CHM1045 Chapter 4b

Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 1st Ed.
Nivaldo Tro
Chapter 4
Chemical
Quantities and
Aqueous
Reactions
2008, Prentice Hall
Reaction Stoichiometry
• the numerical relationships between chemical
amounts in a reaction is called stoichiometry
• the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation
specify the relative amounts in moles of each of the
substances involved in the reaction
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)

2 mol C8H18 : 25 mol O2 : 16 mol CO2 : 18 mol H2O
2 C8 H18(l) 2 C8 H18(l) 16 CO 2(g)

= = =1
25 O 2(g) 16 CO 2(g) 18 H 2 O(g)
We can come up with lots of unit factors
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 2
Predicting Amounts from Stoichiometry

• How much CO2 can be made from 22.0 moles of
C8H18 in the combustion of C8H18?
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
2 moles C8H18 : 16 moles CO2
16 mol CO 2
22.0 moles C8 H18 × = 176 moles CO 2
2 mol C8 H18
1
Example – Estimate the mass of CO2 produced in
2004 by the combustion of 3.4 x 1015 g gasoline
• assuming that gasoline is octane, C8H18, the
equation for the reaction is:
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
Example – Estimate the mass of CO2 produced in

2004 by the combustion of 3.4 x 1015 g gasoline
Given: 3.4 x 1015 g C8H18

Find: g CO2
Concept Plan: g C8H18 mol C8H18 mol CO2 g CO2
1 mol 16 mol CO 2 44.01 g
114.22 g 2 mol C8H18 1 mol
Relationships: 1 mol C8H18 = 114.22g, 1 mol CO2 = 44.01g, 2 mol C8H18 = 16 mol CO2
Solution: 1 mol C8 H18 16 mol CO 2 44.01 g CO 2
3.4 × 1015 g C8H18 × × ×
114.22 g C8H18 2 mol C8 H18 1 mol CO 2
= 1.0 ×1016 g CO 2
Check: since 8x moles of CO as C H , but the molar mass of C H is

2 8 18 8 18
3x CO2, the number makes sense
Practice
• According to the following equation, how
many milliliters of water are made in the
combustion of 9.0 g of glucose?
C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) → 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)
density of water = 1.00 g/mL

2
Practice
According to the following equation, how many
milliliters of water are made in the combustion of
9.0 g of glucose?
C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) → 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)
1 mole C 6 H12 O 6 6 mole H 2 O 18.0 g H 2 O 1 mL H 2 O

9.0 g C6 H12O 6 x x x x
1.80 x 10 2 g 1 mole C 6 H12 O 6 1 mole H 2 O 1.00 g H 2 O
= 5.4 mL H 2 O
The limiting reagent is

• Limiting Reagents: The the one that runs out
extent to which a first. It is the one that
limits the extent of the
reaction takes place reaction.
depends on the reactant
that is present in limiting
amounts—the limiting •the limiting reactant gets
reagent. completely consumed
•reactants not completely

consumed are called excess
reactants
Limiting Reactant
• the reactant that limits the amount of product is
called the limiting reactant
9sometimes called the limiting reagent
9the limiting reactant gets completely consumed
• reactants not completely consumed are called
excess reactants
3
Limiting Reactant
• the amount of product that can be made from
the limiting reactant is called the theoretical
yield
• the amount of product that is made in a reaction
is called the actual yield
• the efficiency of product recovery is generally
given as the percent yield
actual yield
Percent Yield = × 100 %
theoretica l yield
• Limiting Reagent Calculation: Lithium oxide is a drying agent used on

the space shuttle. If 80.0 kg of water is to be removed and 65 kg of
lithium oxide is available, which reactant is limiting?
Li2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2 LiOH(s)
• MM(Li2O) = 29.88 g/mol All the calculations are then

based on the limiting reagent.
• MM(H2O) = 18.02 g/mol
•The best way to calculate this is to convert all

reactants to moles.
•Divide by the coefficient of that reagent in the
balanced chemical equation
•The smallest quotient is the limiting reagent.
• 25.0 g of Lead (II) nitrate and 18.2 g of sodium chloride are mixed in 250.00
mL of solution. How many grams of Lead (II) chloride are made.? We first
need a balanced chemical equation.
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaCl (aq) Æ PbCl2 (s) + 2 NaNO3 (aq)
Which reactant do we base the calculation on?
The Limiting Reactant.
mass moles moles mass

Limiting limiting Desired Desired
Reactant reactant product product
4
mass moles moles mass
Limiting limiting Desired Desired
Reactant reactant product product
1. Make sure have a balanced chemical reaction

2. Determine limiting reactant
3. Every subsequent calculation is dependent on the limiting
reactant
• Limiting Reagent Calculation: Cisplatin is an anti-cancer

agent prepared as follows:
•
K2PtCl4 + 2 NH3 → Pt(NH3)2Cl2 + 2 KCl
• If 10.0 g of K2PtCl4 and 10.0 g of NH3 are allowed to

react:
9 (a) which is the limiting reagent?
9 (b) How many grams of cisplatin are formed?
• MM(K2PtCl4) = 415.08 g/mol MM(NH3) = 17.04

g/mol
Practice – How many grams of N2(g) can be made from

9.05 g of NH3 reacting with 45.2 g of CuO?
2 NH3(g) + 3 CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3 Cu(s) + 3 H2O(l)
5
Solutions
• when table salt is mixed with water, it seems to disappear,
or become a liquid – the mixture is homogeneous
9 the salt is still there, as you can tell from the taste, or simply
boiling away the water
• homogeneous mixtures are called solutions
• the component of the solution that changes state is called
the solute
• the component that keeps its state is called the solvent
9 if both components start in the same state, the major component
is the solvent
Describing Solutions
• since solutions are mixtures, the composition can
vary from one sample to another
9pure substances have constant composition
9salt water samples from different seas or lakes have
different amounts of salt
• so to describe solutions accurately, we must
describe how much of each component is present
9we saw that with pure substances, we can describe
them with a single name because all samples identical
Solution Concentration
• qualitatively, solutions are often
described as dilute or
concentrated
• dilute solutions have a small
amount of solute compared to
solvent
• concentrated solutions have a
large amount of solute
compared to solvent
• quantitatively, the relative
amount of solute in the solution
is called the concentration
6
Solution Concentration
Molarity
• moles of solute per 1 liter of solution
• used because it describes how many molecules
of solute in each liter of solution
amount of solute (in moles)

molarity, M =
amount of solution (in L)
Preparing 1 L of a 1.00 M NaCl Solution
Example 4.5 – Find the molarity of a solution that

has 25.5 g KBr dissolved in 1.75 L of solution
• Sort Given: 25.5 g KBr, 1.75 L solution
Information Find: Molarity, M
• Strategize Concept Plan: g KBr mol KBr M=
mol
L
1 mol M
119.00 gL sol’n
1 mol KBr = 119.00 g,
Relationships: M = moles/L
• Follow the Solution: 1 mol KBr
Concept Plan 25.5 g KBr × = 0.21429 mol KBr
119.00 g KBr
to Solve the moles KBr 0.21429 mol KBr
problem molarity, M = = = 0.122 M
L solution 1.75 L
• Check Check: since most solutions are between 0 and
18 M, the answer makes sense
7
Using Molarity in Calculations
• molarity shows the relationship between the
moles of solute and liters of solution
• If a sugar solution concentration is 2.0 M, then
1 liter of solution contains 2.0 moles of sugar
92 liters = 4.0 moles sugar
90.5 liters = 1.0 mole sugar
• 1 L solution : 2 moles sugar
2 mol sugar 1 L solution
1 L solution 2 mol sugar
Example 4.6 – How many liters of 0.125 M NaOH

contains 0.255 mol NaOH?
• Sort Given: 0.125 M NaOH, 0.255 mol NaOH
Information Find: liters, L
• Strategize Concept Plan:
mol NaOH L sol’n
1 L solution
0.125 mol NaOH
Relationships: 0.125 mol NaOH = 1 L solution
• Follow the Solution:

Concept Plan 1 L solution
to Solve the 0.255 mol NaOH × = 2.04 L solution
0.125 mol NaOH
problem
• Check Check: since each L has only 0.125 mol NaOH,
it makes sense that 0.255 mol should
require a little more than 2 L
Dilution
• often, solutions are stored as concentrated stock
solutions
• to make solutions of lower concentrations from these
stock solutions, more solvent is added
9 the amount of solute doesn’t change, just the volume of
solution
moles solute in solution 1 = moles solute in solution 2
• the concentrations and volumes of the stock and new
solutions are inversely proportional
M1·V1 = M2·V2
8
Example 4.7 – To what volume should you dilute
0.200 L of 15.0 M NaOH to make 3.00 M NaOH?
• Sort Given: V1 = 0.200L, M1 = 15.0 M, M2 = 3.00 M
Information Find: V2, L
• Strategize Concept Plan:

V1, M1, M2 V2
M1 • V1
= V2
M2
Relationships: M1V1 = M2V2
• Follow the Solution: ⎛ mol ⎞
⎜15.0 ⎟ • (0.200 L )
Concept Plan ⎝ L ⎠
= 1.00 L
to Solve the ⎛ mol ⎞
⎜ 3.00 ⎟
problem ⎝ L ⎠
• Check Check: since the solution is diluted by a factor
of 5, the volume should increase by a
factor of 5, and it does
Solution Stoichiometry
• since molarity relates the moles of solute to the
liters of solution, it can be used to convert
between amount of reactants and/or products in
a chemical reaction
Example 4.8 – What volume of 0.150 M KCl is required to

completely react with 0.150 L of 0.175 M Pb(NO3)2 in the
reaction 2 KCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
• Sort Given: 0.150 M KCl, 0.150 L of 0.175 M Pb(NO3)2
Information
Find: L KCl
• Strategize Concept Plan: L Pb(NO3)2 mol Pb(NO3)2 mol KCl L KCl
0.175 mol 2 mol KCl 1 L KCl
1 L Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Pb(NO 3 ) 2 0.150 mol
Relationships: 1 L Pb(NO3)2 = 0.175 mol, 1 L KCl = 0.150 mol,

1 mol Pb(NO3)2 = 2 mol KCl
• Follow the Solution:
Concept 0.175 mol 2 mol KCl 1 L KCl
Plan to 0.150 L Pb(NO3 ) 2 × × ×
1 L Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2 0.150 mol
Solve the
= 0.350 L KCl
problem
• Check Check: since need 2x moles of KCl as Pb(NO3)2, and
the molarity of Pb(NO3)2 > KCl, the volume of
KCl should be more than 2x volume Pb(NO3)2
9
What Happens When a Solute Dissolves?
• there are attractive forces between the solute particles
holding them together
• there are also attractive forces between the solvent
molecules
• when we mix the solute with the solvent, there are
attractive forces between the solute particles and the
solvent molecules
• if the attractions between solute and solvent are strong
enough, the solute will dissolve
28
Table Salt Dissolving in Water

Each ion is attracted
to the surrounding
water molecules and
pulled off and away
from the crystal
When it enters the
solution, the ion is
surrounded by water
molecules, insulating
it from other ions
The result is a solution
with free moving
charged particles able
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach to conduct electricity 29
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes

• materials that dissolve
in water to form a
solution that will
conduct electricity are
called electrolytes
• materials that dissolve
in water to form a
solution that will not
conduct electricity are
called nonelectrolytes
10
Molecular View of
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
• in order to conduct electricity, a material must have
charged particles that are able to flow
• electrolyte solutions all contain ions dissolved in the
water
9 ionic compounds are electrolytes because they all dissociate
into their ions when they dissolve
• nonelectrolyte solutions contain whole molecules
dissolved in the water
9 generally, molecular compounds do not ionize when they
dissolve in water
¾ the notable exception being molecular acids
Salt vs. Sugar Dissolved in Water
ionic compounds dissociate molecular compounds do not

into ions when they dissolve dissociate when they dissolve
Acids
• acids are molecular compounds that ionize when they
dissolve in water
9 the molecules are pulled apart by their attraction for the water
9 when acids ionize, they form H+ cations and anions
• the percentage of molecules that ionize varies from one
acid to another
• acids that ionize virtually 100% are called strong acids
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
• acids that only ionize a small percentage are called
weak acids
HF(aq) ⇔ H+(aq) + F-(aq)
11
Strong and Weak Electrolytes
• strong electrolytes are materials that dissolve
completely as ions
9 ionic compounds and strong acids
9 their solutions conduct electricity well
• weak electrolytes are materials that dissolve mostly as
molecules, but partially as ions
9 weak acids
9 their solutions conduct electricity, but not well
• when compounds containing a polyatomic ion dissolve,
the polyatomic ion stays together
Na2SO4(aq) → 2 Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
HC2H3O2(aq) ⇔ H+(aq) + C2H3O2-(aq)
Classes of Dissolved Materials
Solubility of Ionic Compounds

• some ionic compounds, like NaCl, dissolve very well in
water at room temperature
• other ionic compounds, like AgCl, dissolve hardly at all
in water at room temperature
• compounds that dissolve in a solvent are said to be
soluble, while those that do not are said to be insoluble
9 NaCl is soluble in water, AgCl is insoluble in water
9 the degree of solubility depends on the temperature
9 even insoluble compounds dissolve, just not enough to be
meaningful
12
When Will a Salt Dissolve?
• Predicting whether a compound will dissolve in
water is not easy
• The best way to do it is to do some experiments
to test whether a compound will dissolve in
water, then develop some rules based on those
experimental results
9we call this method the empirical method
Solubility Rules
Compounds that Are Generally Soluble in Water
Compounds Containing the Exceptions

Following Ions are (when combined with ions on the
Generally Soluble left the compound is insoluble)
Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+ none
NO3–, C2H3O2– none
Cl–, Br–, I– Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+
SO42– Ag+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+
Solubility Rules
Compounds that Are Generally Insoluble
Exceptions
Compounds Containing the (when combined with ions on the
Following Ions are left the compound is soluble or
Generally Insoluble slightly soluble)
OH– Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+,
Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
S2– Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+,
Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
CO32–, PO43– Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+
13
Precipitation Reactions
• reactions between aqueous solutions of ionic
compounds that produce an ionic compound
that is insoluble in water are called
precipitation reactions and the insoluble
product is called a precipitate
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
41
No Precipitate Formation =
No Reaction
KI(aq) + NaCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + NaI(aq)
all ions still present, ∴ no reaction
14
Process for Predicting the Products of
a Precipitation Reaction
1. Determine what ions each aqueous reactant has
2. Determine formulas of possible products
9 Exchange ions
¾ (+) ion from one reactant with (-) ion from other
9 Balance charges of combined ions to get formula of each
product
3. Determine Solubility of Each Product in Water
9 Use the solubility rules
9 If product is insoluble or slightly soluble, it will precipitate
4. If neither product will precipitate, write no reaction
after the arrow
Process for Predicting the Products of

a Precipitation Reaction
5. If either product is insoluble, write the formulas
for the products after the arrow – writing (s)
after the product that is insoluble and will
precipitate, and (aq) after products that are
soluble and will not precipitate
6. Balance the equation
Example 4.10 – Write the equation for the

precipitation reaction between an aqueous solution
of potassium carbonate and an aqueous solution of
nickel(II) chloride
1. Write the formulas of the reactants
K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) →
2. Determine the possible products
a) Determine the ions present
(K+ + CO32-) + (Ni2+ + Cl-) →
b) Exchange the Ions
(K+ + CO32-) + (Ni2+ + Cl-) → (K+ + Cl-) + (Ni2+ + CO32-)
c) Write the formulas of the products
¾ cross charges and reduce
K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) → KCl + NiCO3
15
nickel(II) chloride
3. Determine the solubility of each product
KCl is soluble
NiCO3 is insoluble
4. If both products soluble, write no reaction
does not apply since NiCO3 is insoluble

nickel(II) chloride
5. Write (aq) next to soluble products and (s) next
to insoluble products
K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) → KCl(aq) + NiCO3(s)
6. Balance the Equation
K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) → 2 KCl(aq) + NiCO3(s)
Ionic Equations
• equations which describe the chemicals put into the water
and the product molecules are called molecular equations
2 KOH(aq) + Mg(NO3)2(aq) → 2 KNO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
• equations which describe the actual dissolved species are
called complete ionic equations
9 aqueous strong electrolytes are written as ions
¾ soluble salts, strong acids, strong bases
9 insoluble substances, weak electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes
written in molecule form
¾ solids, liquids, and gases are not dissolved, therefore molecule form
2K+1(aq) + 2OH-1(aq) + Mg+2(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) → 2K+1(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
16
Ionic Equations
• ions that are both reactants and products are called
spectator ions
2K+1(aq) + 2OH-1(aq) + Mg+2(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) → 2K+1(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
• an ionic equation in which the spectator ions are

removed is called a net ionic equation
2OH-1(aq) + Mg+2(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s)
Acid-Base Reactions
• also called neutralization reactions because the
acid and base neutralize each other’s properties
2 HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
• the net ionic equation for an acid-base reaction is
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l)
9as long as the salt that forms is soluble in water
Acids and Bases in Solution

• acids ionize in water to form H+ ions
9 more precisely, the H from the acid molecule is donated to a
water molecule to form hydronium ion, H3O+
¾ most chemists use H+ and H3O+ interchangeably
• bases dissociate in water to form OH− ions
9 bases, like NH3, that do not contain OH− ions, produce OH− by
pulling H off water molecules
• in the reaction of an acid with a base, the H+ from the
acid combines with the OH− from the base to make water
• the cation from the base combines with the anion from
the acid to make the salt
acid + base → salt + water
17
Common Acids
Chemical Name Formula Uses Strength
Perchloric Acid HClO4 explosives, catalyst Strong
Nitric Acid HNO3 explosives, fertilizer, dye, glue Strong
explosives, fertilizer, dye, glue,
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 Strong
batteries
metal cleaning, food prep, ore
Hydrochloric Acid HCl Strong
refining, stomach acid
fertilizer, plastics & rubber,
Phosphoric Acid H3PO4 Moderate
food preservation
Chloric Acid HClO3 explosives Moderate
plastics & rubber, food
Acetic Acid HC2H3O2 Weak
preservation, vinegar
Hydrofluoric Acid HF metal cleaning, glass etching Weak
Carbonic Acid H2CO3 soda water Weak
Hypochlorous Acid HClO sanitizer Weak
Boric Acid H3BO3 eye wash Weak
Common Bases
Chemical Common
Formula Uses Strength
Name Name
sodium lye, soap, plastic,
NaOH Strong
hydroxide caustic soda petrol refining
potassium soap, cotton,
KOH caustic potash Strong
hydroxide electroplating
calcium
Ca(OH)2 slaked lime cement Strong
hydroxide
sodium
NaHCO3 baking soda cooking, antacid Weak
bicarbonate
magnesium milk of
Mg(OH)2 antacid Weak
hydroxide magnesia
detergent,
ammonium NH4OH, ammonia
fertilizer, Weak
hydroxide {NH3(aq)} water
explosives, fibers
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
18
Example - Write the molecular, ionic, and net-
ionic equation for the reaction of aqueous nitric
acid with aqueous calcium hydroxide
HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) →
a) Determine the ions present when each reactant dissociates
(H+ + NO3-) + (Ca+2 + OH-) →
b) Exchange the ions, H+1 combines with OH-1 to make H2O(l)
(H+ + NO3-) + (Ca+2 + OH-) → (Ca+2 + NO3-) + H2O(l)
c) Write the formula of the salt
9 cross the charges
(H+ + NO3-) + (Ca+2 + OH-) → Ca(NO3)2 + H2O(l)

3. Determine the solubility of the salt
Ca(NO3)2 is soluble
4. Write an (s) after the insoluble products and a
(aq) after the soluble products
HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
2 HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

6. Dissociate all aqueous strong electrolytes to
get complete ionic equation
9 not H2O
2 H+(aq) + 2 NO3-(aq) + Ca+2(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) →
Ca+2(aq) + 2 NO3-(aq) + H2O(l)
7. Eliminate spectator ions to get net-ionic
equation
2 H+1(aq) + 2 OH-1(aq) → 2 H2O(l)
H+1(aq) + OH-1(aq) → H2O(l)
19
Titration
• often in the lab, a solution’s concentration is
determined by reacting it with another material
and using stoichiometry – this process is called
titration
• in the titration, the unknown solution is added
to a known amount of another reactant until
the reaction is just completed, at this point,
called the endpoint, the reactants are in their
stoichiometric ratio
9 the unknown solution is added slowly from an
instrument called a burette
¾ a long glass tube with precise volume markings that
allows small additions of solution
Acid-Base Titrations
• the difficulty is determining when there has been just
enough titrant added to complete the reaction
9 the titrant is the solution in the burette
• in acid-base titrations, because both the reactant and
product solutions are colorless, a chemical is added that
changes color when the solution undergoes large
changes in acidity/alkalinity
9 the chemical is called an indicator
• at the endpoint of an acid-base titration, the number of
moles of H+ equals the number of moles of OH−
9 aka the equivalence point
Titration
20
Titration
The base solution is the
titrant in the burette.
As the base is added to
the acid, the H+ reacts with
the OH– to form water.
But there is still excess
acid present so the color
does not change.
At the titration’s endpoint,
just enough base has been
added to neutralize all the
acid. At this point the
indicator changes color.
Example 4.14:
The titration of 10.00 mL of HCl
solution of unknown concentration
requires 12.54 mL of 0.100 M
NaOH solution to reach the end
point. What is the concentration of
the unknown HCl solution?
• Write down the given quantity and its units.

Given: 10.00 mL HCl
12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
Example 4.14: Information

The titration of 10.00 mL of HCl Given: 10.00 mL HCl
solution of unknown concentration 12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
• Write down the quantity to find, and/or its units.

Find: concentration HCl, M
21
requires 12.54 mL of 0.100 M Find: M HCl
• Collect Needed Equations and Conversion Factors:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
∴ 1 mole HCl = 1 mole NaOH
0.100 M NaOH ∴0.100 mol NaOH ≡ 1 L sol’n
moles solute
Molarity =
liters solution

requires 12.54 mL of 0.100 M Find: M HCl
NaOH solution to reach the end CF: 1 mol HCl = 1 mol NaOH
point. What is the concentration of 0.100 mol NaOH = 1 L
the unknown HCl solution? M = mol/L
• Write a Concept Plan:

mL L mol mol
NaOH NaOH NaOH HCl
0.001 L 0.100 mol NaOH 1 mol HCl
1 mL 1 L NaOH 1 mol NaOH
mL L moles HCl
HCl 0.001 L HCl Molarity =
liters HCl
1 mL
Example: Information
12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
Find: M HCl
CF: 1 mol HCl = 1 mol NaOH
NaOH solution to reach the end 0.100 mol NaOH = 1 L
point. What is the concentration of M = mol/L
the unknown HCl solution? CP: mL NaOH → L NaOH →
mol NaOH → mol HCl;
mL HCl → L HCl & mol ⇒ M
• Apply the Solution Map:

0.001 L 0.100 mol NaOH 1 mol HCl
12.54 mL NaOH × × ×
1 mL 1L 1 mole NaOH
= 1.25 x 10-3 mol HCl
22
12.54 mL NaOH
Find: M HCl
• Apply the Concept Plan:

0.001 L
10.00 mL NaOH × = 0.01000 L HCl
1 mL
1.25 x 10-3 moles HCl
Molarity = = 0.125 M
0.01000 L HCl
12.54 mL NaOH
Find: M HCl
• Check the Solution:

HCl solution = 0.125 M
The units of the answer, M, are correct.
The magnitude of the answer makes sense since
the neutralization takes less HCl solution than
NaOH solution, so the HCl should be more concentrated.
Gas Evolving Reactions

• Some reactions form a gas directly from the ion
exchange
K2S(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2S(g)
• Other reactions form a gas by the decomposition of one
of the ion exchange products into a gas and water
K2SO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2SO3(aq)
H2SO3 → H2O(l) + SO2(g)
23
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Compounds that Undergo

Gas Evolving Reactions
Reactant Reacting Ion Decom- Gas Example
Type With Exchange pose? Formed
Product
metalnS, acid H2S no H2S K2S(aq) + 2HCl(aq) →
metal HS 2KCl(aq) + H2S(g)
metalnCO3, acid H2CO3 yes CO2 K2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) →
metal HCO3 2KCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
metalnSO3 acid H2SO3 yes SO2 K2SO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) →
metal HSO3 2KCl(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
(NH4)nanion base NH4OH yes NH3 KOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) →
KCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l)
Example 4.15 - When an aqueous solution of

sodium carbonate is added to an aqueous solution
of nitric acid, a gas evolves
Na2CO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) →
a) Determine the ions present when each reactant dissociates
(Na+1 + CO3-2) + (H+1 + NO3-1) →
b) Exchange the anions
(Na+1 + CO3-2) + (H+1 + NO3-1) → (Na+1 + NO3-1) + (H+1 + CO3-2)
c) Write the formula of compounds
9 cross the charges
Na2CO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NaNO3 + H2CO3
24
3. Check to see either product H2S - No
4. Check to see if either product decomposes –
Yes
9 H2CO3 decomposes into CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Na2CO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NaNO3 + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

5. Determine the solubility of other product
NaNO3 is soluble
6. Write an (s) after the insoluble products and a
(aq) after the soluble products
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HNO3(aq) → 2 NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HNO3(aq) → 2 NaNO3 + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Other Patterns in Reactions

• the precipitation, acid-base, and gas evolving
reactions all involved exchanging the ions in
the solution
• other kinds of reactions involve transferring
electrons from one atom to another – these are
called oxidation-reduction reactions
9also known as redox reactions
9many involve the reaction of a substance with O2(g)
4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 Fe2O3(s)
25
Combustion as Redox
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)
Redox without Combustion

2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(s)
2 Na → 2 Na+ + 2 e−
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach Cl2 + 2 e− → 2 Cl− 77
Reactions of Metals with Nonmetals

• consider the following reactions:
4 Na(s) + O2(g) → 2 Na2O(s)
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(s)
• the reaction involves a metal reacting with a nonmetal
• in addition, both reactions involve the conversion of
free elements into ions
4 Na(s) + O2(g) → 2 Na+2O– (s)
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 Na+Cl–(s)
26
Oxidation and Reduction
• in order to convert a free element into an ion, the
atoms must gain or lose electrons
9 of course, if one atom loses electrons, another must
accept them
• reactions where electrons are transferred from one
atom to another are redox reactions
• atoms that lose electrons are being oxidized, atoms
that gain electrons are being reduced
Ger
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 Na+Cl–(s)
Na → Na+ + 1 e– oxidation
Cl2 + 2 e– → 2 Cl– reduction
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach Leo 79
Electron Bookkeeping
• for reactions that are not metal + nonmetal, or do
not involve O2, we need a method for determining
how the electrons are transferred
• chemists assign a number to each element in a
reaction called an oxidation state that allows them
to determine the electron flow in the reaction
9 even though they look like them, oxidation states are
not ion charges!
¾oxidation states are imaginary charges assigned based on a
set of rules
¾ion charges are real, measurable charges
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States

• rules are in order of priority
1. free elements have an oxidation state = 0
9 Na = 0 and Cl2 = 0 in 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g)
2. monatomic ions have an oxidation state equal
to their charge
9 Na = +1 and Cl = -1 in NaCl
3. (a) the sum of the oxidation states of all the
atoms in a compound is 0
9 Na = +1 and Cl = -1 in NaCl, (+1) + (-1) = 0
27
3. (b) the sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in
a polyatomic ion equals the charge on the ion
9 N = +5 and O = -2 in NO3–, (+5) + 3(-2) = -1
4. (a) Group I metals have an oxidation state of +1 in all

their compounds
9 Na = +1 in NaCl
4. (b) Group II metals have an oxidation state of +2 in

all their compounds
9 Mg = +2 in MgCl2

5. in their compounds, nonmetals have oxidation
states according to the table below
9 nonmetals higher on the table take priority
Nonmetal Oxidation State Example
F -1 CF4
H +1 CH4
O -2 CO2
Group 7A -1 CCl4
Group 6A -2 CS2
Group 5A -3 NH3
Practice – Assign an Oxidation State to

Each Element in the following
• Br2
• K+
• LiF
• CO2
• SO42-
• Na2O2
28
Practice – Assign an Oxidation State to
Each Element in the following
• Br2 Br = 0, (Rule 1)
• K+ K = +1, (Rule 2)
• LiF Li = +1, (Rule 4a) & F = -1, (Rule 5)
• CO2 O = -2, (Rule 5) & C = +4, (Rule 3a)
• SO42- O = -2, (Rule 5) & S = +6, (Rule 3b)
• Na2O2 Na = +1, (Rule 4a) & O = -1, (Rule 3a)
Oxidation and Reduction

Another Definition
• oxidation occurs when an atom’s oxidation state
increases during a reaction
• reduction occurs when an atom’s oxidation state
decreases during a reaction
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
-4 +1 0 +4 –2 +1 -2
oxidation
reduction
Oxidation–Reduction
• oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously
9 if an atom loses electrons another atom must take them
• the reactant that reduces an element in another reactant
is called the reducing agent
9 the reducing agent contains the element that is oxidized
• the reactant that oxidizes an element in another reactant
is called the oxidizing agent
9 the oxidizing agent contains the element that is reduced
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 Na+Cl–(s)

Na is oxidized, Cl is reduced
Na is the reducing agent, Cl2 is the oxidizing agent
29
Identify the Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
in Each of the Following
3 H2S + 2 NO3– + 2 H+ → 3 S + 2 NO + 4 H2O
MnO2 + 4 HBr → MnBr2 + Br2 + 2 H2O
Identify the Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

in Each of the Following
red ag ox ag
3 H2S + 2 NO3– + 2 H+ → 3 S + 2 NO + 4 H2O
+1 -2 +5 -2 +1 0 +2 -2 +1 -2
oxidation
reduction
ox ag red ag
MnO2 + 4 HBr → MnBr2 + Br2 + 2 H2O
+4 -2 +1 -1 +2 -1 0 +1 -2
oxidation
reduction
Combustion Reactions
• Reactions in which O2(g) is a
reactant are called
combustion reactions
• Combustion reactions release
lots of energy
• Combustion reactions are a
subclass of oxidation-
reduction reactions
2 C8H18(g) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
30
Combustion Products
• to predict the products of a combustion
reaction, combine each element in the other
reactant with oxygen
Reactant Combustion Product
contains C CO2(g)
contains H H2O(g)
contains S SO2(g)
contains N NO(g) or NO2(g)
contains metal M2On(s)
Practice – Complete the Reactions

• combustion of C3H7OH(l)
• combustion of CH3NH2(g)
Practice – Complete the Reactions

C3H7OH(l) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
CH3NH2(g) + 3 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) + NO2(g)
31

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Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 1st Ed.

2008, Prentice Hall

2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)

2 C8 H18(l) 2 C8 H18(l) 16 CO 2(g)

Predicting Amounts from Stoichiometry

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 3

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 4

Example – Estimate the mass of CO2 produced in

Given: 3.4 x 1015 g C8H18

Check: since 8x moles of CO as C H , but the molar mass of C H is

density of water = 1.00 g/mL

1 mole C 6 H12 O 6 6 mole H 2 O 18.0 g H 2 O 1 mL H 2 O

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 7

The limiting reagent is

•reactants not completely

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 8

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 9

• Limiting Reagent Calculation: Lithium oxide is a drying agent used on

Li2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2 LiOH(s)

• MM(Li2O) = 29.88 g/mol All the calculations are then

•The best way to calculate this is to convert all

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 11

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaCl (aq) Æ PbCl2 (s) + 2 NaNO3 (aq)

Which reactant do we base the calculation on?

The Limiting Reactant.

mass moles moles mass

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 12

1. Make sure have a balanced chemical reaction

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 13

• Limiting Reagent Calculation: Cisplatin is an anti-cancer

• If 10.0 g of K2PtCl4 and 10.0 g of NH3 are allowed to

• MM(K2PtCl4) = 415.08 g/mol MM(NH3) = 17.04

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 14

Practice – How many grams of N2(g) can be made from

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 15

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 16

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 17

amount of solute (in moles)

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 19

Preparing 1 L of a 1.00 M NaCl Solution

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 20

Example 4.5 – Find the molarity of a solution that

Example 4.6 – How many liters of 0.125 M NaOH

• Follow the Solution:

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 24

• Strategize Concept Plan:

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 26

Example 4.8 – What volume of 0.150 M KCl is required to

Relationships: 1 L Pb(NO3)2 = 0.175 mol, 1 L KCl = 0.150 mol,

Table Salt Dissolving in Water

Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 31

Salt vs. Sugar Dissolved in Water

ionic compounds dissociate molecular compounds do not

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 34

Classes of Dissolved Materials

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 35

Solubility of Ionic Compounds

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 36

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 37

Compounds Containing the Exceptions

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 38

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 39