’ selection obeys to the following criteria:

• Proposability: it is referred to the

cultural/social acceptability of the

programs aired on TV. For instance,

one of the major difficulties for the Big

Brother was to let the public accepting

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 the idea of locking 10 persons in a house for 100 days continuously caught on

the cameras. This idea of program had to be accepted. In Italy, American

realities like Miracles Workers focused on terminally ill patients cannot be

broadcasted in Italy for many reasons. The cultural-political context is crucial: it

is so influential to determine even the end of a reality.

• Network identity: it is referred to the coherence of the programs in line with the

content and typology of all the programs broadcasted by a network on a daily

basis. When a format is proposed, it should be verified whether and to what

extent it can be modified in compliance to the network identity. For instance,

realities like “Extreme make over” and “The

Ugly Duckling” are focused on the body and

look modifications through plastic surgery; the

first one was broadcasted in Italy on Sky Vivo and the second one on Italia 1 (a

public channel). They were two faces of the same format, but they were suitably

adapted to the network identity.

• Avoiding risks: the format’s import has required major efficiency, control and

predictability, through the observation of its success rate and experience in other

countries where the format has been broadcasted. That means that the

production companies often propound formats already aired in foreign countries.

In this way the necessary practices result easier and faster and the format itself

simpler. The more it is simple, the more it results successful. When it is too

elaborated and manipulated it loses strength. In other words it should the most

essential ever.

• The worldwide success: formats already popular and reknown are the most

demanded. This is not only due to their reliability in terms of knowledge and

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 experience gained from past localizations, but also to the fame won at

international level.

• The production brand: when an independent author wants to promote an

original idea, he has to submit it to a production company; this is a pivotal phase

when programs are thought up and framed. This brand spurs broadcasters to

fully rely on the production companies beyond the proposed format.

2.4- FROM IDEA TO REALITY

In order to better understand the above processes, let’s summarize them:

First phase of negotiation: MARKET ACCESS

Parent
Broadcaster Production
company company

International markets:

Buy and Sale of formats

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 Second phase of negotiation: FORMAT’S OFFER

PRODUCTION COMPANY

BROADCASTER

THE FORMAT’S NEGOTIATING TERMS:

The show is about to begin
This is a stage between the operative planning and pre-production, when the different

players agree on the contract terms for the fruition of the format’s copyrights.

3.1-THE THREE MAIN PHASES OF FORMAT’S BUYING AND SELLING

Acquisition:

In Italy formats previously broadcasted in other countries are usually preferred over

the brand new ones. The acquisition consists of purchasing a finished program, while the

format is just the idea of the product. Who submits the format to the broadcaster’s

acceptance acts as distribution company in charge of selling the whole, finished program.

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 When movies or series are bought, subtitles are overlapped and the dubbing right is

purchased; usually the license is in force for two or three years. Dubbing procedures differ

from those adopted some decades ago: nowadays the original audio track is totally cut out

while the lip dub is introduced for every character of the program. For both economic

reasons and to preserve the program’s truthfulness, purchasers tend to buy the whole set

of audiovisual products - i.e. reversion and voice over - with the program’s copyrights. The

voice over, often used for the pay TV, consists of putting together one or more overlapping

voices: the English and the Italian text. Those who propose a complete product have to

ensure the purchaser with these dubbing options. Carrying out the voice over must be

technically viable, so that the recording must include two tracks: the product is bought with

an international track in the original language (English) in addition to another track called

mae (music and effects), which allows reversion into Italian. If the recording did not include

these features, the reversion procedure will require to lower the English track with the

consequent lowering of the mae itself, thus making the format less effective.

During negotiation the broadcaster can also buy the editing right, that means the

possibility of cutting or modifying the product. These possible changes depend on the

following broadcaster’s needs:

- Programming needs: the format’s extent is too long-lasting and differs from the

length of the Italian programming; cutting the programme in one or more episodes

is then necessary.

- Advertising needs: adjustments needed to make room for advertisements.

- Context needs: when the broadcasters buy realities or extreme programs, with

scenes which are deemed undue for the public, they can decide to cut out

disproportionate sequences.

Option:

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 This is a choice within the remit of broadcasters who can afford and shoulder an

investment even risking a failure in return. This manoeuvre is often aimed at acquiring new

and winning formats in order to take them off from rival companies. Should within two

years it does not turn successful, who assigned the rights can claim them back.

Localization:

It is the favourite solution by the production companies, because it consists of

selling the format with the production clause. In Italy it generally ends with a coproduction,

though there are cases where the broadcaster itself is in charge of searching a format.

Investing in the format’s research is a real strategy: in Italy two media texts are most

frequently used: those produced and created outside Italy and those re-produced by

companies operating in the Italian context. Although particular formats led to an increase

of the production costs, these costs can be written off by different ways of earning (i.e. the

first edition of The Big Brother, the show earned only through primetime and daytime’

insertions on Canale 5; now they can rely on the web streaming, digital terrestrial

television or clips circulated via mms. The more the technology develops, the more a

reality’s owner can earn by different ways.

Once the format has been obtained, further agreements with the parent company

are required to decide if the program can be modified. For example “The Millionaire” is not

adjustable, it has same times, same musical theme. On the other hand, there are realities

which need to be adapted to the local context. However, the local planner must comply

with all the guidelines included in the package: any violation will entail a sanction,

accordingly. The unchangeability can protect the format against possible plagiarism. In

order to preserve the financial outcome of an “idea”, who holds the copyrights should strive

to produce it more than once. It is not necessary to completely change it, it must always be

recognizable –so that the more renown it is, the less imitable it is.

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 This market does not have standard

contracts: these have to be negotiated every

year even if they concern the same format

and players but the contract ground (subject)

differs. When companies negotiate a contract,

they aim at the production not distribution

(that is more fruitful). Another mechanism of

safeguard and control in the power of parent

companies – besides the format fee - is the

advising bond, or the participation in the

production as supervisor. Sometimes this bond covers the preproduction and production

phase, or even the editing phase. This supervision ensure control and protection of the

program and also allows ameliorating innovations in order to optimize the product. These

innovations are true experiments carried out by production companies with a view to

enrich the edition and the format package. This negotiating phase often results useful for

the information sharing it offers: the broadcaster knows the local TV reality, its public and

network identity; the format creator is familiar with the mechanisms of enacting the

program and the format’s protection; the production company is thus a mediator between

the other two. For example, in the original format of “The beauty and the geek” there

were 7 men and 7 unknown women; in Italy it was modified implying the participation of 9

men and 9 reknown women.

Second phase of negotiation: OPERATIVE DEFINITION

Broadcaster Production
company

ARRANGE FORMAT’S

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 MODIFICATIONS

Partner company:
Ratifies variations

PRODUCTION

PRE-PRODUCTION

After licence is purchased, some modifications accepted and advanced, we get into the

preproduction phase, when the staff, the casting, etc. are framed. These are essential

moments which shape up the program at visual level.

4.1- STAFF COMPOSITION: PRODUCTION, EDITING STAFF AND EDITORIAL

UNIT
In this review the analysis is focused on the daytime TV strip. It starts with the

production, or the whole practical organization of the program: for example, casting

represents a primary step of this phase. The production area is in charge of organising

the various transfers needed to carry out the screen tests in a selected place: they book

tickets, obtain the required municipality authorizations, etc. For realities like Big Brother or

Music Farm, whose production is staged into a warehouse, where participants are literally

locked in a limited area, moves and displacements are not required. Conversely, for the
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outdoor realities, as The Farm or Survivors, production’s duties become more dynamic.

One of the most interesting aspects of this type of formats is that the staff members are

necessarily led to work and live in close contact for the whole duration of the program. The

producer also takes care of the daily life of the staff and is responsible for the budget’s

management, while the production director looks after the set.

Otherwise, editing staff looks after everything has to do with the content. Once

composed, it immediately starts working for the casting, regarding decision on where the

casting will be developed. For realities which do not involve celebrities – like The Big

Brother- they select new “recruitment” places, in search of new characters. Moreover they

deal with the presentation of each competitor, realizing a clip containing shots portraying

the individual when outside the program set. When the participants enter the house, the

editing staff scrutinize their baggage, since they cannot bear mobile phones, books, etc..

The editing staff also keeps in touch with competitors’ friends and relatives, in view of

inviting them to the program.

The authors are in charge of the narrative aspect of the program; they are crucial

for the success of the program, its development and rhythm. The authors take care of all

its different aspects, indeed; for instance who manages the daily trend of the programme

by managing the confessionals (when the participants are given the chance to speak out

or introduce themselves before a camera, incited by provocative questions). The

production companies tend to maintain the same authors for the program.

When the Magnolia TV

production company localized the first

edition of “Survivors” in Italy, during the

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staff selection, they hired people who had already worked for the same reality in other

countries because it couldn’t rely on the direct advice of an Italian parent company with a

proven experience in that field. It then turned into a real coproduction with the Spanish

counterpart. The producers tried to create a real team when they gathered the staff, and

they had to cope with two main requirements: first, the people should be available to work

far from home for a long time, they had to well know the format – an aspect which implies

the exclusive involvement of those engaged since the beginning. Secondly, they had to be

reliable, because they were not always under control. In order to accomplish a good work,

a perspective for which choices were shared, a human relationship must be established

between broadcasters and production companies.

4.2- CHOICE OF THE ANCHORMAN AND THE DIRECTOR

For both the American and European contexts, most part of the realities are not

scheduled in primetime; episodes are aired when the program is already completed. This

is because the primetime is quite expensive, and realities are broadcasted in other

daytime slots. On the other hand, broadcasters in Italy risk to loose their money for the

huge cost of primetime and poor audience shares. As for both primetime and daytime, the

anchorman is the key figure of the program. The presenter’s choice obeys to two major

requirements: he is chosen for his own charisma or to give a boost to the program. The

presenter can also influence the casting, because when he is hired for a program, he often

takes with him his reliable authors and troupe. For these reasons production is called to

thoroughly select the presenter, while he is required not to alter the program’s spirit.

Leading a reality is not an easy task, the presenter should strive to be tuned on the same

wavelength of both audience and competitors, and he/she should be able to manage tense

situations, or to cope with other unexpected occurrences.

22
 Two directors at least are required for the two time slots, though for the daytime

they can reach the number of four. Their work starts with the program itself: in the

production room there are as many screens as many cameras displayed in the setting;

each screen shows images shot from the associated camera. Moreover one or more

screens are provided where the images chosen by the director are being broadcasted,

recorded round the clock. That system is used for The Big Brother, The farm and Music

Farm. Yet , director is not the only one to decide the program, but the whole team who

works with him. In this way, loosing material is almost impossible; moreover the director

himself would not be able to do all the work. For realities like Survivors the situation differs:

the absence of a program determines even the director’s absence when images are

chosen. Both production and editing staff can stay in the hotel, whilst two teams of

gatekeepers reach the location on a daily basis, to select the best images. In this case the

two teams are totally isolated and they are given the possibility to communicate only in

case of emergency.

4.3- DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VIP AND COMMON PEOPLE

The differences between realities involving V.I.P. or common people depend on the

staff’s different evaluation. For example, with reference to the program’s content, the Big

Brother competitors spend their days showing the way they really are, reaching celebrity

only in the aftermath of their elimination.

Endemol figured out a “Celebrity Big Brother”, but once they realised how popular

was the original program, they preferred to avoid an unnecessary waste of money.

In general terms, those who take part in the B.B. are usually people eager to become

famous, while Survivors involves people already notorious who only look for a new public

identity; but their fiction takes to pieces day after day because they have to face difficulties

deriving from the wild life, with no food, water, fire, etc. Moreover, in the Big Brother

23
privacy is absolutely denied in order to completely show off its participants, while in the

other one privacy is preserved to protect their public image. Should a program involve

VIPs or common people, the staff adapts its way to relate with the competitors: of course

VIPs have more demands and they undergo less scrutiny than the common people. VIP

are given more privileges, in order to protect their image.

4.4- A MATTER OF CASTING

The casting is crucial for the program’s success; for instance, as for the Big

Brother’s casting, many selection criteria are followed: the scouting, which consists of the

research of participants by the director’s supporting team. These people will skip the first

screen test, and they are usually personable. Another way is focused on the emotional

sphere: it is developed through the call centers; those who watch the scroll on TV

(advertising of the reality show’s casting) dial the number. They are really motivated,

because they often come from various Italian provinces.

The “open auditions” are the hardest work: for example, Endemol smells out

participants in different cities. Sometimes the editing group and the production have

previously pointed out people to choose. These “guidelines” can bring forward situations

quite different from past editions. Once the first phase has been carried out, they should

undergo a further test in the afternoon , involving authors and cameras. After this test, the

selected people are sent to Rome; now the whole production is focused on the B.B. The

authors review all the material, contact those people selected to reach Rome in order to

pass further examinations. These involve physical, psychological and other evaluations, in

order to understand who they really are. From now on the starting storylines begins.

5. KICK-OFF: THE WHOLE SHOW’S REALITY

This is the moment that some members call “kick-off”: once the choices have been

made - ranging from the team to the casting - the program can be aired. However, it is

24
necessary to reconstruct and identify the different production mechanisms that turn all the

recordings into a of 30 minutes - or more- daily strip.

5.1- PRODUCTION
When this kind of format was yet unknown, director assistants and cameramen had

to deal with a huge amount of recordings: 64 cameras filming 24 hours a day. But now that

mechanisms are run in, everything comes automatically. The main moment lies in the

production meeting. In this phase the daily agenda is decided as well as what material

deserves to be broadcasted. The number of these meetings depends on the program, if it

has already been broadcasted or not, etc. In Survivors, for example, the troupe spends all

the day in the island, coming back only at night, with the whole material recorded. For this

reason the meeting is held in the evening when everybody has come back. In addition to

the recordings, the troupe also realises summaries containing the highlights of the day

compared with the number of the tape recordings. They are called to manage even the

moments when a cameraman takes over from the other, or nighttimes, when usually only

one cameraman is left on duty. Furthermore, the troupe is provided with a secondary

entrance, in order to not disturb and snooker the broadcasting.

On the other hand, for The Farm the production makes use of a combined set of

cameras: some are displaced outside the house while some “remote” other, inside. With

the consequence of two kinds of different collected material, everything is made more

difficult to match. Also in this case, the troupe takes care not to interfere with the

participants’ autonomous movements, and they can be discreet only if they really get on

well and know each other. In this context, the external troupe, the director and his

assistants are strictly intertwined and they constantly communicate via microphones. Here

decisions on which events are destined to be aired are made in the day. The rejected

material is then used for other programs, such Sky, or via mobile phones.

25
5.2- COMPOSING THE ENTERTAINMENT

Those who manage the process of gatekeeping (directors, authors, cameramen,

director’s assistants, etc.) work as entertainment gathers: those who materially realize the

daily strip of a reality. In addition, the entertainment processors are also key figures: they

put together all the information received from the location and setting. There are at least

two authors, as already mentioned: the first plans, assembles and organizes prices, texts,

etc. the second prepares the daily strip and the episode. For realities like Survivors the

editing is very linear, in order to make it more realistic, while realities like The beauty and

the geek, effects were added as “off-screen laughs” typical of the sit-com, to emphasize its

comedy nature. In realities like Big Brother the situation is similar too and the availability of

all the said equipment ensures a perfect reality’s effect. The editing is simple, also in this

case: if a person speaks, he/she is generally framed; for that reason cameras are used to

collect material, not to create situations or stories.

5.3- ENTERTAINMENT VALUES

26
 The main principles explaining mechanisms for composing the story of the

programs are essentially three. Mario Wolf7 an expert in mass communication who

conducted a research on the news marking -has categorized these principles in 5 criteria:

concerning, respectively, the event, the product, the means, the audience and the

competition. Three of them are referred to the event: contest, gregariousness and

tracking devices. From the beginning the program is based on happenings created by

competitors in order to win. For this reason everything is centred on the contest. The

second value is linked to the circumstances, when the participants share time or situations

and socialize, establishing groups, relationships or hard feelings, according to the context.

This gregariousness is much working in TV. The third value regards the tracking devices:

the programs often tend to perform and re-create the Italian context, with events that

characterize the regional nature/setting of the program. This is a social purpose aimed at

making the program original.

The entertainment values concerning the product are also taken into account:

voyeurism, paternalism & charisma, credibility. The first affects the concrete judgement on

the content of TV texts, which may become a fundamental production strategy. For

instance, the talk shows are very successful because give ground to complaints and

grievances; these draw the audience’s interest, though often the program is deprived of

quality. Unfortunately the most part of the audience is really keen on “trash TV”. The

second value includes two values in turn: the paternalism, or the broadcaster’s duty to

protect and guide the audience, by airing the same product repeatedly; the stronger

programs are seen and re-seen for a taste of gossip and background. The third one

regards events excluded, all the shrewdnesses that make a program real-like. It must have

even intelligible audio track, otherwise it is thrown away.

7
“Teoria delle comunicazioni di massa”, Mauro Wolf, Milan, 1985.

27
 The entertainment values concerning the audience include emotions

management and interactivity. The first –emotions management- represents the value

through which the production tend to realize its media texts taking into consideration and

focusing on the emotional relationship with the audience. In particular programs, due to the

audience’s participation in debates, the production stimulates the audience to smile, cry or

move, by zooming on the competitors’ reactions (shock, shame, anger). Last value is

represented by interactivity : that is to say audience is allowed to actively intervene, for

example through sms displayed on the screen during the live show, or to decide the fate of

a competitor, by eliminating or saving him. The audience is not only represented by people

attending in the studio or at home, but also by individuals or mechanisms involved in the

different “people shows”. Moreover, production earns money through the televoting.

5.4- TAKING CARE OF THE STORIES

Here we will deal with any aspect which receives value through the production’s

intervention. Looking after the stories imposes that cautions are taken during the

preproduction phase and guide lines are given by authors to the participants. In the B.B.

the author can predetermine prices, confessionals or tests. All these contact phases may

naturally lead the competitor to assume behaviours suitable for the daytime narrating, or

may indicate behaviours to adopt. Most part of these interventions concern the participants

that triggered entertaining stories. If the intervention is not incisive, the gate processor will

then cut the sequence.

Taking care of the stories may determine if an interesting narrative line was started,

deserving to be further developed in the following episodes. This is among the directors’

tasks. Often the cameraman can decide what character he will follow, and here his

28
intuition comes into play. Another broadcaster’s intervention line is through the

advertising; these can deeply influence the production routine during the editing.

5.5- RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STAFF AND INTERNEE

The cameraman’s presence can influence the developing of the program thus

inducing some participants to assume different, particular behaviours. For that reason a

series of behavioural rules have been set; these fall under the format’s manifest. The

cameramen is forbidden to establish any kind of relationship with the internees. In this

way, the participants face with “expressionless people”, the cameramen must not give

even a smile. These rules are developed on three levels: the first regards the time. That

means the participants are prevented to know the time but they are required to organize

their life indoors basing on the pace of work and their physiological needs.

The second level concerns the forbidden goods: from food to cigarettes. The troupe

must avoid behaviours that stimulate these needs, such as smoking of drinking in their

presence. As for “Survivors”, they are allowed a minimum of secured primary goods, food

included.

Last level pertains to the emotional sphere: if avoiding smoking, drinking, etc.,

can be a relatively easy duty, establishing a human relationship is inevitable. The purpose

is to create this relationship as aseptic and simple as possible. Moreover is the production

inspector is the one in charge of providing all the primary goods and the necessary help to

participants; he is a key player for the program’s success, because should a cameraman

switch off its camera to help the competitors, he then lose possible crucial shots. Moreover

he oversees that contacts between cameraman and participant are totally excluded.

Now, the description of the whole production process is ended. We can confirm that

the production company has greater power over any aspect concerning the making of a

29
TV product, whilst the broadcasters work in the economic field in financial and Auditel

terms.

The question that naturally arises is if the spreading at international level of a format

would render the final product homogenous. But if translation which a program naturally

undergoes, makes the program suitable for the national context where it is destined to be

aired -always in compliance with the established restraint- that homogeneity will disappear.

5.6-THE AUTORSHIP CONCEPT

As mentioned, the author’s role is burdensome and he must follow the format package

during the format’s localization. His duties can be easily summarized in five functions:

a. What to do during the first format’s localization in another country without breaking the

balance.

b. As

for realities involving common people, the

author has to select people during the first

casting, while for realities involving

celebrities he directly reports to the

broadcasters.

c. He

has to monitor the development of the

program.

30
d. He is in charge of composing and preparing the daily strip.

e. At the end, there are authors that prepare the clips to be aired, working with material

selected in advance.

The authors are remunerated with the copyrights. Moreover, there are three

elements that distinguish a common author from a reality’s author:

-first of all, if an author, in the general term, develops his stories to characterize a defined

“world”, on the contrary the author of a format has to set a world from which stories

naturally stem.

- once a world has been set, in particular formats, guidelines should be observed for the

narration instead of off shooting stories, while in other cases is the story itself to inspire or

spur the narration.

- if the author’s role has always been intended to create plausible stories compliant with a

defined world where the relationships are performed, on the other hand stories created

during a reality are not centred on what could happens but on what has already

happened. If an author figures out a kiss between two competitors, he will create

situations that will facilitate this to occur.

THE REALITY IN A MOVIE

It is a particular mix of film and reality where, even when excessive, the concept of

reality is completely expressed. Two examples of famous movies with a philosophical and

moral drive are worth mentioning; many precious hints can be found in these films.

6.2- SLUMDOG MILLIONAIRE: a

life depending on a quiz

A Danny Boyle movie, the

director of Trainspotting and The

beach, it reconstructs the events of

31
the adventurous life of Jamal Malik through flashbacks. He was a chai-boy (engaged in the

distribution of the typical Indian tea) in a call-center in Mumbai; he found himself

protagonist of a popular TV quiz where he has the occasion to win a huge amount of

money.

This guy succeeds in proving to the cops - who tried to unmask him because they

doubt that poor guy could know all the answers - how every question of the quiz was

linked to specific experiences and memories of his tormented life. At the end he gets the

jackpot of 20.000 rupee. The participation to the quiz “Who wants to be a millionaire” is the

last step of a long ordeal which lasted years. But he obtains both the richness and the

realization of its dream: recovering Latika, who had remained in the hands of road hogs.

The Indian reality is the background of the whole story; films that realistically report

it are very few, and they do not show the western audience the wrong framework of a

colonial and postcolonial India, but the present India where aggressive economic interests

in the hands of the organised crime are on the agenda. However, it is in doubt if the

spreading of another globalisation’s symbol as the Endemol format -which gives the title to

the film- could be a solution to these issues.

32
6.2- THE TRUMAN SHOW: a life inside a TV screen

In 1998 Peter Weir directed a film with Jim Carrey as the main character who

plays Truman, a common man married to a former schoolmate; he has a safe work,

an untroubled life and a dream to take a trip to Fiji to reach out Sylvia, a girl he

loved in the years of college. Though there is a problem: he lives on an island and

he is scared of the sea due to an accident he had in his childhood. For that reason

he remains in shore. One day a series of weird happenings made Truman doubt on

his own reality. He wants to discover what the inhabitants of his city hide; he starts

searching for the truth and he will then discover his own life has been lived shot by

a camera on his back. Truman decides to react against all that and he finally

accomplishes his goal coming out from this fake world challenging the sea and

reuniting with Sylvia.

33
 When the movie was produced, realities were not yet spread and the

personal events of people were not published on TV. Only few years later the

realities began to emerge, like the Big Brother. As for Truman, he is obliged to live

a driven life in a perfect city but he decides to leave it choosing an imperfect but a

concrete world, where he is allowed to build his future on his own. Moreover

Truman finds out all his friends and relatives were actors called to play in the

reality. Everybody were acting but him was the only individual from the real life. On

the contrary, in the realities the participants express their will to enter the show, and

they often become actors. It seems that in the movie people prefer to take part in

the fiction of a perfect world rather than to be real and imperfect. The film is

intended to pass the message that the Truman’s situation is also related to the

audience.

34
 Nowadays if a TV program is not

followed enough, it is no longer being

broadcasted. The participants of the realities

are often indecent and risqué, turning the program into a porno - in most cases with

open bawdy language -rather than a show suitable for children. Furthermore, the

movie can be interpretated as a metaphor of life, above all when the main character

asks himself: Who I am? What is this world around me? Which is the sense? The

Truman’s questions are the same of every human being: it is the research for an

answer to the meanings and goals of the human existence. In other words, we are

all like Truman, indeed. We can note that in fashion, mass media induce us to

believe in a perfect mode, a fictitious world made of temptations, traps and

approvals; all these shows too, seem to tell us “you need to have, be or to

accomplish that to be happy”, or we need success to be a satisfacted human being.

We can see the same social message in politics which propose itself like a

salvation, a guideline for the men’s life, when killing a man or lefting him to do

everything would be better. And we can witness this in our days, tempted or

compelled to wear a mask to be accepted from the others; just like Pirandello, a

renown Italian writer who had discovered this already in 1900: while a man

perceives himself in a certain figure, profile or psychology, he is actually seen in

many other different ways depending on the viewer. Every look is a fake mask that

the man impose himself and the society; under this mask there is anybody, there is

only a vague and inconsistent flow of sensations in a relentless transformation.

Maybe just because we are afraid of not being accepted, or simply because we are

afraid of ourselves, of the reality.

35
 And then we are faced with a choice as Truman: staying in these fake walls forever

or taking the risk of living in a real world without knowing how it will end or if outside it will

be worst. As Truman said at the end of the film: “In case I don't see you – good afternoon,

good evening and good night.”

SUMMARY:

Introduction-General framework 1
WHAT IS A FORMAT 2
1.2- DEFINING A FORMAT: 5
- the Economic level: Whenever a TV station purchases the copyrights of a format, it also buys
the so-called format package, including the following elements: 5
1. Concept: the brief idea is expressed in few lines with a general description that explains the
rules, how it will be developed, its duration as well as its leading idea and its ending goal, etc.
The Big Brother's leading concept, for example, lies in monitoring ten people in a house for a
defined number of days, etc. 5
2. Demonstrative video: It is often the recording of broadcasted episodes in other countries,
from which useful additional information and tips are taken. 5
3. Program's TV history and the ratings are data referred to the audience, typology of audience
or network identity. 5
4. Production bible: An exhaustive set of tips useful to make up the program, even concerning
casting, scripts, etc. Who purchased the format is then called to include in the team
individuals/figures who worked at the same program though with the parent company, in order
to offer a consulting service. 5
- Legal aspects: Who sells formats shall protect its copyrights and its “format’s right”. There
are many ways of monitoring, but many violations still exist; the Italian justice mainly focused

36
on the protection of the raw idea, but there is still a weak safeguard by the SIAE. This is a
market in which piracy is widespread. During the Cannes festival, the Format Recognition and
Protection Association has been set up as the body responsible for coping and preventing the
format’s plagiarism. 5
1.3 – FORMAT’S POLITICAL ECONOMY 6
– BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ITALIAN TELEVISION 6
1.5- THE FORMAT’S CREATION PROCESS 9
1.6 – THE FORMAT’S STAGES OF PRODUCTION 9
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT: the market of ideas 9
2.1- THE FORMAT’S MARKET PHASES 10
2.2- THE MAIN COMPANIES IN THE INTERNATIONAL MARKETS 11
2.3- “SUBSIDIARY” MULTINATIONALS SEEKING OWNERSHIP 12
2.4- FROM IDEA TO REALITY 15
THE FORMAT’S NEGOTIATING TERMS: 16
The show is about to begin 16
3.1-THE THREE MAIN PHASES OF FORMAT’S BUYING AND SELLING 16
PRE-PRODUCTION 20
4.1- STAFF COMPOSITION: PRODUCTION, EDITING STAFF AND EDITORIAL UNIT
20
4.2- CHOICE OF THE ANCHORMAN AND THE DIRECTOR 22
4.3- DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VIP AND COMMON PEOPLE 23
4.4- A MATTER OF CASTING 24
5. KICK-OFF: THE WHOLE SHOW’S REALITY 24
5.1- PRODUCTION 25
5.2- COMPOSING THE ENTERTAINMENT 26
5.3- ENTERTAINMENT VALUES 26
5.4- TAKING CARE OF THE STORIES 28
5.5- RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STAFF AND INTERNEE 29
5.6-THE AUTORSHIP CONCEPT 30
THE REALITY IN A MOVIE 31
6.2- SLUMDOG MILLIONAIRE: a life depending on a quiz 31
6.2- THE TRUMAN SHOW: a life inside a TV screen 33
In 1998 Peter Weir directed a film with Jim Carrey as the main character who plays Truman, a
common man married to a former schoolmate; he has a safe work, an untroubled life and a
dream to take a trip to Fiji to reach out Sylvia, a girl he loved in the years of college. Though
there is a problem: he lives on an island and he is scared of the sea due to an accident he had in
his childhood. For that reason he remains in shore. One day a series of weird happenings made
Truman doubt on his own reality. He wants to discover what the inhabitants of his city hide; he
starts searching for the truth and he will then discover his own life has been lived shot by a
camera on his back. Truman decides to react against all that and he finally accomplishes his
goal coming out from this fake world challenging the sea and reuniting with Sylvia. 33
When the movie was produced, realities were not yet spread and the personal events of people
were not published on TV. Only few years later the realities began to emerge, like the Big
Brother. As for Truman, he is obliged to live a driven life in a perfect city but he decides to
leave it choosing an imperfect but a concrete world, where he is allowed to build his future on
his own. Moreover Truman finds out all his friends and relatives were actors called to play in
the reality. Everybody were acting but him was the only individual from the real life. On the
contrary, in the realities the participants express their will to enter the show, and they often
become actors. It seems that in the movie people prefer to take part in the fiction of a perfect
world rather than to be real and imperfect. The film is intended to pass the message that the
Truman’s situation is also related to the audience. 34

37
Nowadays if a TV program is not followed enough, it is no longer being broadcasted. The
participants of the realities are often indecent and risqué, turning the program into a porno - in
most cases with open bawdy language -rather than a show suitable for children. Furthermore,
the movie can be interpretated as a metaphor of life, above all when the main character asks
himself: Who I am? What is this world around me? Which is the sense? The Truman’s
questions are the same of every human being: it is the research for an answer to the meanings
and goals of the human existence. In other words, we are all like Truman, indeed. We can note
that in fashion, mass media induce us to believe in a perfect mode, a fictitious world made of
temptations, traps and approvals; all these shows too, seem to tell us “you need to have, be or
to accomplish that to be happy”, or we need success to be a satisfacted human being. We can
see the same social message in politics which propose itself like a salvation, a guideline for the
men’s life, when killing a man or lefting him to do everything would be better. And we can
witness this in our days, tempted or compelled to wear a mask to be accepted from the others;
just like Pirandello, a renown Italian writer who had discovered this already in 1900: while a
man perceives himself in a certain figure, profile or psychology, he is actually seen in many
other different ways depending on the viewer. Every look is a fake mask that the man impose
himself and the society; under this mask there is anybody, there is only a vague and
inconsistent flow of sensations in a relentless transformation. Maybe just because we are afraid
of not being accepted, or simply because we are afraid of ourselves, of the reality. 35

38