mR-3

UNITED STATES
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS
AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
IN COOPERATION W I T H

NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH

AND

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MEDICAL RESULTS OF THE FIRST r

U. S. MANNED SUBORBITAL SPACE FLIGHT

,Ted1n i ca x

A COMPILATION OF THE PAPERS PRESENTED

JUNE 6, 1961

. I ..
4

WASHINGTON, D. C.
 UNITED STATES
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

I n C o o p e r a t i o n With

NATIONAL I N S T I T U T E S OF HEALTH
And
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

CONFERENCE ON

MEDICAL RESULTS OF THE F I R S T

U.S. MANNED SUBORBITAL SPACE FLIGHT

A C o m p i l a t i o n of t h e Papers Presented

June 6, 1961

WASHINGTON, D. C.
 CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD............... .............. v

TECHNICAL PAPERS PRESENTED

June 6, 1961

GEXEXAL CHAIRMAN: Dr. Lloyd V. Berkner, Chairman, Space Science Board,

National Academy of Sciences

I. MERCURY PROGRAM SUMMAFiY

SESSION CHAIRMAN: D r . Abe S i l v e r s t e i n , Director, NASA Space F l i g h t

Programs

1. INTRODUCTION
By Robert R . Gilruth, Director, Space Task Group ......
2. FLIGHT PLAN FOR THE MR-3 MANNED FLIGHT
By Christopher C. Kraft, Jr., Asst. Chief, F l i g h t Operations
Division ..........................
3 . MERCURY SPACECRAFC SYSTEMS
By Aleck C . Bond, Asst. Chief, F l i g h t Systems Division ...
4. REvlEw OF BIOMEDICAL SYSTEMS FOR MR-3 FLIGHT
By Stanley C . White, M.D., Chief, Life Systems Division;
Richard S. Johnston, Asst. Chief, Life Systems Division;
Gerard J. Pesman, Crew Equipment Branch, Life Systems
Division ..........................
11. BIOMEDICAL DATA

SESSION CHAIRMAN: . .
Dr C H. Roadman, Acting Director, NASA Life
Sciences Programs

5 . RESULTS OF PREFLIGIIT AND POSTFLIGHT MEDICAL EXAMJXATIONS

By C a r m a u l t B. Jackson, Jr., M.D.,Aerospace Medical Branch;
W i l l i a m K. Douglas, M.D., Astronaut F l i g h t Surgeon; James F.
Culver, M.D., WAF’ School of Aviation Medicine, Brooks AFB,
San Antonio, Texas; George R u f f , M.D., University of
Pennsylvania; Edward C . Knoblock, Ph.D., Walter Reed Anqy
Medical Center; and Ashton Graybiel, M.D., USN School of
Aviation Medicine, Pensacola, Florida ............
iii
 Page
6. BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION I N MR-3 FLIGEFT
By James P. Henry, M.D., Head, Aerospace Medical Branch; and
Charles D. Wheelwright, Aerospace Medical Branch ....... 59 J
7. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES OF THE ASTRONAUT I N THE MR-3 FLIGHT
By W i l l i a m S. Augerson, M.D., Aerospace Medical Branch; and
C. P a t r i c k Laughlin, M.D., Aerospace Medical Branch ..... 71 /
111. PILOT PERFORMANCE

SESSION CHAIRMAN: Walter C. W i l l i a m s , Associate D i r e c t o r , Space

Task Group

8 . PILOT TRAINING AND PIIEFLCGHT PREPARA!TION

By Donald K. Slayton, Astronaut ............... 87 ' /
9. FESULTS OF IN-FLIGIEC PILOT PERFORMANCE
By Robert B. Voas, Ph.D., Head, Training Office; John J.
V a n Bockel, Training Office; Raymond G. Zedekar, Training
Office; and P a u l S. Backer, McDonnell A i r c r a f t Corporation .. 97 J
10. PILOT'S FLIGIEC REPORT, INCLUDING IN-FLIGHT FIIMS
By Alan B. Shepard, Jr., Astronaut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lo9 v/

iv
 FOREWORD

This document i s a compilation of papers presented at a Conference

on t h e Medical Results of t h e F i r s t U.S. Manned Suborbital Space F l i g h t .
This conference w a s h e l d by t h e NASA, i n cooperation with t h e National
I n s t i t u t e s of Health and t h e National Acadeqy of Sciences, a t t h e
U.S. Department of S t a t e Auditorium on June 6, 1961. The papers were
prepared by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e NASA Space Task Group i n collabora-
t i o n w i t h personnel from various Department o f Defense medical i n s t a l l a -
t i o n s , the University of Pennsylvania, and McDonnell A i r c r a f t Corporation.

V
 MTRODUCTION

By Robert R. Gilruth

Project Mercury is this nation's first venture into manned space

flight. The purpose of this introductory paper is to acquaint the
audience with the history of the program and its broad objectives and
to provide an idea of the scope and present status of the program.

PROJECT GROUND FXJIXS

At the initiation of Project Mercury in October 1958, approximately

a year of research and study by the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (predecessor to NASA), industry, and other Government agencies
had taken place. This early study permitted the establishment of program
objectives and of a set of ground rules under which the program would be
undertaken.

The scientific objective of Project Mercury is to determine man's

capabilities in a space environment and in those environments to which
he will be subject upon going into and returning from space. The accom-
plishment of this scientific objective requires the accomplishment of
the technological objective of orbiting and safely recovering a manned
spacecraft. The ground rules under which we hope to accomplish these
objectives are as follows:

(1) Drag reentry (retrorockets)

(2) Atlas (propulsion and guidance)

(3) Automatic escape system

(4) Animal flights

(5) Parachute landing system

(6) Water landing (primary)
(7) In-flight monitoring
(8)Buildup type of flight program
( 9 ) Extensive field tests
These rules, incidentally, are those adopted early in the program, and
so far they have stood the test of time.
2

I n order t o simplify t h e program and t o use t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e of

the a r t t o t h e g r e a t e s t e x t e n t p r a c t i c a b l e , it w a s planned t o use a drag
r e e n t r y vehicle with t h e e n t r y i n i t i a t e d by r e t r o r o c k e t s . To avoid
developing a new propulsion and guidance system, it was decided t o use
t h e e x i s t i n g A t l a s as t h e launch v e h i c l e . Since t h e A t l a s was not
designed o r i g i n a l l y f o r manned f l i g h t operation, it w a s necessary t o
provide an automatic escape system which would sense impending launch-
vehicle malfunctions and separate t h e s p a c e c r a f t from t h e launch
vehicle i n t h e event of such malfunctions.

Man had never before flown i n space and t h u s it was f e l t d e s i r a b l e

t o include animal f l i g h t s i n t h e program t o provide e a r l y biomedical
d a t a and t o prove out, r e a l i s t i c a l l y , t h e operation of t h e l i f e - s u p p o r t
systems. Again i n t h e i n t e r e s t s of s i m p l i c i t y , it was planned t o use a
parachute f o r t h e f i n a l letdown and landing and t o plan on water as t h e
primary landing a r e a .

It w a s considered wise t o monitor t h e performance of t h e s p a c e c r a f t ,

i t s systems, and i t s occupant, whether animal o r man, almost c o n t i n u a l l y .
To t h i s end, a worldwide network of t r a c k i n g , telemetry, and comunica-
t i o n s s t a t i o n s has been set up.

Since a new a r e a of f l i g h t w a s being approached, it was planned t o

use a buildup type of f l i g h t - t e s t program, i n which each component o r
system would be flown t o successively more severe conditions i n order
f i r s t t o prove t h e concept, then t o q u a l i f y t h e a c t u a l design, and f i n a l l y
t o prove, through some repeated use, t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e system. The
Redstone f l i g h t which i s t h e s u b j e c t of t h i s conference i s a v i t a l p a r t of
t h i s buildup f l i g h t program.

The f l i g h t program, f i n a l l y , i s being supported by extensive f i e l d

t e s t i n g of a l l components and systems t o assure a u s e f u l , r e l i a b l e ,
vehicle.

MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATION

The accomplishment of P r o j e c t Mercury has r e q u i r e d t h e development

of a management organization t o u t i l i z e e f f e c t i v e l y t h e broad spectrum of
Government agencies and i n d u s t r y which such a complex program r e q u i r e s .
This organization i s shown i n f i g u r e 1.

Overall d i r e c t i o n of P r o j e c t Mercury i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e
National Aeronautics and Space Administration and i s e x e r c i s e d through
t h e NASA Headquarters, Office of Space F l i g h t Programs. Detailed pro-
gram management i s delegated t o t h e Space Task Group, shown i n t h e c e n t e r
a r e a of f i g u r e 1. The Space Task Group looks f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n r e s e a r c h
 3

and development a c t i v i t i e s t o a l l t h e other NASA Centers and t o t h e t h r e e

services, wherever specialized knowledge or f a c i l i t i e s e x i s t . For imple-
mentation of t h e ground monitoring network t h e NASA Langley and Goddard
Centers have managed a team composed of a prime contractor, Western
E l e c t r i c , and i t s subcontractors, with advice and a s s i s t a n c e from e l e -
ments of t h e Department of Defense, the MIT Lincoln Laboratory, t h e
Federal Aviation Agency, and t h e Australian Weapons Research Establishment.
The operation of t h i s network i s handled by NASA through t h e Department of
Defense, drawing on t h e various National Missile Ranges, t h e Australian
‘YJRE, and s e v e r a l NASA network s t a t i o n s .

Production of t h e Mercury spacecraft i s done by McIjonnell A i r c r a f t

Corporation and i t s subcontractors under a contract with NASA managed by
t h e Space Task Group. The launch vehicles a r e provided by t h e A i r Force
Space Systems Division and i t s contractors ( f o r t h e A t l a s ) and t h e NASA
Marshall Space F l i g h t Center and i t s contractors ( f o r t h e Redstone).

Launch and recovery operations a r e managed by the Space Task Group

and a r e accomplished and supported by the A t l a n t i c Missile Range,
McDonnell A i r c r a f t , t h e A i r Force Space Systems Command, Marshall Space
F l i g h t Center, a s p e c i a l Navy recovery task force, the Weather Bureau,
and a l a r g e Department of Defense medical support team drawn from t h e
Army, N a v y , and A i r Force. For o r b i t a l operations, t h e Public Health
Service will supply medical monitors f o r some of t h e network s t a t i o n s .

BASIC FLIGRT PROBLEMS

The problems which demand solution f o r t h e successful accomplishment

of a p r o j e c t such as Mercury a r e many and varied, a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e
scope of t h e organizations involved i n t h e program ( f i g . 1). A few of
t h e more b a s i c problems a r e as follows:

(1)Automatic escape

( 2 ) Control during i n s e r t i o n

(3) Behavior of space systems

(4) P i l o t s ’ c a p a b i l i t y i n space
(3) I n - f l i g h t monitoring
(6) R e t r o f i r e and r e e n t r y maneuvers
(7) Landing and recovery
4

F i r s t , the problem of automatic escape from a malfunctioning launch

vehicle i s v i t a l t o p i l o t s a f e t y - t h e s o l u t i o n chosen, automatic a b o r t -
sensing system and escape rocket, has been well proven i n many f l i g h t
tests.

The problem of c o n t r o l during i n s e r t i o n s i n t o o r b i t , while not of

concern for t h i s conference, required t h e development of t h e real-time
computation and d i s p l a y of t r a j e c t o r y and vehicle performance f o r t h e
Mercury Control Center a t Cape Canaveral, together with t h e A t l a s
guidance and c o n t r o l system.

The behavior of space systems i s being continually studied and

proved out by extensive ground t e s t s and by f l i g h t s such as t h a t being
reported i n t h i s conference.
i
The question of p i l o t s ' c a p a b i l i t y i n space can, of course, be
studied only through f l i g h t t e s t s ; however, a s discussed i n subsequent
papers i n this conference, an i n t e n s i v e and extensive astronaut t r a i n i n g
program i s required t o prepare t h e p i l o t s f o r space f l i g h t .

I n - f l i g h t monitoring has been t h e subject of considerable t r a i n i n g

and development e f f o r t . Although t h e complete monitoring network has
y e t t o be put t o a c t u a l use, various t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s with t h e com-
p l e t e network and use of p a r t of t h e network for t h e MR-3 f l i g h t have
been encouraging.

R e t r o f i r e and r e e n t r y maneuvers and landing and recovery have been

demonstrated i n t h e many f l i g h t s accomplished i n P r o j e c t Mercury. These
problems appear t o have been adequately solved; however, these techniques
have not been demonstrated f o r o r b i t a l f l i g h t .

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The subsequent papers i n t h i s conference will attempt f i r s t t o

explain t h e operations and space vehicle used i n t h e MR-3 f l i g h t and
then t o present p e r t i n e n t results from t h i s f l i g h t .
 5

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 7

FLIGHT PLAN FOR THE MR-3 MANNED FL1GH.T

By Christopher C. Kraft, Jr.

This paper presents some of the preflightr preparations for the

manned Mercury-Redstone (MR-3) flight and gives an outline of the flight
plan. Also, a brief description of the recovery operations w i l l be
given. The preflight operations will deal with the preparations that
were carried out, and the flight plan will be based on the times that
the events occurred during the flight test. Astronaut Shepard w i l l
describe the flight test in more detail in a later presentation.

Starting in September 1960, the ground crews and the Astronauts

began to make simulated flights of the Mercury-Redstone missions. The
first unmanned and the chimpanzee Redstone flights, of course, furnished
a great deal of experience from the standpoint of ground preparations
and in-flight flight control. Previous to the actual manned flight,
approximately 40 simulated flight tests were carried out at the Mercury
Control Center. The Astronaut was in the procedures trainer during the
simulations and participated with the flight control personnel so that
a great amount of realism was obtained. It was during these simulated
flights that the procedures to be used during the actual flight were
developed. Such procedures as reporting techniques, voice communications,
and transfer of information between the Astronaut and the control center
were developed. The simulated flights dealt not only with the normal
flight conditions but also with a large number of runs in.which both the
Astronaut and the flight control team were subjected to various types of
spacecraft malfunctions which could occur. This type of training has
proven to be invaluable to the ground control personnel and to the
refinement of proper procedures for manned flights.

The formal countdown for the preparation for launching the MR-3
manned spacecraft started on the day previous to the launch day. The
countdown was actually split into two parts because previous experience
had shown that it was preferable to run the countdown in two shorter
segments and allow the launch crew of both the spacecraft and the launch
vehicle to obtain some rest before starting the final preparation for
Astronaut insertion and launch of the vehicle. The countdown started
at 8:30 a.m. EST on May 4, 1961. All the operations proceeded normally
and were completed ahead of the scheduled time. A built-in hold of
approximately 15 hours was called at T - 6 hours 30 minutes (where T
indicates the time of predicted lift-off). During this time the various
pyrotechnics were installed in the spacecraft and the hydrogen peroxide
-
system was serviced. The countdown was resumed at T 6 hours 30 minutes
at ll:3O p.m. EST on May 4, 1961. A built-in hold of 1 hour had been
previously agreed upon at T - 2 hours 20 minutes. This hold was to
assure that spacecraft preparations had been completed before the
8

Astronaut was transported to the pad. The countdown proceeded with only
minor delays until T - 2 hours 20 minutes. At this time, final prepara-
tion of the spacecraft was conducted and the Astronaut was apprised of
the continuance of the countdown and transported to the pad. (The
details concerning the Astronaut's preparations will be presented in
subsequent papers by Jackson et al. and by Augerson and Laughlin.)

The countdown was continued after the hold at T - 2 hours 20 minutes

and, except for some minor holds, which probably resulted from all con-
cerned being extremely careful during the insertion of the Astronaut,
the countdown continued until T - 15 minutes. At this time it was deter- S
mined that photographic coverage of the launch and flight could not be 1
obtained because of low clouds which were being blown into the launch 2
area. The weather forecaster predicted that the visibility would improve
rapidly within the next 30 to 45 minutes, and it was decided to hold the
launch until more favorable camera coverage could be obtained. During
this hold it was determined that one of the inverters supplying 400-cycle
power to the launch vehicle was not regulating properly. The test con-
ductor of the launch vehicle felt that this inverter should be replaced
and this replacement would require a hold of approximately 45 minutes
to 1 hour. At this time the Astronaut was consulted and he indicated
that he was fine; the aeromedical people agreed that the Astronaut was
in good condition and, therefore, it was decided to continue on and make
a replacement of the inverter and pick up the count as soon thereafter
as possible. The countdown was recycled to T - 35 minutes and resumed
after a hold of 86 minutes. Again at T - 13 minutes it was necessary to
hold the launch countdown in order to make a final check of the computer
being used to give real time trajectory information and impact prediction.
After this point, the countdown proceeded smoothly through to the time of
lift-off. The total hold time during the launch countdown was 2 hours
34 minutes. The effects of this hold on the Astronaut will be discussed
I
1
by Astronaut Shepard.

Figure 1 shows the MR-3 flight plan which was worked out by both
the engineering and aeromedical groups, in conjunction with the Astronauts,
to obtain an initial assessment of man's capability to operate in a space
environment, and an appraisal of the spacecraft systems under similar
conditions. The various phases of the mission are presented, and the
values given are the times in minutes and seconds after lift-off at which
an event occurred or a given task was performed. The flight as flown by
Astronaut Shepard was almost identical to the intended flight plan and
for purposes of this discussion can be considered the same. During the
countdown several planned communications checks were made with the
Astronaut on both UHF and HF radio. At T - 2 minutes the UHF radio was
turned on and continuous communications were maintained between the
Astronaut acting as the spacecraft communicator in the Mercury Control
Center and the Astronaut in the spacecraft. This wits to assure that the
 9

communications systems were functioning properly at lift-off. The lift-

off occurred at 9 : $ a.m. EST on May 5, 1961.

The first critical time after lift-off occurred at 1 minute 24 sec-

onds. At this time the spacecraft and launch vehicle passed through the
point of maximum dynamic pressure (that is, the point in the exit tra-
jectory at which the spacecraft and launch vehicle are subjected to the
largest aerodynamic load). In addition, it was at this time that the
1
cabin pressure sealed and was maintained at about 5 psi. A comunica-
2
tion procedure had been developed between the Astronaut and the control
center so that if cabin and suit pressure were not maintained, an abort
was to be initiated so that the time spent above 50,000 feet would be
minimized and the maximum altitude reached would be limited to 70,000 feet
By aborting at this time (that is, between T + 1 minute 16 seconds and
T + 1 minute 29 seconds), the time above 50,000 feet could be limited to
about 60 to 70 seconds.

The shutdown of the launch-vehicle engine occurred at T + 2 minutes

22 seconds, and, at the same time, a signal was to be given to the space-
craft to separate the escape tower. Spacecraft separation occurred
10 seconds later by means of the separation of the Marman clamp and the
firing of the posigrade rockets. Both of these operations were to be
manually initiated by the Astronaut if the automatic systems had failed.
This backup action by the Astronaut was to be taken in the initiation
of all major spacecraft events. After a ?-second period during which
the motions of the spacecraft were damped, a turnaround maneuver was
initiated in which the spacecraft was yawed 180° so that the spacecraft
was proceeding with the heat shield forward. The pitch attitude was
lo from the local horizontal. At
also regulated to an attitude of 14-
2
T + 3 minutes 10 seconds, the Astronaut turned off the automatic con-
trol systems and took over manual control of the spacecraft attitude.
The plan was to have the Astronaut maintain manual control of the
spacecraft throughout the remainder of the flight by using various com-
binations of the spacecraft attitude and rate-control systems. At
T + 3 minutes 50 seconds, the Astronaut made a number of visual observa-
tions using the periscope. These observations included such things as
weather fronts, cloud coverage, and certain preselected reference points
on the ground. At T + 4 minutes 44 seconds, the retrofire sequence was
initiated by an onboard timer; that is, the spacecraft was reoriented
to the retrofire attitude of 9'in pitch and'0 in yaw and roll. Thirty
seconds after initiation of the retrofire sequence, firing of the three
retrorockets took place. Each rocket was to burn for approxhnately
10 seconds and they were fired sequentially at 5-second intervals. At
T + 6 minutes 14 seconds (60 seconds after the firing of the first
retrorocket), the retropackage jettisoned. It should be pointed out
that, although firing of the retrorockets would have little effect on
10

t h e Redstone s u b o r b i t a l f l i g h t , t h i s same procedure would be followed

during an o r b i t a l f l i g h t i n which t h e conduct of t h i s maneuver i s
extremely c r i t i c a l t o t h e r e e n t r y and subsequent recovery of t h e Astronaut
and t h e s p a c e c r a f t .

S h o r t l y a f t e r j e t t i s o n of t h e retropackage, a check of t h e HF r a d i o
onboard t h e spacecraft was made and, during t h i s time ( a t T + 6 minutes
20 seconds), t h e Astronaut placed t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n t h e r e e n t r y a t t i t u d e
of 40°; t h a t i s , with t h e h e a t s h i e l d pointed down 40° from t h e l o c a l
h o r i z o n t a l . The periscope was r e t r a c t e d a t T + 6 minutes 44 seconds. I n
a nominal r e e n t r y from o r b i t , t h e periscope i s r e t r a c t e d j u s t previous t o S
atmospheric r e e n t r y t o prevent damage due t o r e e n t r y heating. This pro- 1
cedure was followed i n t h i s f l i g h t , although no h e a t damage would have 2
occurred i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r r e e n t r y maneuver. The start of t h e r e e n t r y ,
as i n d i c a t e d by t h e sensing of O.O5g, i n i t i a t e d t h e O.O5g l i g h t on t h e
Astronaut's panel a t T + 7 minutes 48 seconds, and t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n b u i l t
up t o a maximum of ll.Og a t T + 8 minutes 20 seconds. This m a x i m u m
a c c e l e r a t i o n occurred a t an a l t i t u d e of approximately 83,000 f e e t .

The deployment of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g drogue parachute occurred a t

21,000 f e e t a t 9 minutes 38 seconds a f t e r l i f t - o f f . The s p a c e c r a f t con-
t i n u e d t o descend d o m t o 10,000 feet, a t which t i m e t h e main parachute
was deployed and t h i s occurred a t T + 10 minutes 15 seconds. It m i g h t be
noted t h a t a backup parachute was provided should t h e f i r s t parachute have
f a i l e d , and t h e deployment of t h i s parachute would have been i n i t i a t e d by
t h e Astronaut. The descent of t h e s p a c e c r a f t was approximately 3 0 . f e e t
p e r second a f t e r t h e deployment of t h e main parachute, and landing took
place 5 minutes 7 seconds l a t e r . A f t e r landing, t h e Astronaut i n i t i a t e d
t h e various recovery aids; t h e s e include a dye marker and an HF whip
antenna. The SARAH beacon, which i s a r a d i o homing device, was turned on
a t t h e time t h a t t h e main parachute was deployed.

Figure 2 i s presented t o give a p i c t o r i a l p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e over-

a l l f l i g h t . A s noted previously, t h e launch occurred a t 9:34 a . m . EST.
Two minutes 22 seconds l a t e r maximum v e l o c i t y was achieved a t launch-
vehicle c u t o f f . This i n e r t i a l v e l o c i t y was 7,388 f e e t p e r second o r
5,036 miles p e r hour, which was within 86 f e e t p e r second of t h e p r e -
d i c t e d v e l o c i t y . The maximum a l t i t u d e occurred 3 minutes 11 seconds
after l i f t - o f f and was 1162 s t a t u t e miles. The landing, as noted p r e v i -
2
ously, occurred 15 minutes 22 seconds after l i f t - o f f , 302 s t a t u t e miles
downrange from Cape Canaveral, F l a . I n order t o give an i d e a of t h e
accuracy t h a t can be expected from t h e c m p u t a t i o n s made immediately
a f t e r cutoff of t h e launch v e h i c l e and s e p a r a t i m of t h e s p a c e c r a f t , a
comparison i s given of t h e impact p o i n t which was p r e d i c t e d a t c u t o f f and
t h e point a t which t h e s p a c e c r a f t was r e t r i e v e d . It can be seen that t h e
r e d i c t i o n was within 2 minutes of longitude and 1.7 minutes of l a t i t u d e
which vas w i t h i n 3 miles of t h e r e t r i e v a l p o i n t ) .
 11

The a c c e l e r a t i o n p r o f i l e experienced by t h e Astronaut during t h e

f l i g h t i s presented i n f i g u r e 3. Shown i n t h i s f i g u r e i s t h e accelera-
t i o n along t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e spacecraft p l o t t e d as a function
of time a f t e r l i f t - o f f . The a c c e l e r a t i o n b u i l t up gradually from 1.Og
and reached a maximum of 6.2g a t launch-vehicle c u t o f f . The a c c e l e r a t i o n
immediately dropped t o Og and remained a t O g f o r approximately 5 minutes
except f o r t h e s h o r t period during r e t r o r o c k e t f i r i n g . A t 7 minutes
48 seconds, t h e r e e n t r y a c c e l e r a t i o n s t a r t e d and b u i l t up r a p i d l y t o a
maximum of llg a t 8 minutes 20 seconds. The a c c e l e r a t i o n reduced t o near
1.Og a t 8 minutes 40 seconds and continued a t approximately 1.Og. T h i s
1.Og was i n t e r r u p t e d by a spike of from 3g t o 4g when t h e main parachute
was deployed. The a c c e l e r a t i o n s experienced a t landing were not measured
i n t h i s f l i g h t . Previous t e s t s have indicated t h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n t o be on
t h e order of l 2 g t o 14g. Astronaut Shepard will describe t h i s landing i n
more d e t a i l .

The recovery operations f o r t h i s f l i g h t were as good as could ever

be hoped f o r i n any Mercury operation. A t t h e time of launch-vehicle
cutoff, a message giving t h e impact point predicted by t h e computer was
sent t o t h e a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r i n t h e intended landing a r e a . This allowed
t h e pickup h e l i c o p t e r s t o be dispatched t o t h e a r e a about 10 minutes
before t h e time of landing. A s a r e s u l t , t h e h e l i c o p t e r s were a c t u a l l y
a b l e t o follow t h e spacecraft down t o the water as the spacecraft
descended. About 2 minutes a f t e r t h e spacecraft landed, the h e l i c o p t e r s
contacted t h e Astronaut and the recovery procedure was i n i t i a t e d . It
had been planned t o have the h e l i c o p t e r hook on t o the top of t h e space-
c r a f t and apply s u f f i c i e n t power s o t h a t t h e spacecraft w a s suspended
with t h e heat s h i e l d and landing bag s t i l l i n t h e water. This procedure
was t o guarantee t h a t t h e hatch on t h e side of the spacecraft was suf-
f i c i e n t l y c l e a r of the water t o prevent water from e n t e r i n g t h e space-
c r a f t when t h e hatch was opened. Then the Astronaut was t o remove t h e
hatch and come t o a s i t t i n g p o s i t i o n on t h e edge of t h e hatch frame of
the s p a c e c r a f t . The h e l i c o p t e r w a s then t o lower the rescue c o l l a r t o
t h e Astronaut and r a i s e him i n t h e normal fashion up i n t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r .
A f t e r t h e r e t r i e v a l of t h e Astronaut, the spacecraft was t o be hoisted
from t h e water and delivered t o t h e deck of t h e a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r . The
process t h a t has been described nas c a r r i e d out without i n c i d e n t and
proved t o be a very good operation, Visual inspection of t h e spacecraft
i n d i c a t e d no damage had occurred t o the spacecraft during t h e f l i g h t o r
upon impact with t h e water. Subsequent d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e
spacecraft have been made and show t h a t t h e spacecraft m s indeed i n
e x c e l l e n t condition and could be used again t o make similar f l i g h t s .

The r e s u l t s of t h e f l i g h t and the landing w i l l be described i n

more d e t a i l by Astronaut Shepard and others.
 MR-3 FLIGHT
INITIATE
RETROFIRE SEQUENCE1 ,-RETROFIRE

MANUAL CONTROL

SPACECRAFT SEP. 3:lO

MAIN CHUTE DEPLOY. 10:15

Figure 1.

MR-3 GROUND TRACK AND FLIGHT PROFILE

II

LANDING POINT

Figure 2.
 MR-3 ACCELERATION PROFILE

ACCELERATION.
g UNITS
12r
IO c LAUNCH- REENTRY

4- MAIN PARACHUTE
DEPLOYMENT

0 2 4 6 8 101214
TIME, MIN

Figure 3.
 MERCURY SPACECRAFT SYSTEMS

By Aleck C. Bond

INTROlXTCTION

The Mercury f l i g h t t e s t program has included f u l l - s c a l e s p a c e c r a f t

f l i g h t t e s t s using t h e A t l a s , Redstone, and L i t t l e Joe launch v e h i c l e s .
The A t l a s launch v e h i c l e i s t h e launch vehicle t h a t w i l l be used f o r the
subsequent o r b i t a l f l i g h t t e s t s . The L i t t l e Joe launch vehicle, which
i s r e l a t i v e l y simple and inexpensive, has been used p r i m a r i l y f o r proving
system concepts and f l i g h t q u a l i f i c a t i o n of c e r t a i n s p a c e c r a f t components.
For instance, t h e L i t t l e Joe launch vehicle has been used t o check t h o r -
oughly and q u a l i f y t h e Mercury escape system under t h e most c r i t i c a l
escape conditions of t h e Mercury f l i g h t spectrum. F l i g h t t e s t s with t h e
Redstone launch v e h i c l e a r e being used t o f u r t h e r t h e f l i g h t q u a l i f i c a -
t i o n of many of t h e s p a c e c r a f t systems as w e l l as t o provide a means of
a s t r o n a u t t r a i n i n g on short-range s u b o r b i t a l o r b a l l i s t i c f l i g h t s . P r i o r
t o Astronaut Shepard's r e c e n t f l i g h t , three Redstone missions were flown
which demonstrated t h e readiness of t h e systems f o r manned f l i g h t . The
f i r s t w a s unmanned, t h e second w a s made with t h e primate Ham onboard t h e
s p a c e c r a f t , and t h e t h i r d provided f u r t h e r launch-vehicle q u a l i f i c a t i o n .

Even though t h e f l i g h t t e s t s with t h e Redstone a r e s u b o r b i t a l , t h e y

do provide a s h o r t period of weightlessness as w e l l as a simulation of
t h e g-levels which w i l l be encountered during r e e n t r y from b r b i t . These
f l i g h t s a r e considered as valuable stepping s t o n e s t o t h e o r b i t a l mission.
The purpose of t h i s paper i s t o present a b r i e f review of t h e Mercury
s p a c e c r a f t and some of i t s primary systems i n o r d e r t o provide a b e t t e r
understanding of t h e subsequent presentations on Astronaut Shepard's
r e c e n t venture i n t o space.

SPACECRAFT AND ESCAPE SYSTEM

Figure 1 shows a sketch of t h e Mercury s p a c e c r a f t with and without

i t s escape system. The o v e r a l l length of t h e v e h i c l e including t h e
escape tower and retropack i s j u s t under 26 f e e t . The maximum diameter
of t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s 7 ) d inches.
2

The s p a c e c r a f t configuration i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s :
t h e b l u n t r e e n t r y face, t h e c o n i c a l afterbody, t h e c y l i n d r i c a l recovery
compartment, and t h e antenna c a n i s t e r . The b l u n t end which i s o r i e n t e d
forward during r e e n t r y i s p r o t e c t e d from r e e n t r y h e a t i n g by a h e a t s h i e l d .
16

For t h e Redstone missions, a heat s h i e l d constructed of beryllium i s

employed, whereas f o r t h e o r b i t a l missions an a b l a t i v e - t y p e s h i e l d
constructed of f i b e r g l a s s and r e s i n i s used. The inward sloping s u r f a c e s
of the cone tend t o minimize the afterbody h e a t i n g and t h e extensions t o
the cone enhance both t h e s t a t i c and dynamic s t a b i l i t y . The afterbody
i s of double-wall construction, t h e w a l l s being separated with bulk insu-
l a t i o n material. The o u t e r w a l l of t h e c o n i c a l afterbody and antenna
c a n i s t e r c o n s i s t s of overlapping s h i n g l e s made of t h i n s h e e t s of r e f r a c -
t o r y metal which d i s s i p a t e h e a t by r a d i a t i o n . These shingles are cor-
rugated t o provide s t i f f n e s s . The recovery-compartment o u t e r w a l l i s
constructed of a s e r i e s of beryllium p l a t e elements, which a r e unre- C
L
s t r a i n e d f o r thermal expansion. The inner-wall s t r u c t u r e i n t h e region 1
of the c o n i c a l p o r t i o n of t h e afterbody c o n s t i t u t e s t h e pressure v e s s e l
or cabin and i s constructed of two l a y e r s of thin-gage titanium.

Entrance t o t h e cabin i s gained through a hatch i n t h e w a l l of t h e

conical afterbody. Figure 1 shows one of t h e two porthole-type windows
incorporated i n t h e MR-3 s p a c e c r a f t . These windows u t i l i z e heat-
r e s i s t a n t g l a s s and a r e of multipane construction. The l a t e r Mercury
spacecraft incorporate o n l y a s i n g l e b u t much l a r g e r window which i s
located d i r e c t l y above t h e a s t r o n a u t ' s head. This modification w a s made
t o give t h e a s t r o n a u t a more u n r e s t r i c t e d view f o r making v i s u a l observa-
t i o n s independent of the e x i s t i n g o p t i c a l system.

The escape tower i s attached t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t s t r u c t u r e by means

of a Marman-type clamping band which i s h e l d t o g e t h e r by explosive b o l t s .
The s o l i d - p r o p e l l a n t escape rocket mounted on t o p of t h e tower i s
designed t o provide an adequate separation d i s t a n c e i n case of launch
vehicle f a i l u r e . If t h e launch vehicle f a i l s on t h e launch pad, t h e
escape rocket w i l l l i f t t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o an a l t i t u d e s u f f i c i e n t t o allow
deployment of t h e main parachute. Recent t e s t s of t h i s system simulating
an off-the-pad abort, an a b o r t a t maximum dynamic pressure, t h a t is,
maximum a i r loading, and an a b o r t a t very high a l t i t u d e have a l l been
successful. I n a normal Redstone mission t h e escape tower i s j e t t i s o n e d
by f i r i n g t h e escape motor immediately a f t e r t h e launch-vehicle motor i s
s h u t down. A s m a l l s o l i d - p r o p e l l a n t rocket motor l o c a t e d j u s t behind
t h e escape motor i s used t o j e t t i s o n t h e tower from t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n an
aborted mission.

The retropack, which i s shown mounted t o t h e h e a t s h i e l d i n f i g -

ure 1 and also i n f i g u r e 2, contains s i x s o l i d - p r o p e l l a n t rocket motors,
t h r e e being retrograde motors and t h e o t h e r t h r e e being posigrade motors.
The retrograde o r braking motors which are used t o i n i t i a t e r e e n t r y from
o r b i t w i l l provide a v e l o c i t y decrement of 450 f e e t p e r second along
t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis of t h e s p a c e c r a f t . The posigrade motors, which
a r e smaller and provide a v e l o c i t y increment of 30 f e e t p e r second,
a r e used t o e f f e c t s e p a r a t i o n from t h e launch v e h i c l e . The retropack i s
attached t o t h e h e a t s h i e l d by means of t h r e e metal t i e s t r a p s . It
i s j e t t i s o n e d by f i r i n g t h e s i n g l e explosive b o l t which r e t a i n s t h e
s t r a p s a t t h e c e n t e r of the retropack.

MAJOR SPACERAFT SYSTEMS

I Ka~ d d i t i o n t o t h e heat p r o t e c t i o n and rocket systems discussed i n

the foregoing section, the spacecraft incorporates seven o t h e r major
systems. These systems are (1) communications, ( 2 ) a t t i t u d e control,
( 3 ) environmental control, (4) e l e c t r i c a l power, ( 5 ) explosive devices,
(6) cabin equipment, and (7) landing and recovery systems. Since a l l
t h e systems cannot be covered i n d e t a i l i n t h i s presentation, only cer-
t a i n f e a t u r e s of systems of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t a r e discussed. One t h i n g
which should be noted at t h i s point i s t h a t , although a l l spacecraft sys-
t e m s have been designed f o r completely automatic operation, provisions have
a l s o been made f o r operation and c o n t r o l of t h e systems by t h e a s t r o n a u t .

When a l l t h e many systems and subsystems are i n t e g r a t e d within t h e

spacecraft, t h e i n t e r n a l arrangement i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t shown i n t h e
sketch of f i g u r e 3. With t h i s arrangement, t h e astronaut has about t h e
same amount of room as i n a t y p i c a l f i g h t e r cockpit. The a s t r o n a u t i s
shown s e a t e d i n h i s contoured couch with h i s back t o t h e h e a t s h i e l d .
It should be noted t h a t the d i r e c t i o n of s p a c e c r a f t t r a v e l i s reversed
between t h e launch and r e e n t r y phases of f l i g h t . During launch the s m a l l
end of t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s pointed forward but f o r r e e n t r y t h e o r i e n t a t i o n
i s reversed and t h e heat s h i e l d i s pointed forward. This r e v e r s a l i n
a t t i t u d e s i m p l i f i e s t h e a s t r o n a u t ' s support system s i n c e the support
couch i s properly a l i n e d f o r both t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n and deceleration
phases of f l i g h t .

By s t a r t i n g a t t h e small end of the spacecraft one can d i s t i n g u i s h

such items as t h e antenna c a n i s t e r , two horizon scanners, the drogue
parachute, t h e main and reserve parachutes, t h e p i t c h and yaw j e t s and
a s s o c i a t e d plumbing, the periscope, the instrument panel, the s i d e arm
c o n t r o l l e r s , the various e l e c t r o n i c packages, and the many o t h e r i t e m s
of equipment needed t o c a r r y o u t t h e Mercury mission. The environmental
c o n t r o l system which i s discussed i n the paper presented by D r . S. C. White
i s l o c a t e d p r i m a r i l y below the a s t r o n a u t ' s couch.

Communications System

Because of t h e importance of maintaining contact with the space-

c r a f t throughout a l l phases of the Mercury mission, t h e communications
system has been designed with considerable backup and redundancy. The
various communications subsystems are o u t l i n e d as follows:
18

Two-way voice:

( a ) Two primary r a d i o l i n k s

(b) Two secondary r a d i o l i n k s

Te lemet r y :

( a ) High frequency (code transmission c a p a b i l i t y )

( b ) Low frequency

Two command r e c e i v e r s (voice r e c e i v i n g c a p a b i l i t y )

Two r a d a r beacons

Recovery beacons :

(a) Two beacons (designated SARAH/SEASAVE u n i t )

( b ) U l t r a SARAH ( i n s u r v i v a l k i t )

Under normal conditions, two-way voice communications can be c a r r i e d

o u t on e i t h e r of t h e two primary r a d i o l i n k s . Two secondary voice l i n k s
a r e a l s o provided, one of which i s a backup f o r i n - f l i g h t voice com-
munications, and the o t h e r i s provided f o r redundancy i n recovery com-
municatlons. Two independent t e l e m e t r y subsystems a r e provided f o r
transmission of capsule and a s t r o n a u t performance d a t a . The high-
frequency t e l e m e t e r can be keyed by t h e a s t r o n a u t f o r code transmission
i n the event of f a i l u r e of a l l voice communications. Two i d e n t i c a l com-
mand receivers o p e r a t i n g on the same frequency a r e provided f o r receiving
ground command functions such as emergency a b o r t and r e t r o f i r e commands.
Ground voice communications can be received by t h e a s t r o n a u t through t h e
command r e c e i v e r s . The two r a d a r beacons ( S and C band) are required
f o r ground r a d a r tracking. As an a i d t o search and recovery, a combina-
t i o n u n i t containing both t h e SARAH and SEASAVE rescue beacons i s c a r r i e d
on t h e s p a c e c r a f t . The SARAH beacon i s a c t i v a t e d a t main parachute
deployment, whereas the SEASAVE beacon i s not energized u n t i l landing.
An U l t r a SARAH rescue beacon i s a l s o provided i n t h e a s t r o n a u t ' s s u r v i v a l
k i t . In addition, a seven-track magnetic tape recorder i s included i n
t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o record t h e telemetered d a t a and voice transmissions.

Landing System

The main components of t h e landing system a r e , of course, t h e

parachutes. The drogue parachute which i s housed i n t h e antenna c a n i s t e r
( f i g . 3) i s a s i x - f o o t ribbon-type parachute which i s employed t o
s t a b i l i z e and d e c e l e r a t e t h e spacecraft f u r t h e r p r i o r t o main parachute
deployment. It i s deployed a t a nominal a l t i t u d e of 21,000 f e e t . The
photograph of f i g u r e 4 shows a view of the recovery compartment of t h e
MR-3 s p a c e c r a f t . The main and reserve parachutes are seen i n t h e i r
stowed l o c a t i o n s . The two parachutes, which are i d e n t i c a l , a r e 63-foot-
diameter, r i n g - s a i l parachutes. The main parachute i s deployed a t
10,000 f e e t through the a c t i o n of j e t t i s o n i n g t h e antenna c a n i s t e r . The
antenna c a n i s t e r i s j e t t i s o n e d by an e l e c t r i c a l l y f i r e d mortar which i s
located below the post i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e recovery compartment. I n
t h e event t h a t the main parachute i s damaged or f a i l s t o deploy properly,
deployment of the reserve parachute i s manually i n i t i a t e d by t h s a s t r o -
naut. I n addition, one may see o t h e r items of equipment i n the compart-
ment such as t h e u l t r a high frequency descent antenna, t h e f l a s h i n g
l i g h t , t h e recovery loop, and s o f o r t h .

A t t i t u d e Control System

On t h e MR-3 spacecraft, t h r e e methods of operation were a v a i l a b l e

t o t h e a s t r o n a u t f o r e f f e c t i n g the c o n t r o l and s t a b i l i t y of t h e capsule.
These methods included the use of (1)the automatic s t a b i l i z a t i o n and
c o n t r o l system, ( 2 ) t h e manual c o n t r o l system, and (3) t h e "fly-by-wire"
system. The automatic and manual systems are completely independent.
I n f a c t , t h e y have completely separate hydrogen peroxide f u e l tanks, use
d i f f e r e n t f u e l flow c o n t r o l valves, and employ d i f f e r e n t s e t s of j e t
t h r u s t e r s f o r providing t h e reaction-control f o r c e s .

E l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l s generated by the "brain" of t h e automatic system

are used t o c o n t r o l i t s various solenoid-operated f u e l valves. However,
with t h e manual system, t h e a s t r o n a u t uses t h e right-hand c o n t r o l l e r t o
manipulate d i r e c t l y t h e manual f u e l c o n t r o l valves. The "fly-by-wire"
system has been provided i n order t o give t h e a s t r o n a u t f u r t h e r manual
c o n t r o l of t h e capsule. With t h i s system, t h e a s t r o n a u t can c o n t r o l t h e
solenoid valves of t h e automatic system by means of a s e r i e s of e l e c t r i -
c a l switches incorporated i n t h e right-hand c o n t r o l l e r .

The right-hand c o n t r o l l e r , which i s shown i n figure 5 , i s a three-

axis c o n t r o l l e r which allows t h e astronaut t o make c o n t r o l i n p u t s by
s h o r t hand movements. Fore-and-aft movements provide c o n t r o l i n t h e
p i t c h plane; side-to-side movements give r o l l inputs, and t h e t w i s t i n g
of t h e c o n t r o l l e r about i t s v e r t i c a l axis gives yaw o r d i r e c t i o n a l con-
t r o l . This type of hand c o n t r o l l e r incorporates t h e standard a i r c r a f t
s t i c k motions f o r t h e p i t c h and r o l l control. The t w i s t i n g motion f o r
yaw c o n t r o l r e p l a c e s t h e function of the conventional a i r p l a n e rudder
pedals. The l e f t - h a n d c o n t r o l l e r i n c i d e n t a l l y i s used t o provide t h e
a s t r o n a u t with a quick means f o r i n i t i a t i n g an a b o r t . Twisting of t h e
l e f t c o n t r o l l e r will i n i t i a t e t h e abort sequence. A simple locking
f e a t u r e i s incorporated i n t h e c o n t r o l l e r t o prevent an a b o r t from
being i n a d v e r t e n t l y i n i t i a t e d .
 20

Figure 6 gives t h e planned sequence of operations f o r t h e automatic

s t a b i l i z a t i o n and c o n t r o l system f o r t h e MR-3 spacecraft. It i s known,
of course, t h a t Astronaut Shepard took over a f t e r t h e s p a c e c r a f t t u r n -
around and he performed manually various c o n t r o l t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s and
some of the c o n t r o l sequences. Nevertheless, t h e s p a c e c r a f t a t t i t u d e s
were e s s e n t i a l l y as shown i n t h e f i g u r e . A t t h e left-hand s i d e of f i g -
u r e 6, the automatic s t a b i l i z a t i o n and c o n t r o l system (ASCS) becomes
a c t i v e with t h e j e t t i s o n i n g of t h e escape tower. A t t h i s time, sequence A,
t h e v e r t i c a l gyro .is slaved t o t h e horizon scanners. A t s p a c e c r a f t sep-
aration, sequence B, t h e c o n t r o l system maintains rate damping f o r a
period of 5 seconds i n o r d e r t o minimize disturbances a r i s i n g from f i r i n g S
of the posigrade rockets. The turnaround i s then e f f e c t e d and t h e space- 1
10 3
c r a f t i s o r i e n t e d t o an a t t i t u d e of 1% , as shown i n sequence C. "he
c o n t r o l system then o r i e n t s the s p a c e c r a f t t o t h e r e t r o f i r e a t t i t u d e of
34' and holds t h i s a t t i t u d e throughout t h e f i r i n g of t h e retromotors,
as shown a t sequence D. S i x t y seconds a f t e r r e t r o f i r e t h e retropack i s
j e t t i s o n e d and then t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s o r i e n t e d t o t h e r e e n t r y a t t i t u d e
of -40° a s shown i n sequence E.

A s t h e capsule r e e n t e r s the atmosphere and p e r c e p t i b l e g-forces

begin t o be sensed, sequence F, t h e c o n t r o l system discontinues t h e
a t t i t u d e programing. It t h e n introduces a steady roll of 1 ' t o 12' p e r
0
second t o reduce landing-point d i s p e r s i o n and a l s o maintains r a t e damping
t o prevent l a r g e o s c i l l a t i o n buildup. A t main parachute deployment t h e
c o n t r o l system i s turned o f f and i t s f u e l - i s j e t t i s o n e d .

I n st m e n t Pane 1

The instrument panel ( f i g . 7) w a s chosen t o be discussed next

since it represents a culmination of e s s e n t i a l l y a l l t h e s p a c e c r a f t
systems. It should be mentioned t h a t t h e MR-3 panel shown here d i f f e r s
somewhat from t h a t of t h e o r b i t a l spacecrafts, i n t h a t c e r t a i n i n s t r u -
ments which were not required f o r t h e mission have been d e l e t e d . Other-
w i s e , the general arrangement i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same. The c o n t r o l s
and displays shown on t h e panel a r e grouped according t o function. The
group on t h e l e f t has various a s t r o n a u t c o n t r o l s such as those concerned
with the a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l and r e t r o r o c k e t s . The next group i.s a
sequencing d i s p l a y c o n s i s t i n g of a s e r i e s of l i g h t i n d i c a t o r s designed
t o t e l l t h e a s t r o n a u t whether v a r i o u s functions occurred a t t h e proper
time. A green l i g h t w i l l show t h a t t h e function occurred and a red
l i g h t w i l l i n d i c a t e some f a i l u r e i n t h e automatic system. The handle
o r switch j u s t t o t h e l e f t of each i n d i c a t o r allows t h e a s t r o n a u t t o
override and c o r r e c t t h e f a i l u r e of a given function. The two l a r g e r
handles a t the bottom of t h i s group are f o r decompression and repres-
s u r i z a t i o n of t h e cabin. Decompression would be t h e method used f o r
extinguishing a f i r e .
 21

The t h r e e c i r c u l a r d i a l s a t t h e upper l e f t of t h e c e n t e r console

read a c c e l e r a t i o n , a l t i t u d e , and r a t e of descent. The combination
d i s p l a y a t t h e t o p c e n t e r presents angular r a t e and a t t i t u d e data i n
t h r e e axes. The r a t e d i s p l a y i s i n t h e c e n t e r and i s surrounded by t h e
t h r e e a t t i t u d e d i a l s . The a s t r o n a u t ' s c o n t r o l of s p a c e c r a f t a t t i t u d e
i s aided by observations through t h e periscope. The a s t r o n a u t a l s o
uses t h e periscope during descent t o observe parachute deployment. The
periscope screen i s seen i n t h e lower c e n t e r of t h e panel. The i n s t r u -
ment j u s t above t h e periscope screen i s a clock which i n d i c a t e s time of
day and elapsed t i m e from launch. This instrument w a s a l s o used t o
i n i t i a t e t h e r e t r o f i r e sequence f o r t h e MR-3 s p a c e c r a f t . The switch i n
t h e upper right-hand corner of t h e c e n t e r console i s t h e ready switch
and i s used during countdown t o inform the t e s t conductor of t h e a s t r o -
n a u t ' s readiness f o r launch. Below t h i s switch i s t h e Mayday l i g h t
which warns t h e a s t r o n a u t of an a b o r t .

The environmental c o n t r o l system d i s p l a y i s grouped i n t h e upper

right-hand s e c t i o n of t h e panel. This group i n d i c a t e s f u n c t i o n a l i n f o r -
mation on t h e system such as cabin pressure and temperature, r e l a t i v e
humidity, coolant and oxygen quantity, and so f o r t h . The e l e c t r i c a l -
power-system monitor d i a l s and t h e communication c o n t r o l s a r e d i r e c t l y
below t h i s group. The s m a l l panel shown i n t h e upper left-hand corner
of t h e f i g u r e incorporates t h e cabin and suit temperature c o n t r o l s .

Three cameras were c a r r i e d onboard t h e MR-3 spacecraft: an earth-

sky camera, a p i l o t - o b s e r v e r camera, and an instrument-panel camera.
The earth-sky camera, which i s a 70-millimeter camera, w a s aimed out of
t h e lower right-hand window t o photograph e a r t h and sky f e a t u r e s and
cloud formations. The o t h e r two cameras a r e 16-millimeter cameras. The
instrument-panel camera is-mounted j u s t t o t h e l e f t of t h e a s t r o n a u t ' s
head and i s used t o record t h e movements of t h e d i a l s on t h e instrument
panel during t h e f l i g h t . The astronaut-observer camera i s mounted behind
t h e instrument panel. Its l e n s can be seen extending from t h e instrument
panel j u s t t o t h e l e f t of t h e periscope screen.

ACCELERATION AND IMPACT A"JA'M0N

One of t h e primary a r e a s of concern i n t h e design of t h e Mercury

s p a c e c r a f t w a s t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e astronaut from excessive accelera-
t i o n s during t h e various f l i g h t phases and during landing. Normal boost
and r e e n t r y a c c e l e r a t i o n s a r e an order of magnitude higher than those
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h high performance a i r c r a f t ; however, t h e y a r e by no means
t h e h i g h e s t a c c e l e r a t i o n s t o which t h e a s t r o n a u t may be subjected. The
emergency a b o r t s i t u a t i o n s a c t u a l l y represent t h e more severe loading
conditions. Under c e r t a i n a b o r t conditions the a s t r o n a u t could be sub-
j e c t e d t o g-levels of 15 t o 17 during the escape maneuvers and of t h e
o r d e r of 20g during reentry. The astronaut i s protected from undue
l o c a l i z e d loadings by means of t h e contoured couch mentioned e a r l i e r .
22

The a s t r o n a u t couch and r e s t r a i n t system i s discussed i n d e t a i l i n t h e

paper presented by Dr. S. C. White.

During t h e course of t e s t i n g t h e capsule, it was found t h a t impact

on water under c e r t a i n surface conditions could produce a c c e l e r a t i o n s
as high a s 40g f o r a few milliseconds with average onset r a t e s of about
8 , 0 0 0 ~per second t o 10,OOOg per second. Impact on land could produce
even higher loadings. In o r d e r t o a t t e n u a t e t h e s e impact a c c e l e r a t i o n s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r cases with a t t e n d a n t high surface winds, a simple a i r
cushion w a s devised as shown schematically i n f i g u r e 8. The a i r cushion
c o n s i s t s of a &-foot s k i r t made of rubberized f i b e r g l a s s t h a t i s
attached on t h e one end t o t h e h e a t s h i e l d and on t h e o t h e r end t o t h e S
spacecraft. A f t e r t h e main parachute i s deployed, t h e h e a t s h i e l d i s 1
released from the s p a c e c r a f t s t r u c t u r e ; thus, t h e s k i r t extends and 2

f i l l s with a i r . Upon impact, t h e a i r trapped between t h e capsule and

s h i e l d i s vented through t h e s e r i e s of h o l e s i n t h e upper and lower ends
of the s k i r t . A series of t h i n metal s t r a p s which are s l i g h t l y s h o r t e r
than t h e s k i r t a r e used t o absorb t h e l a t e r a l impact loads and hence
prevent damage t o t h e s k i r t .

A r e c e n t s e r i e s of drop t e s t s with t h i s system with surface winds

as high as 20 knots have yielded measured impact a c c e l e r a t i o n s no higher
than 16.5g, t h e average onset r a t e s being reduced t o 200g per second.

SPACECFUFT-IA'CH-VEHICIX COMBINATION

Figure 9 shows a photograph of t h e MR-3 s p a c e c r a f t and Redstone

launch-vehicle combination on t h e launch pad a t i g n i t i o n . The space-
c r a f t i s attached t o a s h o r t adapter s e c t i o n on t h e launch v e h i c l e by
means of a Marman-type clamping band which w a s e x p l o s i v e l y disconnected
j u s t before capsule separation.

I n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e a s t r o n a u t from an impending launch v e h i c l e

f a i l u r e , both t h e Redstone and Atlas launch v e h i c l e s are equipped with
an automatic abort-sensing system. This system senses t h e functioning
of s e v e r a l c r i t i c a l launch-vehicle systems and w i l l automatically i n i t i a t e
escape i n t h e event performance i s abnormal. The a s t r o n a u t may a l s o
i n i t i a t e an escape by simply t w i s t i n g h i s left-hand c o n t r o l g r i p as pre-
viously mentioned. During countdown t h e blockhouse t e s t conductor can
a l s o i n i t i a t e an escape through a d i r e c t e l e c t r i c a l connection with t h e
spacecraft.

The booster i s approximately 59 f e e t long and t h e o v e r a l l combina-

t i o n length i s about 85 f e e t . The s p a c e c r a f t payload weight on t h e
MR-3 f l i g h t w a s 4,040 pounds. T o t a l v e h i c l e l i f t - o f f w e i g h t w a s
66,000 pounds and t h e t a k e o f f t h r u s t of the launch v e h i c l e w a s
78, ooo pounds.
 23

SPACECRAFT AND ESCAPE SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

Figure 1.

MERCURY SPACECRAFT IN HANDLING STAND

Figure 2.
24

SPACECRAFT INTERNAL ARRANGEMENT

-‘---ROLL JETS

Figure 3.

VIEW OF RECOVERY COMPARTMENT

SHOWING STORAGE OF PARACHUTES

Figure 4.
7

25

THREE-AXIS HAND CONTROLLER

Figure 5.

MR-3 SPACECRAFT ASCS SEQUENCES

TURNAROUND
0 JETTISONED
SPACECRAFT SEWRATIO

SEPARATION-,

Figure 6 .
26

MAIN INSTRUMENT PANEL AND CONSOLES

FOR MR-3 CAPSULE

Figure 7.

I M PA CT ATT E NUAT10N
I

STRAPS
HEAT
SHIELD
1
W A C T ~
SKIRT

Figure 8.
 27

LAUNCH VEHICLE IGNITION, MR-3 VEHICLE

Figure 9.
 29
REVIEW OF BIOMEDICAL SYSTEMS FOR MR-3 FLIGHT

By Stanley C. White, M.D., Richard S. Johnston,

and Gerard J. Pesman

INTRODUC TION

The successful conclusion of the manned b a l l i s t i c f l i g h t of MR-3

w a s the culmination of approximately 2 years of preparation of t h e l i f e

I
support systems for the spacecraft and of the s e l e c t i o n and t r a i n i n g of
t h e Astronauts f o r space f l i g h t . The major spacecraft systems which are
e s s e n t i a l f o r s u s t a i n i n g t h e Astronaut during f l i g h t a r e t h e environmen-
t a l c o n t r o l system and t h e Astronaut acceleration protection system.
This discussion w i l l be l i m i t e d t o a summary of the s t a t u s of these two
systems a t t h e time of the f l i g h t of MR-3, a review of t h e biomedical
portions of t h e Astronaut t r a i n i n g , and a discussion of t h e animal pro-
gram preceding t h e manned f l i g h t .

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEM

The Mercury environmental c o n t r o l system has been described i n

previous papers ( r e f s . 1 and 2 ) and therefore only a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n
i s included herein.

The primary function of the environmental c o n t r o l system i s t o

provide a l i v a b l e gaseous environment t o the Astronaut. Table I l i s t s
the system design requirements and system provisions. The basic system
requirement w a s t o provide a 28-hour f l i g h t c a p a b i l i t y based on an
oxygen consumption of 500 cc/min standard temperature and pressure (STP)
and a maximum cabin leakage r a t e of 300 cc/min STP. In order t o meet
t h i s requirement, 4 pounds of oxygen i s needed. I n the Mercury system
8 pounds of oxygen i s provided t o allow f o r complete redundancy. The
next requirement e s t a b l i s h e d was t h e spacecraft p r e s s u r i z a t i o n l e v e l
of 5 pounds per square inch absolute ( p s i a ) with a pure oxygen atmosphere.
This pressure l e v e l w a s chosen as t h e b e s t compromise t o provide the
necessary oxygen p a r t i a l pressure, e f f i c i e n t use of supply f o r emergency
modes of operation, a pressure giving s m a l l d i f f e r e n t i a l change during
spacecraft decompression emergencies, and the l e v e l where decompression
i l l n e s s would be minimal. The spacecraft system c o n t r o l s pressures
between 4.0 and 5.5 psia. The h e a t exchanger system w a s designed on
t h e b a s i s of an Astronaut metabolic heat production of 500 B r i t i s h
Thermal Units per hour (Btu/hr). Suit v e n t i l a t i o n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a t
a f i x e d flow of 10 cubic f e e t per minute a t 5 p s i a with a v a r i a b l e
v e n t i l a t i o n gas temperature. The maximum carbon dioxide p a r t i a l pressure
w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a t 8 mm of Hg.
 I n o r d e r t o meet t h e s e system requirements, a closed type of
environmental c o n t r o l system w a s developed by t h e &Research Manufacturing
Division of t h e Garrett Corporation under a McDonnell A i r c r a f t Corporation
subcontract.

The environmental c o n t r o l system ( f i g . 1) i s l o c a t e d i n t h e lower por-

t i o n of t h e s p a c e c r a f t under t h e Astronaut support couch. The Astronaut
i s clothed i n a f u l l pressure s u i t t o provide p r o t e c t i o n i n t h e event of
a cabin decompression. The pressures i n t h e cabin and pressure s u i t a r e
maintained a t 5 p s i i n normal f l i g h t with a 100-percent oxygen atmosphere.
The system i s designed t o c o n t r o l automatically t h e environmental condi-
S
t i o n s within t h e s u i t and cabin throughout t h e f l i g h t . Manual c o n t r o l s 1
are provided t o enable system operation i n t h e event of automatic c o n t r o l 4
malfunction. I n d e s c r i b i n g t h e environmental c o n t r o l system, it can be
considered as two subsystems: the cabin system and t h e pressure s u i t
c o n t r o l system. Both of t h e s e systems operate simultaneously from com-
mon coolant water and e l e c t r i c a l supplies. The coolant water i s s t o r e d
i n a tank with a pressurized bladder system t o f a c i l i t a t e weightless flow
of water i n t o t h e h e a t exchanger. E l e c t r i c a l power i s supplied from an
onboard b a t t e r y supply. Oxygen i s s t o r e d a t 7,500 p s i i n two s p h e r i c a l
bottles.

Pressure-suit c o n t r o l system.- The p r e s s u r e - s u i t c o n t r o l system

provides b r e a t h i n g oxygen, maintains s u i t p r e s s u r i z a t i o n , removes
metabolic products, and maintains, through p o s i t i v e v e n t i l a t i o n , gas
temperatures.

The pressure s u i t ( f i g . 2 ) i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e system by two con-

nections, t h e gas i n l e t connection et t h e w a i s t and t h e gas exhaust a t
t h e helmet. This single-piece s u i t was developed by t h e U.S. Navy,
NASA, and t h e B. F. Goodrich Company. The helmet incorporates t h e com-
munications equipment and a b u f f e t p r o t e c t i o n l i n e r f o r t h e head. A
biosensor connector i s provided on t h e s u i t t o permit t h e e x i t of t h e
biosensor l e a d s . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of v e n t i l a t i o n gas flow i n t h e s u i t
i s i l l u s t r a t e d by f i g u r e 3 . This f i g u r e shows t h e i n l e t p o r t l o c a t i o n
a t the t o r s o and t h e o u t l e t p o r t on t h e helmet. Oxygen i s forced i n t o
t h e s u i t d i s t r i b u t i o n ducts, c a r r i e d t o t h e body e x t r e m i t i e s , and per-
mitted t o free-flow back over t h e body t o f a c i l i t a t e body cooling. The
oxygen then passes i n t o t h e helmet where t h e metabolic oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and water vapors a r e exchanged. The gas mixture leaves t h e
s u i t , f i g u r e 4, and passes through a d e b r i s t r a p where p a r t i c u l a t e matter
i s removed. Next, t h e gas i s scrubbed of odors and carbon dioxide i n a
chemical c a n i s t e r of a c t i v a t e d charcoal and l i t h i u m hydroxide. Fol-
lowing t h i s , t h e gas i s cooled by a water evaporative type of h e a t
exchanger which u t i l i z e s t h e vacuum of space t o cause t h e coolant water
t o b o i l a t approximately 35' F. The heat-exchanger e x i t gas temperature
i s regulated through manual c o n t r o l of t h e coolant-water flow valve.
The heated water vapors a r e dumped overboard. The water-vapor e x i t
 temperature i s monitored by a temperature switch which a c t u a t e s a
warning l i g h t when t h e water-vapor temperature drops below 50° F. The
l i g h t i s on t h e Astronaut's panel and provides a v i s u a l i n d i c a t i o n of
excessive water flow i n t o t h e h e a t exchanger. Proper monitoring of the
l i g h t and c o r r e c t i o n of t h e water flow r a t e w i l l prevent t h e h e a t
exchanger from f r e e z i n g . I n t h e gas s i d e of t h e h e a t exchanger, water
vapors picked up i n t h e s u i t a r e condensed i n t o water d r o p l e t s and a r e
c a r r i e d by t h e gas flow i n t o a mechanical water s e p a r a t i o n device. The
water s e p a r a t o r i s a sponge device which i s squeezed p e r i o d i c a l l y t o
allow t h e c o l l e c t i n g of t h e metabolic water i n a s m a l l tank. The con-
s t a n t flow r a t e of t h e atmosphere i s maintained through t h e compressor.

P r e s s u r i z a t i o n i n t h e p r e s s u r e - s u i t c o n t r o l system i s maintained
by a demand type of r e g u l a t o r . In normal operation t h i s r e g u l a t o r
I meters oxygen i n t o t h e system t o m a i n t a i n t h e pressure s u i t a t nominal
cabin pressure; thus, i n normal operation t h e pressure s u i t i s not
i n f l a t e d b u t merely provides body v e n t i l a t i o n . I n t h e event of a cabin
decompression, t h e r e g u l a t o r senses t h e loss i n pressure and maintains
t h e s u i t a t 4.6 p s i .

An a d d i t i o n a l emergency mode of operation i s provided by t h e

emergency oxygen r a t e valve. This valve provides an open-type pressure-
s u i t o p e r a t i o n similar t o a i r c r a f t p r e s s u r e - s u i t systems. A f i x e d flow
of oxygen i s d i r e c t e d through t h e s u i t f o r v e n t i l a t i o n and metabolic
needs. The remainder i s dumped i n t o t h e cabin. This system i s used
when t h e s u i t p r e s s u r i z a t i o n system f a i l s . The o t h e r components of t h e
s u i t system a r e closed o f f during t h i s mode of operation.

Oxygen i s provided i n two b o t t l e s , each containing s u f f i c i e n t

oxygen f o r a 28-hour f l i g h t . The b o t t l e s are equipped w i t h pressure
t r a n s d u c e r s t o provide data on t h e supply volume. They a r e connected
i n such a way t h a t d e p l e t i o n of t h e primary supply automatically a c t i -
v a t e s t h e emergency b o t t l e . This change t o t h e emergency oxygen b o t t l e
i s c a l l e d t o t h e Astronaut's a t t e n t i o n through a warning l i g h t and
buzzer on h i s panel.

Cabin system.- The cabin system c o n t r o l s cabin pressure and temper-

a t u r e . A cabin r e l i e f valve c o n t r o l s the upper l i m i t of cabin pressure.
This valve allows cabin pressure t o follow t h e ambient pressure during
t h e climb of t h e v e h i c l e t o 27,000 f e e t where it s e a l s t h e cabin a t
5.5 p s i . I n addition, a manual decompress f e a t u r e i s incorporated i n
t h i s valve1to dump t h e cabin pressure i f a f i r e or buildup of t o x i c
gases occurs.

A cabin pressure r e g u l a t o r meters oxygen i n t o t h e cabin t o maintain

t h e lower l i m i t of p r e s s u r i z a t i o n a t 5.1 p s i . A manual recompress fea-
t u r e i s incorporated i n t h e r e g u l a t o r f o r cabin r e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n a f t e r
t h e emergencies j u s t mentioned a r e corrected.
 Cabin temperature i s maintained by a f a n and heat exchanger of the
same type as t h a t described i n t h e discussion of the p r e s s u r e - s u i t
system.

Postlanding v e n t i l a t i o n i s provided through a snorkel system. A t

20,000 f e e t , following entry, the snorkels open and ambient a i r i s drawn
by the s u i t compressor through t h e i n l e t valve. The gas v e n t i l a t e s t h e
s u i t and i s dumped overboard through the o u t l e t valve.

Test program.- The environmental c o n t r o l system, l i k e a l l o t h e r

spacecraft components, underwent an exhaustive s e r i e s of development,
q u a l i f i c a t i o n , and r e l i a b i l i t y t e s t s . I n a d d i t i o n t o these hardware
t e s t s , a s e r i e s of manned a l t i t u d e simulation t e s t s were conducted. The
purpose of these t e s t s was t o v e r i f y man, pressure s u i t , and system com-
p a t i b i l i t y under normal and emergency conditions. The manned t e s t program
i s summarized i n t a b l e 11. The manned development t e s t s were conducted
i n December 1959 a t t h e AiResearch Manufacturing Corporation l a b o r a t o r i e s .
I n these t e s t s the Mercury pressure s u i t and t h e environmental c o n t r o l
system were f i r s t t e s t e d as a s i n g l e u n i t . Many changes and improvements
r e s u l t e d from t h e s e f i r s t t e s t s . A t o t a l of 24 manned t e s t hours w a s
accumulated during t h i s s e r i e s of t e s t s .

A z e r i e s of 12 manned t e s t s under various normal and emergency

modes, including a manned 28-hour t e s t , were next conducted a t McDonnell
A i r c r a f t Corporation. A t o t a l of 257 manned hours w a s accumulated on
the system a t M c b n n e l l A i r c r a f t Corporation. A t t h e conclusion of
these tests, a s e r i e s of Astronaut f a m i l i a r i z a t i o n t e s t s were made using
the system and spacecraft u t i l i z e d i n t h e M c b n n e l l t e s t program. In
these manned t e s t s , the combination s t r e s s e s of pressure and temperature
w e r e simulated simultaneously. The t e s t f l i g h t s used a p r o f i l e of the
t h r e e - o r b i t mission. A t o t a l of 85 manned hours w a s accumulated on t h e
system during these t e s t s .

I n October 1960, a pressure-suit c o n t r o l system w a s i n s t a l l e d i n

t h e Johnsville human centrifuge and dynamic Redstone f l i g h t s were made
under normal and emergency conditions. During t h i s dynamic t e s t s e r i e s ,
the system performed s a t i s f a c t o r i l y without any component o r system
malfunction. Approximately one-half of t h i s t o t a l w a s under the dynamic
loads expected f o r MR-3. A t o t a l of 134 manned hours w a s accumulated
on t h e system.

The r e s u l t s of, t h e manned t e s t program showed t h a t t h e system w a s

capable of supporting an Astronaut i n o r b i t a l f l i g h t . I n addition,
system improvements r e s u l t e d and a high degree of r e l i a n c e i n t h e system
c a p a b i l i t i e s w a s developed. Following these prototype manned t e s t s , a
t o t a l of 14 hours w a s gained on a c t u a l s p a c e c r a f t systems of spacecraft 3,
5, and 7 during t h e i r p r e f l i g h t checkouts. A t o t a l of 514 hours of
manned operation preceded the MR-3 f l i g h t .
 33

The environmental c o n t r o l system was u t i l i z e d i n p a r t and as a

complete system i n a l l f l i g h t s previous t o the MR-3,flight. The f l i g h t
program i s summarized i n t a b l e 111. Complete systems were flown i n
three spacecraft p r i o r t o the MR-3 f l i g h t . Information w a s obtained on
various system components and on t h e t o t a l system during these f l i g h t s .

ACCELEXATION PROTECTION SYSTEM

The requirement t o provide an adequate support and r e s t r a i n t system

f o r the Mercury Astronauts r e s u l t e d i n a study considering t h e accelera-
t i o n s t h a t every phase of the normal mission o r possible emergencies
might impose, The a r e a s included i n t h e normal mission a r e the launch,
separation, r e t r o f i r i n g , entry, parachute deployment, and water landing
t
of the spacecraft.

Since it w a s assumed that a l l missions w i l l not proceed normally,

it was necessary a l s o t o consider the emergencies which could occur.
O f the many emergencies, the following ones could impose sudden accelera-
t i o n s on t h e occupant: escape from t h e launching pad; termination of
t h e mission a t maximum dynamic pressure on t h e vehicle; termination of
t h e mission immediately preceding e n t r y i n t o t h e o r b i t a l phase; and
possible ground landings.

I n each phase of the normal mission and i n t h e emergencies j u s t

l i s t e d , it was necessary t o appraise t h e hazard which the a c c e l e r a t i o n
imposed, s e l e c t a remedy f o r the problem i f t h e a p p r a i s a l indicated t h a t
t h i s was necessary, and, f i n a l l y , prove t h a t the problem had been solved.
These t h r e e s t e p s w i l l be discussed f o r each phase of both normalmis-
sions and emergencies.

A t t h e beginning of t h e Mercury program, it was known from c e n t r i -

fuge s t u d i e s t h a t launch a c c e l e r a t i o n s were t o l e r a b l e up t o o r b i t a l
v e l o c i t i e s i f t h e occupants were placed i n a supine-position f o r m - f i t t i n g
couch w i t h t h e head and shoulders raised s l i g h t l y and f e e t and knees
drawn up i n a s e a t e d p o s i t i o n a s shown i n f i g u r e 5. (Also see r e f . 3 . )
It w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h i s phase of the mission w a s not a problem,
except f o r the development of techniques f o r f o r m - f i t t i n g a couch t o
each individual. These techniques were s u c c e s s f u l l y developed by NASA
and adapted t o production by t h e McDonnell A i r c r a f t Corporation.

Calculations and d a t a showed t h a t t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s of t h e spacecraft

separating from t h e launch vehicle, retrorocket f i r i n g , deployment of
t h e drogue and reefed main parachute, and unreefing of the main parachute
were within known tolerance l i m i t s and d i d not present problems. The
e n t r y accelerations, however, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e mission w a s terminated
34

j u s t p r i o r t o t h e time t h a t o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y w a s reached, were beyond

t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a on man's t o l e r a n c e . The e n t r y a c c e l e r a t i o n pulse i s
sinusoidal i n shape and e i t h e r t h e magnitude o r d u r a t i o n could be beyond
known experience. Consequently, experiments were conducted a t t h e Navy's
Aviation Medical Acceleration Laboratory t o determine man's t o l e r a n c e t o
such a c c e l e r a t i o n s when supported i n a contoured couch i n t h e supine
position. These experiments showed t h a t e n t r i e s , with t h e v e h i c l e pro-
ducing no l i f t , were t o l e r a b l e up t o about 20g ( r e f s . 3 and 4). Sub-
sequent t r a i n i n g experience by t h e Astronauts, using t h e contoured couches
while on t h e human c e n t r i f u g e , have demonstrated t h a t t h e normal f l i g h t
a c c e l e r a t i o n s a r e not a hazard. S
1
The e n t r y experiments, j u s t c i t e d , a l s o showed t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d 4
emergency e n t r y a c c e l e r a t i o n s which t h e Mercury s p a c e c r a f t might encounter
were within human t o l e r a n c e . Subsequent f u l l - s c a l e f l i g h t s , Big Joe
and MA-2, which simulated such an emergency, confirmed t h e v a l i d i t y of
t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s . Thus, missions terminated a few moments
before o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y i s reached can be t o l e r a t e d .

These r e s u l t s l e f t t h e landing a c c e l e r a t i o n s as t h e only normally

occurring a r e a needing an answer. A t t h e beginning of t h e Mercury pro-
gram, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s which would be imposed on a b a l l i s t i c - t y p e
r e e n t r y vehicle during a water landing were not known. Consequently,
t h e Langley Research Center of t h e NASA conducted a s e r i e s of experiments
t o determine t h e magnitude of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s . The experiments showed
t h a t the magnitude of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s w a s w i t h i n t o l e r a n c e l i m i t s ;
however, the r a t e of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e f o r c e w a s beyond t h e known l i m i t s .
A t t h i s time, it became apparent t h a t ground landings were q u i t e probable
i n the case of an "off t h e pad emergency." For t h i s reason, it w a s con-
cluded t h a t it w a s necessary t o a t t e n u a t e t h e landing shock of both t h e
water and ground landings.

Experiments were conducted a t t h e Wright Air Development Division

t o determine how r a p i d l y an a c c e l e r a t i n g f o r c e can be imposed without
exceeding human t o l e r a n c e . These experiments have progressed t o t h e
s t a g e where f o r c e s of up t o 35 times a p e r s o n ' s own weight can be
applied a t a r a t e of 11,200 g/sec without more than s l i g h t l y confusing
t h e individual. No p h y s i c a l i n j u r y w a s apparent. These experiments
showed t h a t a water landing could be t o l e r a t e d without a landing bag. A
s l i g h t confusion, however, i s n o t considered acceptable as a: r o u t i n e
o p e r a t i o n a l measure.

The emergency ground landing imposes t h e m a x i m u m load on both t h e

couch s t r u c t u r e and t h e occupant. F u l l - s c a l e experiments showed t h a t
l o n g i t u d i n a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s of about gOg would be imposed on t h e space-
c r a f t if t h e impact i s not attenuated. When such a c c e l e r a t i o n s a r e
combined with those due t o wind d r i f t and tumbling, it i s apparent t h a t
a ground landing cannot be t o l e r a t e d by a human without possible i n j u r y
unless some form of a t t e n u a t i o n m a t e r i a l i s provided. Crushable m a t e r i a l
w a s placed underneath the couch ( f i g . 5 ) , t o h e l p a t t e n u a t e t h e v e r t i c a l
components of t h e impact forces. Experiments by both t h e McDonnell
A i r c r a f t Corporation and the Langley Research Center indicated t h a t
aluminum honeycomb material, which w a s used, would a t t e n u a t e t h e m a x i m u m
l o n g i t u d i n a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s t o w i t h i n human tolerance. The crushable
m a t e r i a l w a s designed t o l i m i t the acceleration t o 40g on t h e occupant.
Proof t e s t s conducted by t h e McDonnell Corporation showed that the f i n a l
crushable m a t e r i a l permitted a momentary peak of approximately 60g on
t h e occupant and the remainder of the pulse w a s s l i g h t l y under 40g.
L i t t l e l a t e r a l a c c e l e r a t i o n protection was provided by t h e crushable
material; therefore, it w a s considered s a t i s f a c t o r y as an emergency meas-
ure only. Through t h i s method, an emergency ground landing i s t o l e r a t e d ,
marginally, unless t h e r e i s a considerable wind. If t h e r e i s a f a i r l y
l a r g e wind component and t h e spacecraft i s swinging under the parachute,
i n jury may r e s u l t .

I n order t o meet the impact loads on land and water landings b e t t e r ,

an impact bag which could a t t e n u a t e the combined shock r e s u l t i n g from
t h e parachute sinking r a t e , t h e h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y r e s u l t i n g from wind,
t h e parachute swing, and the impact surface conditions was developed by
the McDonnell A i r c r a f t Corporation. The design requirement of t h e impact
bag l i m i t e d t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s t o log i n t h e l a t e r a l vectors and 20g i n
t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l vector. The impact-bag t e s t s have confirmed t h a t the
design requirements have been met.

The remaining emergency condition which must be discussed r e s u l t s

from termination of t h e mission when the spacecraft i s exposed t o t h e
maximum dynamic pressure. During such an abort, t h e spacecraft i s sud-
denly l i f t e d away from t h e launch vehicle by t h e escape rocket. Since the
s p a c e c r a f t i s now t r a v e l i n g a t high speed, it w i l l be suddenly exposed
t o a l a r g e drag when the escape rocket burns out. The occupant w i l l
f i r s t be pressed back i n t o t h e couch while the escape rocket i s burning
and, then, when t h e escape rocket burns out, suddenly thrown forward
i n t o h i s r e s t r a i n t harness. b t e r a l components may a l s o occur. This
sudden r e v e r s a l of force on the spacecraft produces t h e maximum loads
on t h e r e s t r a i n t harness. The r e v e r s a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s can reach a
magnitude of 18g ( f i g . 6). It a l s o r a i s e s the question of whether a
head r e s t r a i n t i s necessary. I n order t o determine whether a head
r e s t r a i n t was necessary, the Aeromedical F i e l d Laboratory, Eolloman
Air Force Base, New Mexico, conducted a s e r i e s of t e s t s using a f u l l
pressure sui$ and human s u b j e c t s on t h e i r small "Eopper" track. From
t h e s e experiments, it w a s apparent t h a t t h e pressure s u i t helps t o
r e s t r a i n the Astronaut's head. Experiments on t h e centrifuge i n d i c a t e d
t h a t t h e l a t e r a l components combined with t h e transverse f o r c e s a r e
t o l e r a b l e . Therefore, no added head r e s t r a i n t I s necessary.
 The r e s t r a i n t harness ( f i g . 7) chosen f o r t h e Astronaut i s b a s i c a l l y
the standard shoulder s t r a p and l a p s t r a p combination used by t h e m i l i t a r y
services. To t h i s b a s i c harness has been added a chest s t r a p t o give t h e
upper t o r s o more support, an inverted V-strap fastened t o the l a p s t r a p
t o keep t h e l a p s t r a p i n t h e proper p o s i t i o n over t h e abdomen, and two
knee s t r a p s . The knee s t r a p s t o g e t h e r with t h e l a p s t r a p hold t h e p e l v i s
i n place during forward a c c e l e r a t i o n s and, thus, reduce t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
of lumbar spine injury. This harness w a s s t a t i c a l l y t e s t e d by McDonnell
A i r c r a f t Corporation and then proof t e s t e d on t h e centrifuge using a
dummy. Subsequently, t h e Astronauts used t h i s harness during t h e i r
centrifuge t r a i n i n g sessions.

A t t h e time of t h e f i r s t manned b a l l i s t i c mission (MR-3), a com-

p l e t e l y proved r e s t r a i n t and support system w a s a v a i l a b l e ( t a b l e I V ) .
An e n t i r e normal mission could be conducted without t h e Astronaut's
enduring i n t o l e r a b l e a c c e l e r a t i o n s . Likewise, because of added t o l e r -
ance information and a reserve impact a t t e n u a t i o n system ( t h e crushable
m a t e r i a l below t h e couch), it w a s expected t h a t a l l of t h e emergencies
could be endured without i n j u r y .

BIOMEDICAL PORTION OF ASTRONAUT TRALNING AND TRE ANIMAL PROGRAM

A major a r e a f o r t h e preparation of t h e MR-3 f l i g h t concerned the

readiness of t h e Astronaut for t h e f l i g h t . Two p a r a l l e l avenues were
followed t o meet t h i s requirement. The f i r s t concerned t h e s e l e c t i o n
and t r a i n i n g of the Astronauts and t h e second concerned t h e animal
program used t o q u a l i f y t h e man support systems before manned f l i g h t .

The s e l e c t i o n of t h e Astronauts has received s u f f i c i e n t publica-

t i o n and t h e r e f o r e needs no f u r t h e r discussion here. The Astronaut
t r a i n i n g program i s a many f a c e t e d program with a l l p o r t i o n s of t h e
physical sciences, engineering sciences, and b i o l o g i c a l sciences par-
t i c i p a t i n g . The physical science and engineering portions of t h e
t r a i n i n g a r e discussed i n d e t a i l i n t h e paper by Astronaut Slayton;
therefore, t h i s discussion w i l l be confined t o t h e biomedical aspects.

The biomedical .preparation of t h e Astronauts has taken two d i r e c -

t i o n s . F i r s t , they have been given a r a t h e r extensive course i n t h e
physiology concerning t h e i r body systems i n o r d e r t h a t they could under-
stand the e f f e c t s of t h e stress loads t o be imposed upon them during
f l i g h t and t o enable them t o be b e t t e r r e p o r t e r s of t h e e f f e c t s of t h e
stress upon them. Second, t h e men were given a complete program of
dynamic t e s t i n g and t r a i n i n g . The program design w a s based upon t h e
dynamics o f t h e f l i g h t . Learning through r e p e t i t i v e experience w a s
used i n t h i s phase of preparation. Time w a s allowed each Astronaut
during the phases of t r a i n i n g f o r t h e development of h i s own defenses
 37

i n meeting t h e s t r e s s e s . I n addition, these t r a i n i n g events were used

as c o n t r o l s f o r t h e f l i g h t data. Due t o t h e lack of s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t numbers, it was necessary t o use each man as h i s own control.
A comparison of h i s f l i g h t r e s u l t s with the t r a i n i n g d a t a would give t h e
f i r s t h i n t as t o adequacy of t h e m a n and h i s t r a i n i n g i n meeting the
space f l i g h t .

While the Astronaut program w a s moving along, the second avenue,

the animal program, w a s s t a r t e d . The animal program was designed t o
p a r a l l e l the man program. Its primary goal w a s t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n of t h e
man support systems. Through t h i s approach, t h e objective of f l y i n g
f i r s t unmanned, followed by an animal flight, would give t h e l o g i c a l
sequence f o r the q u a l i f i c a t i o n of the spacecraft f o r manned f l i g h t .

The chimpanzees considered f o r t h e Redstone program were thoroughly

1
t r a i n e d using the calculated f l i g h t dynamics. The centrifuge and heat
chambers were used. The physiological t r a i n i n g w a s incorporated with
t h e psychomotor tasks t o be done by t h e chimpanzee during f l i g h t . It
w a s found t h a t e a r l y i n t h e t r a i n i n g program t h e chimpanzee would cease
working during the a c c e l e r a t i v e periods and assume h i s normal t r a i n e d
p a t t e r n promptly a f t e r the f o r c e s were released. However, subsequent
t r a i n i n g indicated t h a t the chimpanzee could accept these new s t r e s s e s
and continue performance a t a high l e v e l through a l l normal s t r e s s loads.
This f a c t w a s confirmed by the MR-2 data on t h e chimpanzee named "HAM."
The r e s u l t s of the MR-2 f l i g h t indicated t h a t the chimpanzee w a s able t b
s u s t a i n consciousness and continued a c t i v i t y on the psychomotor apparatus
with t h e exception of the periods of high a c c e l e r a t i o n associated with
t h e f i r i n g of the escape tower and t h e e n t r y acceleration. Both of these
events were beyond the nominal f l i g h t dynamics. The performance of t h e
chimpanzee returned t o h i s normal range values during the weightless
period. The performance, a f t e r t h e e n t r y acceleration, d i d drop below
h i s normal work pattern; however, he was able t o s u s t a i n a s a t i s f a c t o r y
r a t e . Figure 8 shows a p l o t of t h e h e a r t r a t e and r e s p i r a t i o n r a t e of
the chimpanzee with a comparison of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n p r o f i l e and elapsed
time of t h e f l i g h t . It can be seen t h a t t h e pulse and r e s p i r a t i o n r a t e s
were responding t o t h e a c c e l e r a t i v e forces but returned t o normal values
during t h e weightless and the postentry periods. The values i n pulse
and r e s p i r a t i o n were considered within normal range f o r t h e chimpanzee
under s t r e s s . The f l i g h t p r o f i l e on MR-2 exceeded the l i m i t s expected
on MR-3; therefore, it w a s concluded t h a t man could be put s a f e l y i n
the MR-3.
 REFERENCES

1. Johnston, Richard S. : Mercury Life Support Systems. L i f e Support

Systems f o r Space Vehicles, S.M.F. Fund Paper No. FF-25, I n s t .
Aero. Sci., Jan. 1960.

2. Greider, Herbert R., and Barton, John R.: C r i t e r i a f o r Design of

the Mercury k v i r o n m e n t a l Control System - Method of Operation and
Results o f Manned System Operation. Paper presented t o Aerospace
Medical Assoc. ( M i a m i Beach, Fla.), May 11, 1960. S
1
3 . Eiband, A. Martin: Human Tolerance t o Rapidly Applied Accelerations: 4
A Summary of t h e L i t e r a t u r e . NASA MEMO 3-19-593, 1959.

4. Clark, C a r l C.,
and Gray, R. Flanagan: A Discussion of R e s t r a i n t
and Protection of t h e Human Experiencing t h e Smooth and O s c i l l a t i n g
Accelerations of Proposed Space Vehicles. MA-5914, Aviation Medical
Acceleration Lab., U.S. Naval Air Dev. Center (Johnsville, Pa. ),
Dec. 1959.
 39

3
1 TABLE I
%

t
EWIIR0NME;NTAL CONTROL SYSTEX

Requirement System provision

Flight duration. . . . .. . . 28 hr a31 to 35 hr

Oxygen supply .. . . . .. . . 4 lb 8 lb
Metabolic O2 . . . .. . . 500 cc/min >lo liters/min
Cabin leak . . . . .. . . 300 cc/min 1,500 to 2,500 cc/min
Pressurization level . .. . . 5 psia 5.5 to 4.0 psia
Oxygen partial pressure .. . . 5 Psi 5.5 to 4.0 psi
Suit circuit heat
....
production . .. . . 1,000 Btu/hr 1,000 Btu/hr
....
Metabolic . .. . . 500 Btu/hr TOO Btu/hr
....
Equipment . .. . . 300 Btu/hr 300 Btu/hr
Suit ventilation flow at
5 psi ....... . .. . . 10 cu ft/min 11.5 cu ft/min
Carbon dioxide output . .. . . 400 cc/min 9400 cc/min

a
Additional coolant water required.
40

L2 l s
4J a
C
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a, fi
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n
rn
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2 El
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H

4
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d

v3 f
cu
 41

- -
X

-
cu
X X

cu
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H
H
4
4
E-1
%
ri

al
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b
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42

a
a,

e
-4
I
m m 4
r r
m m 2
a, a,
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-P
8k rl m a
a

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 43

Figure 1.

Figure 2 .
44

SUIT VENT1LATION FLOW

OXYGEN OUTLET PORT

OXYGEN

Figure 3 .

Figure 4.
 .45

ASTRONAUT POSITION AND

CRUSHABLE STRUCTURE

CRUSHABLE ALUMINUM
ACCELERATION H0 N E Y C 0 M B

Figure 5.

REVERSAL ACCELERATIONS
q MAX ABORT-LITTLE JOE Vb
*r I

-I 0 I 2 3 4 5
TIME, SEC

Figure 6.
46

PILOT'S RESTRAINT SYSTEM

Figure 7.

MR-2 - SUBJECT 6 5 ("HAM")

RATES BASED ON IO-SEC INTERVALS

RESPIRATION, 6o
PER MIN
30
2101-
HEART RATE, I 5o
PERMIN
90
w,M A

G-FORGE 9
0
0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 1
4 16
TIME, MIN

Figure 8.
 47

RESULTS OF PREFLIGHT AND POSTFLIGHT MEDICAL EXAMINATIONS

By C a m u l t B. Jackson, Jr., M.D., W i l l i a m K . Douglas, M.D.,

James F. Culver, M.D. ,
George R u f f , M.D. ,
.
Edward C Knoblock, Ph. D. ,
and Ashton Graybiel, M.D.

This r e p o r t of t h e p r e f l i g h t and p o s t f l i g h t medical examinations on

Alan B. Shepard, Jr., includes t h e data obtained before and a f t e r Mercury-
Redstone Mission No. 3 . The i n t e r v a l of study w a s 6 days. I n t h i s
period s e v e r a l d e t a i l e d observations were completed. Multiple observers,
o t h e r than- t h e authors, were n e c e s s a r i l y u t i l i z e d and t h e authors would
l i k e t o express t h e i r indebtedness t o them. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e authors
acknowledge t h e a s s i s t a n c e of D r . Walter F r a j o l a , University of Ohio,
Dr. K r i s t e n B. Eik-Nes, University o f Utah, D r . Hans Weil-Malherbe,

0
S t . E l i z a b e t h ' s Hospital, Washington, D.C ., .
and S. S g t Carlton L. D.
Stewart of t h e U.S. A i r Force Hospital, Lackland A i r Force Base, Texas.
This paper r e v e a l s only a few changes i n t h e p i l o t whose r o l e continuously
represented s u b j e c t and observer.

The purpose of t h e examination program w a s twofold: p r i o r t o a

launch it a s c e r t a i n e d p i l o t f i t n e s s and a f t e r recovery it w a s expected
t o r e v e a l any s i g n i f i c a n t changes r e s u l t i n g from t h e combined stresses
of a c t u a l space f l i g h t . It i s t o be understood t h a t t h e s e p a i r e d examina-
t i o n s could not d i s c e r n t i m e - c r i t i c a l i n - f l i g h t changes or changes which
w e r e so evanescent t h a t t h e y p e r s i s t e d only minutes a f t e r impact. The
purpose of t h i s paper i s t o present t h e f i n d i n g s of t h e examination pro-
gram and r e l a t e them t o stressful t r a i n i n g experiences. It i s within
t h e scope of t h i s program t o point out t h a t i n t h e i n t e r v a l between pre-
f l i g h t and p o s t f l i g h t s t u d i e s c e r t a i n deviations appeared. Additionally,
it i s within t h e scope of t h i s program t o search f o r delayed changes and
t o d i s c e r n areas where fundamental knowledge i s needed.

Control experiences were gleaned from s e l e c t i o n , simulator, and

i n t e r i m s t u d i e s performed over t h e past 26 months. Additional c o n t r o l
information i s s t i l l being added. More d a t a regarding t h e e f f e c t of
d i e t , 100-percent omgen environment, a c t i v i t y , and body p o s i t i o n on
some of t h e biochemical assays are required. The p r e f l i g h t examiners
represented t h e d i s c i p l i n e s of i n t e r n a l medicine, a v i a t i o n medicine,
neurology, ophthalmology, psychiatry, and biochemistry.

The o u t l i n e of t h e examination i s included i n t h e following n a r r a t i v e

of t h e p r e f l i g h t and p o s t f l i g h t evaluation. The day before t h e o r i g i n a l
d a t e s e t f o r t h e MR-3 f l i g h t , May 1, 1961, t h e p r e f l i g h t p h y s i c a l examina-
t i o n was performed. I n g e n e r a l appearance, t h e p i l o t seemed relaxed and
confident and said t h a t he f e l t i n good h e a l t h . A b r i e f running review
of systems d i s c l o s e d nothing o t h e r than t h e f a c t t h a t he had incurred an
48

i n j u r y t o h i s l e f t f o o t and t h a t he w a s about t o l o s e t h e f o u r t h t o e -
n a i l . H e w a s receiving no medications. The p i l o t s t a t e d t h a t he had
recently been "sunburned" and over t h e thorax he was "losing some s k i n . "
There were no o t h e r systemic complaints or comments. A p s y c h i a t r i c
interview w a s accomplished. The p s y c h i a t r i s t noted t h a t t h e w p i l o t
appeared relaxed and c h e e r f u l . He was a l e r t and had abundant energy
and enthusiasm. Affect was a p p r o p r i a t e . He discussed p o t e n t i a l hazards
of t h e f l i g h t r e a l i s t i c a l l y and expressed s l i g h t apprehension concerning
them. However, he d e a l t with such f e e l i n g s by r e p e t i t i v e consideration
of how each p o s s i b l e e v e n t u a l i t y could be managed. Thinking w a s almost
t o t a l l y d i r e c t e d t o t h e f l i g h t . N o disturbances i n thought or i n t e l -
l e c t u a l functions were observed. "

The general p h y s i c a l examination began with i n s p e c t i o n of t h e e n t i r e

body s u r f a c e . There w a s a 2-cm2 a r e a of maculopapular e r u p t i o n sur- I
rounding a 2-mm t a t t o o on t h e upper sternum ( t h e s i t e of upper chest
electrocardiographic-electrode placement). A search f o r lymph nodes
revealed no s i g n i f i c a n t adenopathy. The ophthalmologist t h e n performed
h i s examination; t h e eyes were normal. Examination of t h e o r a l c a v i t y ,
mucous membranes, t e e t h , and tongue d i s c l o s e d s l i g h t reddening of t h e
mucosa at t h e medial margins of t h e p o s t e r i o r t o n s i l l a r p i l l a r s . The
e a r canals were c l e a r . The tympanic membrkes were likewise c l e a r .
Three audiograms had been previously e n t e r e d i n t h e p i l o t ' s record and
were c o n s i s t e n t l y normal. When a t u n i n g f o r k of low r e g i s t e r (126 c p s )
w a s placed i n t h e middle of t h e forehead, t h e r e was no reference of
sound t o e i t h e r ear. I n t h e neck, t h e t h y r o i d was found t o be just
barely palpable, smooth, and symmetrical. There w a s no tenderness. The
thorax was symnetrical; movement w a s f u l l and equal b i l a t e r a l l y . Over
t h e lung f i e l d s , percussion and a u s c u l t a t i o n revealed no abnormality.
Palpation of t h e a n t e r i o r thorax d i s c l o s e d t h e p o i n t of maximal c a r d i a c
impulse t o be i n t h e s i x t h l e f t i n t e r c o s t a l space 11 cm from t h e midline.
Pulse and blood-pressure d a t a a r e presented i n t a b l e I . During a u s c u l t a -
t i o n of t h e h e a r t t h e rhythm was r e g u l a r and t h e a o r t i c second sound w a s
s l i g h t l y louder t h a n t h e pulmonic second sound. Examination of t h e
abdomen, e x t e r n a l g e n i t a l i a , e x t r e m i t i e s , and spine d i s c l o s e d no abnorm-
a l i t y . Neurological examination, a standard electroencephalogram, pos-
t e r i o r , a n t e r i o r , and l a t e r a l chest X-rays, and a standard e l e c t r o c a r -
diogram were normal, unchanged from September 1960. The u r i n e and blood
s t u d i e s a r e r e p o r t e d i n t a b l e s 'I1 and 111, r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n b r i e f , a l l
of t h e f i n d i n g s were c o n s i s t e n t with previous p h y s i c a l examinations of
the pilot.

When t h i s study was completed, most of t h e examining team w a s moved

t o Grand Bahama I s l a n d . As i s a l r e a d y known, t h e f l i g h t which was a n t i c -
i p a t e d f o r May 2, 1961 d i d not occur. Two members of t h e o r i g i n a l
s p e c i a l t y group continued t h e i r observations and considered t h e p i l o t ' s
status unchanged. The f l i g h t p r o f i l e was completed without d i f f i c u l t y
on May 5 , 1961. The f i r s t p o s t f l i g h t p h y s i c a l examination w a s performed
 49

aboard t h e a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r Lake C h a p l a i n . Blood and urine specimens

were c o l l e c t e d and t h e p i l o t w a s asked t o begin debriefing i n t h e form
of f r e e d i c t a t i o n . Three hours from l i f t - o f f Astronaut Shepard was taken
t o Grand Bahama I s l a n d by a i r c r a f t f r o m t h e C a r r i e r . On a r r i v a l a t t h i s
remote i s l a n d s i t e , he seemed q u i e t l y e l a t e d and o f f e r e d no complaints.
H i s own statement of general f i t n e s s included "a wonderful f l i g h t , "
"everything went well," "I f e e l f i n e . " The p s y c h i a t r i s t a t t h e time of
h i s interview, which a c t u a l l y took place a f t e r t h e next general physical
examination, believed t h a t t h e "subject f e l t calm and self-possessed.
Some degree of excitement and e x h i l a r a t i o n was noted. He was unusually
c h e e r f u l and expressed d e l i g h t t h a t h i s p e r f o m c e during t h e f l i g h t
had a c t u a l l y been b e t t e r than he had expected. It became apparent t h a t
he looked upon t h e f l i g h t as a d i f f i c u l t task about which he w a s con-
f i d e n t , but could not be sure, of success. He was more concerned about
performing e f f e c t i v e l y than about e x t e r n a l dangers. He reported moderate
apprehension during t h e p r e f l i g h t period, which was consciously c o n t r o l l e d
by focusing h i s thoughts on t e c h n i c a l d e t a i l s of h i s job. As a r e s u l t ,
he f e l t very l i t t l e anxiety during t h e immediate prelaunch period. After
launch, he was preoccupied with h i s duties and f e l t concern only when he
f e l l behind on one of h i s t a s k s . There were no unusual sensations
regarding weightlessness, i s o l a t i o n , o r separation from t h e e a r t h .
Again, no abnormalities of thought br impairment of i n t e l l e c t u a l func-
t i o n s were noted.

There were no systemic complaints. However, during f l i g h t e i t h e r

at ( t h e period when maximum aerodynamic pressures a r e p r e s e n t )
o r at Mach number 1.0, v i b r a t i o n w a s so severe that t h e p i l o t s t a t e d he
"could not see very well." He f e l t t h a t t h i s i n a b i l i t y t o see c l e a r l y
was due t o v i b r a t i o n t r a n s m i t t e d through h i s helmet.

The t w o p o s t f l i g h t examination periods revealed t h e following

f i n d i n g s : There w a s redness at t h e upper margin of both scapulae, an
a r e a a p p r o x h a t e l y 2 by 6 cm i n s i z e (corresponding t o t h e pressure
p o i n t s of harness and couch). There were no petechiae or ecchymoses.
The tympanic membranes were s l i g h t l y reddened at t h e i r periphery. Com-
p l e t e ophthalmological evaluation disclosed no abnormality. I n t h e
thorax, i n s p i r a t o r y and expiratory measurements were t h e same; t h e r e
w a s no impairment of expansion. Some decrease i n b r e a t h sounds was
found over t h e lung f i e l d s a t both bases p o s t e r i o r l y . I n t h e s e same
areas, c r e p i t a n t and subcrepitant r a l e s were heard. These sounds were
cleared by coughing and d i d not reappear. Diaphragmatic movement was
normal. The point of maximal cardiac impulse had not s h i f t e d . The
a o r t i c second sound remained s l i g h t l y louder than t h e pulmonic second
sound. No o t h e r abnormalities o r changes were found. A 12-lead e l e c t r o -
cardiogram, an electroencephalogram, and chest X-rays were normal.

I n the laboratory, routine blood and urine s t u d i e s were performed

immediately on a r r i v a l a t t h e debriefing a r e a ( 3 hours from l i f t - o f f )
and again a t 45 hours a f t e r t h e f l i g h t . The major body of information
was gathered a f t e r samples were processed, frozen, and t r a n s p o r t e d t o
t h e various p a r t i c i p a t i n g l a b o r a t o r i e s . These data a r e presented i n
t a b l e s 11, I V , and V . I n a l l instances micromethods were u t i l i z e d when
available. Bibliographic references i n d i c a t i n g methodology a r e appended.

There i s some danger inherent i n r e p o r t i n g and discussing one

experience. However, t h e s t u d i e s performed and described have been
designed t o cover areas of p r e d i c t a b l e f l i g h t s t r e s s e s - t h a t i s ,
psychophysiologic s t r e s s , r a p i d l y changing ambient pressures, noise,
vibration, a c c e l e r a t i o n , physical r e s t r a i n t , 5-psi 100-percent oxygen S
environment, and thermal s t r e s s . 1,
5
In simulator t r a i n i n g , it has been customary t o f i n d chemical
evidence of adrenal response i n blood and u r i n e . B a r o t i t i s , mild t o
severe, has been f r e q u e n t l y noted a f t e r periods of exposure t o r a p i d l y
changing ambient pressures. Areas of erythema, occasionally petechiae
and ecchymoses, appeared a f t e r a c c e l e r a t i o n ( g A,). Minimal a t e l e c t a s i s
has been a frequent f i n d i n g a f t e r combined exposures t o a c c e l e r a t i o n and
5-psi 100-percent oxygen environments. Mild dehydration and e a r l y signs
of heat exhaustion were a l s o evident when an i n d i v i d u a l i n an impermeable
Mercury pressure s u i t w a s not adequately v e n t i l a t e d . With Redstone
t r a i n i n g p r o f i l e s , t h e r e has been no nystagmus as a r e s u l t of high noise
l e v e l s ; t h e r e has been no v i b r a t i o n i n j u r y .

As a r e s u l t of t h i s one b r i e f b a l l i s t i c s p a c e - f l i g h t experience,
a number of changes have been noted. These changes a r e summarized as
follows :
 Preflight Postflight

Body w e i g h t ........ 169 l b 4 oz 166 lb 4 oz

Rectal temperature .... 99.0' F 100.2O F

Pulse after exercise . . . Returned t o normal 3eturned t o normal i n

i n 2-3 min
3 min
4

Ears ........... Canals and mem- ; l i g h t i n j e c t i o n of

branes c l e a r both tympanic mem-
branes; most marked
on r i g h t

Skin ........... 2-cm2 area of 4reas of erythema 2 by

maculopapular 6 cm on both shoulders
eruption at a t upper border of
upper s t e r n a l scapulae
ECG. s i t e

Lungs ........... Normal; X-ray Iiminished b r e a t h

negative sounds. Crepitant
and subcrepitant r a l e s
noted over both lung
fields, posteriorly,
at bases; c l e a r e d by
coughing. X-ray
negative

Urine s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y . .. 1.013

.......
Serum p r o t e i n

Plasma norepinephrine . . .

The program f o r obtaining medical d a t a has proved g e n e r a l l y satis-

f a c t o r y . A few l a b o r a t o r y d e f i c i e n c i e s were noted i n t h i s r e h e a r s a l f o r
o r b i t a l mission. It w i l l be t h e i n t e n t of t h i s s p e c i a l t y team t o con-
t i n u e with t h i s plan of data a c q u i s i t i o n , t o make more r i g i d demands for
u r i n e c o l l e c t i o n , t o shorten t h e p r e f l i g h t - s t u d y i n t e r v a l ( t h e i n t e r v a l
between examination and f l i g h t ) , and t o continue t h e accumulation of
c o n t r o l data.
 1

From t h e m a t e r i a l reviewed, it i s obvious t h a t a b r i e f s o r t i e has

been made i n t o a new environment. S i m i l a r i t i e s between t h i s s o r t i e
and previous t r a i n i n g experiences have been noted. N o conclusions have
been drawn except t h a t i n t h i s f l i g h t t h e p i l o t appears t o have p a i d a
very s m a l l physiologic p r i c e f o r h i s journey.

BIBLIOGRAF'KY

Glucose :
Nelson, M.: Photometric Adaptation of Somogyi Method f o r Determina-
t i o n of Glucose. J o u r . B i o l . Chem., vol. 153, 1944, p . 375.

T o t a l p r o t e i n , albumin:
Cohn, C . , and Wolfson, W. G.: J o u r . Lab. C l i n . Med., v o l . 32, 1947,
p . 1203.
Gornall, A. G., B a r d a w i l l , C . J., and David, M. M . : Jour. Biol.
Chem., vol. 177, 1949, p. 731.

Urea nitrogen :
Gentzkow, C . J., and Masen, J . M.: J d u r . Biol. Chem., v o l . 143,
1942, I?.531.

Calcium:
Diehl, H., and Ellingboe, J . L.: Anal. Chem., vol. 28, 1956, p . 882.

Chloride :
Schales, O., and Schales, S. S.: J o u r . B i o l . Chem., v o l . 140, 1941,
P * 879-

Epinephrine and norepinephrine:

Weil-mlherbe, H., and Bone, A. D.: Lancet, v o l . 264, 1953, p. 973.
Gray, I., and Young, R . : C l i n . Chem., v o l . 3, 1957, p . 239.

Sodium potassium by flame photometry:

Berkman S., Henry, R . J . , Golub, 0. J., and Seagalove, M.: Jour.
B i o l . Chem., v o l . 206, 1954, p . 937.

Urine norepinephrine:
Weil-Malherbe, H., and Bone, A. D.: J o u r . Clin. I n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
vol. 10, 1937, 'pp. 138-147.

Vanyl mandelic a c i d :
Sunderman, F. W.: Am. Jour. C l i n . Pathology, v o l . 34, 1960, p. 273.
 53

TABLJ3 I.- VITAL SIGNS

Preflight Postflight

-8 hr Shipboard +3 hr
Body weight nude
.....
( p o s t voiding) 169 lb 4 oz
.....
Temperature, OF 99.0 ( r e c t a l )
......
Pulse per min 68
...
Respiration per min 16
Blood pressure, mm Hg:
Standing........
Sitting ........
Supine .........
Pulse p e r min:
....
Before exercise 68
After exercise ..... 100
*
(22 min)

*Time f o r r e t u r n t o normal.
54

TABLE 11.- URINE SUMMARY

-
Centrifuge MR-3 f l i g h t

?ostrun ’ref 1i ght Postflight

?rerun
+2 h r - 4 days -30 min 3 h r +45 h r
a
Sample volume, mZ ... 353 170 100 400 90 1,420
.
Specific g r a v i t y . . 1.028 1.011 1.020 1.013 ,021 1.024
Albumin . . . . . . . . Neg. Neg . Neg . Neg Neg. Neg..
Xuc os e . . . . . . . . Neg . Neg. Neg . Neg . Neg. Neg.
Ketones . . . . . . . . Neg. Neg . Neg . Neg . Neg. Neg.
Occult blood . .... Neg . Neg . Neg . Neg . Neg. Neg.
pH .... . . .... 6.6 6.4 6.6 6.6 6.4 (b)
.
Na, mEq/L . . .... 94 88 137 178 104 137
K, mEq/L. . . . . . . 82 44 143 49 29 65
.
Ca, mEq/L . . .... 8.1 6.9 1.4 5.2 7.7 5.0
.
Cl, mEq/L . . .... 180 120 203 87 148 (b)
Microscopic check ... Rare 3ccasional red blood
white c e l l s and white
blood blood c e l l s i n
cells high-power f i e l d

“24- hour specimen .

bHydrochloric a c i d i n specimen.

IP r e f l i g h t I Postflight

-4 days +3O m i n +3 h r +45 h r

(a)
Creatinine, mg/m 2 ........... 0.88 0.6: 0.86 1.7 g
....
Epinephrine, mpg/mg c r e a t i n i n e 24.7 33.4 27.4 8.65 pg
(Normal range: 5 - 25 pg/24 h r )
...
Norepinephrine, mpg/mg c r e a t i n i n e 19.9 29.6 23.6 27.7 wg
(Normal range: 20 - 80 pg/24 h r )
Dopamine, mpg/mg c r e a t i n i n e ...... 297 426 76 530
(Normal range: 70 - 1,000 pg/24 h r )
Vanyl mandelic acid, q ~ g / m g
creatinine ............. 1.92 2.63 2.89 3.92 mg
(Normal range: 2.0 - 5.0 mg/24 h r )
a24-hour specimen.
 55

TABLE 111.- PERIPHERALBLOOD”

Preflight Postflight

-4 days +3O min +3 h r +43 h r

-~-- _.___

Hematocrit, percent .... 45 --- 40 46

...
Hemoglobin, g ( S a h l i ) 13 13-5 14
White blood c e l l s ,
per m3. ........ 6,500 9,800 7,100
Red blood c e l l s ,
mi~ions/m3 ...... 5.1 5.0 5.2

D i f f e r e n t i a l blood count:
Lymphocytes, percent .. 42
Ventrophiles, percent .. 33
56 51
32
54
Band, percent ...... 0 0 1
Monocytes, percent ... 8 6 8
Eosinophiles, percent .. 3 1 4
Basophiles, percent ... 0 0 1

aDeterminations performed by d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i c i a n s under f i e l d

conditions. Values a r e i n doubt and a r e included only f o r completeness.
 TABU 1 V . - BLOOD SUMMARY

Centrifuge MR-3 f l i g h t
Postrun 'ref li ght Postflight
'rerun

sodium ( serum),
mEq/L .. ... .
Potassium (serum),
. 146
-30 min t2 h r

135 145
-4 days

137
=I=
-30 min

137
+3 h r t45 hr

143 151
mEq/L . . .... . 5.1 5.6 5.5 4.4 4.6 3.9 5-7
7alcium (serum),
mEq/L . . . . . . . 5.4 4.4 3.9 4.7 5.4 4.9 4.8
Zhloride ( serum),
mEq/L . .. . . . . 116 102 83 102 106 107 90
Protein ( t o t a l serum)
g/1OO mZ . . . . . 7.9 8.6 7.4 7.4 8.3 7.4 7.3
Ubumin ( serum),
g/1OO mZ . . . . . 4.6 5.0 4.3 4.0 4.0 3.7 3-7
3lobulin ( serum),
g / l O O mZ . . . . . 3-3 3.6 3.1 3.4 4.3 3.7 3.6
Jrea nitrogen,
rng/100 mZ . . . . . 13.4 15.1 14.5 15.4 15.2 15.7 14.4
Epinephrine ( plasma)a
pg/L . . ...
.. 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.c 0.0 0.c 0.0
Norepinephrine
(plasma) ,b
yg/L . . .. .. . 6.1 9.6 2.2 5.2 12.9 9.6 3.3

?Normal values: 0.0 - 0.4 yg/L.

bNormal values: 4.0 - 8.0 pg/L.
 57

TABLE V.- SERUM AND PLASMA ENZYMES SUMMARY

Centrifuge MR-3 f l i g h t
-I
Normal
1 Postflight
~~ ~ ~-

Postrun leeflight

1 Transaminases :
SGOT
SGPT
.......
.......
I

0- 35
0-20
19
4
17
4
=IT
130 min k2 h r -4 days +3 h r t45 h r

10
9
23
0
22
6
16
8
'Esterase
acetylcholine ... 5130-260 235 230 210 195 210 220
l Peptidase

....
leucylamino 100-310 240 220 310 , 360 415 400
Aldolase ...... 50-150 25 28 19 28 9 41
'Isomerase
phosphohexose ... b10-20 12 11 11 5 15 7
,Dehydrogenases:,
Lactic...... 150-250 200 190 235 185 170 190
Malic....... 150-250 190 155 220 225 igo 220
Succinic..... Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.
Inosine...... Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.
Alpha keto-
1 ....
glutaric Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.
"APH u n i t s .
b€?odansky units.
 59

BIOINSTRUMENTATION I N MR-3 FLIGHT

1/
By James P. Henry, M.D., and Charles D. Wheelwright

INTRODUCTION

The continuous monitoring of physiological d a t a from a p i l o t during

a t e s t f l i g h t i s a r e l a t i v e l y recent concept. Usually, physiological
recordings a r e reserved f o r measurement of response t o unusual s t r e s s e s .
I n f a c t , when Project Mercury w a s s t a r t e d n e a r l y t h r e e years ago, t h e r e
were no off-the-shelf techniques available f o r r e l i a b l y measuring any
physiological parameters f o r prolonged f l i g h t s . It w a s decided t o t r y
t o measure body temperature and t o record chest movements and t h e
electrocardiogram. Blood pressure w a s considered, but at t h a t time t h e
a v a i l a b l e techniques f o r autosphygmomanometry d i d not look s u f f i c i e n t l y
promising. When t h e animal f l i g h t s were added t o t h e program, it w a s
decided t o use t h e chimpanzee as f a r a s possible as an experimental
subject w i t h which t o prove out t h e human bioinstrumentation techniques,

n
including telemetry and monitoring.

The sensors had t o meet t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of compatibility t o the

e l e c t r i c a l system; they had t o be r e l i a b l e , not i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e d u t i e s
of t h e occupant, and be comfortable f o r t h e duration of t h e mission.

The development of a s a t i s f a c t o r y sensor package w a s s t a r t e d a t

McDonnell A i r c r a f t Corporation. I n support of t h i s program, Space Task
Group designed and t e s t e d s e v e r a l models of each type of sensor and
conducted a s e r i e s of t e s t s t o determine those b e s t s u i t e d . A photo-
graph of t h e biosensor assembly used i n t h e MR-3 f l i g h t i s shown as
f i g u r e 1. It w a s found t h a t a surprising amount of work w a s necessary
before t h e requirements of t h e Mercury bioinstrumentation were met.
Recently, it has been decided t o include blood-pressure measurements;
here again, d e s p i t e recent advances i n autosphygmomanometry, much work
w i l l be required before a flight-acceptable technique w i l l be a v a i l a b l e .
I n what follows, t h e methods adopted f o r each of t h e parameters w i l l be
reviewed i n t u r n .

BODY TESIPERATURE SENSOR

When t h e Mercury recordings were chosen, body temperature w a s

believed t o be a most c r i t i c a l parameter, e s p e c i a l l y i n view of t h e
then recent "Man-High Balloon Gondola" experiences with near f a t a l
hyperthermia. The t h e o r e t i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e approach of using e n t e r i c
capsules containing t i n y temperature-sensitive radio o s c i l l a t o r s was
60

considered t o o u n t r i e d and premature f o r P r o j e c t Mercury. The use of

s k i n or a x i l l a r y temperature w a s d e s i r a b l e b u t somewhat l e s s d e f i n i t i v e
than r e c t a l temperature. Hence, a development program was i n i t i a t e d t o
seek a more comfortable and r e l i a b l y placed instrument than t h e r e l a t i v e l y
bulky r e c t a l c a t h e t e r s c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e . A view of t h e various types
t e s t e d i n t h i s program i s shown i n f i g u r e 2. After a number o f t r i a l s ,
a device w a s produced whose bulk w a s g r e a t l y reduced, whose bulb shape
took cognizance of t h e anatomy of t h e r e c t a l sphincter, and whose r i g i d i t y
w a s s u f f i c i e n t t o permit easy i n t r o d u c t i o n . This thermistor-tipped device
has been i n r o u t i n e use f o r many t e s t s p r i o r t o the MR-3 f l i g h t , where it
worked out very s a t i s f a c t o r i l y , giving good data without unduly obtruding
on the s u b j e c t ' s awareness when once i n p l a c e . Measurements i n t h e MR-2
animal f l i g h t were made w i t h a standard c a t h e t e r 3.5 millimeters i n diam-
e t e r , which w a s taped i n place.

FESPIRATION RATE AND DEPTH

Respiratory a c t i v i t y would i d e a l l y be monitored by measuring t h e

t i d a l a i r ( t h a t i s , t h e a i r displaced w i t h each b r e a t h ) . However, t h e
Mercury system does not c a l l f o r placement of a mask on t h e f a c e ; hence,
some i n d i r e c t method must be used. I n t h e beginning, t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s
o f a simple pneumographic method were studied: f i r s t , by using a l i n e a r
potentiometer, then by employing carbon impregnated rubber whose r e s i s t -
ance v a r i e s w i t h i t s length. These approaches not only r e s t r i c t e d t h e
c h e s t , annoying t h e subject; b u t , more importantly, t h e y d i d not prove
t h a t a i r w a s moving i n t o and out of t h e r e s p i r a t o r y passages. The subject
could e a s i l y c r e a t e a false response by t e n s i n g h i s muscles and could
cause r e g i s t r a t i o n s by chest c o n t r a c t i o n s a g a i n s t a closed g l o t t i s .

A more d i r e c t method would be a device recording t h e a i r movement.

For t h i s , an o l d technique w a s used - t h a t o f a t h e r m i s t o r heated t o 200° F
( f i g . 3), which i s cooled by t h e movement over it of t h e e x h a l a t i o n s and
i n h a l a t i o n s . This technique needed f u r t h e r development t c i n s u r e t h a t t h e
a i r movement would be r e g i s t e r e d whether it came from t h e mouth or t h e
n o s t r i l s and d e s p i t e movement of t h e head i n t h e pressure s u i t helmet.
The f i n a l design uses a s i n g l e t h e r m i s t o r i n a s p e c i a l f i t t i n g attached
t o t h e microphone. On it i s a funnel c a t c h i n g a i r c u r r e n t s from t h e
n o s t r i l s above while a i r from t h e mouth p a s s e s d i r e c t l y across t h e
instrument. It has worked very w e l l i n t e s t s on t h e c e n t r i f u g e and i n
t h e MR-3 f l i g h t ( f i g . 4). Note t h a t t h i s technique g i v e s only an i n d i -
c a t i o n of a i r movement and no q u a n t i t a t i v e information about t h e volume
of gas inhaled, f o r , should t h e p i l o t move h i s head s l i g h t l y w i t h i n t h e
helmet away from t h e microphone, a lowering of t h e response amplitude
w i l l r e s u l t , which i s not r e l a t e d t o t h e volume of gas exchanged. I n
t h e MR-2 f l i g h t , t h e chimpanzee had t o be f i t t e d w i t h a pneumograph
( f i g . 5 ) , f o r he could move h i s head q u i t e f r e e l y away from any
 61

t h e r m i s t o r . After many t r i a l s , a n c l d technique u s i n g a rubber tube

f i l l e d w i t h s a t u r a t e d copper sulphate w a s f i n a l l y employed. After con-
s i d e r a b l e work and the a d d i t i o n of a low-frequency, a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t
a m p l i f i e r which eliminated d r i f t , t h i s device w a s s t a b i l i z e d and came
t o give e x c e l l e n t readings i n t h e MR-2 f l i g h t .

ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHIC SENSOR

I n t h e case of t h e electrocardiogram, it i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t ,
d e s p i t e a h a l f century of c l i n i c a l use, a g r e a t d e a l had t c be done
t o give u s a device t h a t w a s acceptable f o r f l i g h t . E s s e n t i a l l y , t h i s
i s t h e c l i n i c a l problem of recording the electrocardiogram during exer-
t i o n . The requirement w a s f o r a comfortable set of e l e c t r o d e s which
had a low impedance t o match the capsule a q p l i f i e r s , would record durlng
arm movement, and would s t a y e f f e c t i v e with a low r e s i s t a n c e throughciut
a 24-hour period. A f t e r a number of in-house trials w i t h various experi-
mental models ( f i g . 6) had been m a d e , a f l u i d e l e c t r o d e w a s f i n a l l y
independently developed t h a t had much i n common w i t h that worked c u t
by t h e bioinstrumentation group f o r t h e X-15 f l i g h t s . It a l s o c l o s e l y
resembled t h a t r e c e n t l y described by D r . Donald A. Rowley of t h e Depart-
ment of Pathology of t h e University of Chicago who w a s searching f o r an
e l e c t r o d e t o permit 24-hour pulse counts i n a c t i v e people. It i s an
encouraging confirmation of t h e approach t o f i n d t h i s convergence i n
technique.

The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e of t h i s approach i s t o glue f i r m l y t o t h e skin

a nonconducting cup containing a n o n i r r i t a t i n g e l e c t r o d e p a s t e and t o
use t h i s paste as t h e l e a d o f f f r o m t h e skin. The p o t e n t i a l i s picked
up from the p a s t e mass by a shielded wire attached t o a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l
mesh b u r i e d i n t h e p a s t e b u t not touching t h e skin. The r e s i s t a n c e of
such e l e c t r o d e s s t a y s constant i f t h e paste i s hygroscopic and t h e cup
w e l l sealed t o prevent drying o u t . A r e s i s t a n c e comparison of two
ECG e l e c t r o d e s t e s t e d f o r 24 hours on a s u b j e c t i s shown i n t a b l e I.
The t e s t s i n d i c a t e d that a good e l e c t r o l y t e consisted of 30 percent
calcium c h l o r i d e i n water w i t h a s u f f i c i e n t amount of aluminum s i l i c a t e
powder (Bentonite) t o b r i n g it t o a p a s t e . These e l e c t r o d e s appear t o
give less background noise than t h e standard m e t a l p l a t e s used i n c l i n i -
cal electrocardiography and a l s o l e s s b a s e l i n e s h i f t when t h e region t o
which t h e y are attached i s a c t i v e l y moved ( f i g . 7).

Once a s u i t a b l e e l e c t r o d e had been devised, a f u r t h e r s t e p w a s

necessary t o reduce i n t e r f e r e n c e . T h i s w a s accomplished by abandoning
t h e c l a s s i c a l l i m b placement w i t h i t s valuable v e c t o r information and
v a s t background of c l i n i c a l experience and going t o new l o c a t i o n s on t h e
trunk ( f i g . 8 ) . I n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h D r s . James A. Romn and Lawrence E
Lamb of t h e U.S. Air Force School of Aviation Medicine and Capt. Ashton
 62

Graybiel of t h e Naval School of Aviation Medicine, a compromise l o c a t i o n

w a s worked out which gave a modified l e a d I between t h e two a x i l l a e and
a t r i g h t angles t o t h i s a s t e r n a l l e a d which, because of t h e subjacent
bone and l o c a t i o n close t o t h e h e a r t , i s unusually f r e e from muscle n o i s e .
These l o c a t i o n s were t e s t e d out on t h e c e n t r i f u g e and found t o b e f l i g h t
acceptable. They have given good r e s u l t s i n t h e MR-3 f l i g h t ( f i g . 9 ) .
For t h e animal t e s t s , t h e axillary l o c a t i o n s were retaLned and a f l u i d
electrode was employed on t h e l e g t o give it f l i g h t t r i a l , b u t t h e main
r e l i a n c e w a s placed on use of a modification of t h e o l d embedded-wire
suture techniques ( f i g . lo), whose r e l i a b i l i t y has been e s t a b l i s h e d by
use since t h e e a r l i e s t days of electrocardiography. S
1
A f i n a l note m i g h t be added concerning t h e electrocardiographic 6
a m p l i f i e r s . A g r e a t deal of s k i l l , ingenuity, and e f f o r t w a s expended
1
before clean r e s p i r a t o r y and cardiac recordings could be achieved i n
the Mercury spacecraft w i t h i t s many sources of e l e c t r i c a l i n t e r f e r e n c e
and v a r i a b l y loaded battery-operated main-power supply.

BLOOD-PRESSURE RECORDINGS

A f i n a l note on t h e need f o r a record i n man and animal of t h e blood-

pressure changes during a Mercury f l i g h t i s now i n o r d e r . It w a s always
recognized t h a t vencus pressure recordings give valuable informaticn on
s t r a i n i n g movements, as w e l l as on t h e s t a t e of f i l l i n g of t h e c e n t r a l
blood s t o r e s . Continuous a r t e r i a l pressure records, e s p e c i a l l y during
t h e t r a n s i t i o n period from weightlessness t o r e e n t r y a c c e l e r a t i o n would
a l s o be valuable during f l i g h t s involving prolonged subgravity. An
uninterrupted e f f o r t has, t h e r e f o r e , been made, since t h e i n c e p t i o n of
t h e animal program, t o develop a d i r e c t technique f o r measuring c e n t r a l
venous and a r t e r i a l pressure which could be incorporated i n t h e Mercury
spacecraft. T h i s method involves t h e extremely gradual infusion through
i n t r a v a s c u l a r c a t h e t e r s of anticoagulant t o prevent c l o t t i n g and d i r e c t
recording Gnto a compact self-powered 16-hour-capacity multichannel
oscillograph. The equipment i s undergoing f i n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n t e s t i n g
and centrifuge t r i a l s . I f s a t i s f a c t o r y , it w i l l be i n s t a l l e d i n t h e
o r b i t a l chimpanzee flights.

I n man t h e o r i g i n a l d e c i s i o n not t o measure blood pressure has been

modified by a number of f a c t o r s . During t h e p a s t t h r e e y e a r s , auto-
sphygmomanometry has advanced. Four separate groups are working on t h e
problem and t h e r e c e n t development by D r . J . N. Waggoner and h i s a s s o c i -
a t e s a t AiResearch Manufacturing Co. of a u n d i r e c t i o n a l microphone w i t h
associated 35-cycle f i l t e r i n g c i r c u i t s appears t o be a d e f i n i t i v e advance
( f i g . 11). Active work on incorporating t h i s technique w i t h t h e Mercury
f u l l pressure s u i t and spacecraft i s i n progress. Centrifuge t r i a l s of
t h e method w i l l be held during t h e summer and, i f s a t i s f a c t o r y , equipment
w i l l be i n s t a l l e d i n the o r b i t i n g Mercury spacecraft which w i l l permit
i t s use, b o t h whenever d e s i r e d by the astronaut, and a t p r e s e t f i x e d
i n t e r v a l s . One of the two electrocardiograph channels w i l l be taken over
i n t e r m i t t e n t l y t o record s y s t o l i c and d i a s t o l i c p r e s s u r e during arm cuff
p r e s s u r i z a t i o n cycles of approximately 30 seconds.

The remote monitoring on a noninterference basis of parameters such

as temperature, r e s p i r a t i o n , the electrocardiogram, and blood pressure
i n a c t i v e men f u l l y engaged i n prolonged and exacting tasks i s a new
f i e l d . H i t h e r t o , f l i g h t medicine has accepted t h e information concerning
w e l l being t h a t could be derived from the p i l o t ' s i n t r o s p e c t i o n and con-
veyed by the invaluable voice l i n k . For the rest it has r e l i e d on per-
formance t o t e l l how c l o s e t h e man w a s t o c o l l a p s e .

It i s t o be hoped that some of t h e developments i n automation

n e c e s s i t a t e d by P r o j e c t Mercury w i l l f i n d a p p l i c a t i o n i n c l i n i c a l
medicine.
64

TABU I

RESISTANCE COMPARISON OF TWO ECG EI;ECTRODES 24 HOURS ON SUBJECT

LK = 1,000
c

ohms; resis-ance taken on Sampson v o l t ohmmeter M260]

1/2-in. -mesh e l e c t r o d e , Fluid e l e c t r o d e , e l e c t r o l y t e , S

5ub j e c t RUn
A e c t r o l y t e , s i l v e r powder 40s C a C l Bentonite

A
Start
I
12 hour 24 hour Start

1.5~
12 hour 24 hour
2.5~
A 3.5K 6.5~
B -----
C 3.1K 2.5~
D -----
E 2.5~ 3- 3K
F 2.4K 4.6~
G 2.5~ 3. OK
Mean 83K 2.6K 2.9~ 3.v
Encreasc ---- 100% 1 338% 11.5% 42.3%
 65

Figure 1.

VARidUS THERMISTOR-TYPE RECTAL

PROBES TESTED

Figure 2 .
66

Figure 3.

Figure 4.
 67

Figure 5.

Figure 6.
68

Figure 7 .

FRONT VIEW SHOWING PLACEMENT OF

ECG ELECTRODES
.ELECTRODE
I

ELECTRODE
4

MONITORING DATA
LEAD I = ELECTRODES I 8 2 (AXILLARY)
LEAD 2=ELECTRODES 3 814 (STERNAL)

Figure 8.
 69

Figure 9.

EGG ATTACHkIENT-ON. CHIMPANZEE

Figure 10.
R F I I ~ I N G f F RI M)D PRESSURE TRANSDUCER To BE
ORBITAL
I- FLIGHT

Figure 11.
 PHYSIOLQGICAL RESPONSES OF THE ASTRONAUT T
IU' THE MR-3 F L I G H T

By William S. Augerson, M.D.,

/-
and C. Patrick Laughlin, M.D.

A major objective of the MR-3 flight was to record and study the
Astronaut's physiological responses to the space-flight stresses imposed.
Weightless flight and acceleration-weightlessness transition periods were
of special interest. Additional flight objectives were to demonstrate
the performance capability of the Astronaut in space flight and to famil-
iarize him with a space-flight experience. A review of the specific
stress components inherent in the MR-3 flight is essential to a better
understanding of the physiological response patterns.

Astronaut Shepard wore a full pressure suit, which was not inflated
during the flight. He was restrained in a form-fitting couch throughout
the countdown and flight and remained in the couch until immediately
after landing on the water. He was maintained in the supine position
with legs and thighs flexed at angles of approximately 90° except for
the period of weightless flight when spacecraft attitude change placed
him in the seated position.

The Astronaut was supplied with 100-percent oxygen during the count-
down and flight. An analysis of the cabin atmosphere during countdown
after approximately 1 hour of 100-percent oxygen purge indicated a level
of 98-percent oxygen. Opening of the cabin pressure relief valve at
about 23,000 feet on descent introduced ambient air into the cabin.
Cabin and suit pressure levels fell from 14.7 to 5.7 pounds per square
inch during the immediate 1 minute 30 second period after lift-off. This

I
pressure of 5.7 pounds per square inch was maintained throughout the
remainder of the flight until repressurization was initiated at approxi-
'

mately 23,000 feet during parachute descent.

The cabin-air temperature ranged from 93' F to a maximum of 11l0 F

during descent. The suit temperature rose from 71° F at launch to 800 F
at landing.

Illumination in the spacecraft fluctuated as a function of the

spacecraft attitude with increases in light intensity when the sunlight
came through the spacecraft windows.

The Redstone-launched ballistic trajectory produced a peak launch

acceleration of 6.2g, rising from l g in 2 minutes 22 seconds. Reentry
peak g-forces were 11.0g, rising from O.O5g in 31 seconds. Small magni-
tudes of g-forces were encountered during the time of retrofire when an
approximate level of l g was reached. Two closely timed, brief acceler-
ation "spikes" with a maximum of 4g were encountered Et the time of main
72

parachute deployment and unreefing on descent at 10,600 feet. Maximum

vibration levels occurred during the launch phase of flight at approxi-
mately 1 minute 10 seconds, lasting for 15 seconds and corresponding
with the period of maximum dynamic pressure.

Weightless-flight duration was 5 minutes 4 seconds, comencing with

spacecraft separation and continuing to the onset of reentry g-forces.
This period of weightlessness was interrupted briefly by a 23-second
period of retrofire when about l g was reached.

The Astronaut preparation for spce flight is a rather involved S

procedure and began approximately 8 hours prior to lift-off. The major 1
events in his prepration are presented in detail in table I. 7
Physiological control data (electrocardiogram, respiration rate,
and body temperature) on Astronaut Shepard were obtained during multiple
Redstone g-profile centrifuge runs. The same physiological parameters
were recorded during spacecraft preparation tests in which the actual
countdown procedures are exercised. This information is of value for
correlation with the MR-3 countdown and flight data. A further descrip-
tion of the data sources follows.

The Astronaut was monitored continuously from installation in the

spacecraft at 0520 EST until landing on the water at 09% EST. Electro-
cardiogram, respiratory rate, and body temperature were displayed con-
tinuously on Sanborn trace recorders in the blockhouse. The Mercury
Control Center medical monitoring panel was activated at T - 18 minutes,
where T indicates the time at lift-off. The air-to-ground voice loop
was also monitored continuously at the same stations. During the latter
part of the flight, telemetry and voice contact were maintained with
downrange stations and a telemetry aircraft.

The Astronaut was instrumented to obtain two channels of electro-

cardiogram, body temperature, and respiration rate. These data were
transmitted by telemetry channels to ground monitoring stations, and
the identical data were recorded onboard the spacecraft. Electro-
cardiogram electrodes were placed at the axillary and sternal positions.
Electrode placement was selected because of stability and minimal
interference from muscle movement. On this flight electrodes 2 and 3
(as shown in paper by Henry and Wheelwright) were displaced 1.5 inches
to the left of the tattoo marks because of skin irritation from a pre-
vious test at the preferred sites. A microphone-mounted respiration
thermistor was directed to register either nasal or oralbreathing. A
body-probe temperature thermistor was also in place. An additional
data source was the Astronaut observer film, operating in the spacecraft
at 6 frames per second. Astronaut-voice transmissions constituted a
particularly valuable source of data and were of a quality sufficient
to convey a suggestion of mental state. All information mentioned
 73

previously was monitored continuouslx from Astronaut i n s e r t i o n i n t o t h e

spacecraft, with the exception of t h e onboard camera which was s t a r t e d
a t approximately T - 2 minutes.

An i n t e n s i v e debriefing, commencing a t recovery aboard t h e a i r -

c r a f t c a r r i e r and continuing over t h e subsequent 48 hours, vas performed
with t h e f l i g h t Astronaut. Every attempt was made t o e l i c i t spontaneous
impressions of t h e flight, followed by a s e r i e s of d e t a i l e d f l i g h t analy-
sis questionnaires.

During t h e 12-month period p r i o r t o the flight, Astronaut Shepard

had completed t h r e e Redstone centrifuge t r a i n i n g programs. He had under-
gone a t o t a l of 17 Redstone g-profiles i n which he experienced cabin runs
a t sea l e v e l and a t 5 pounds per square inch. These were rigorous pro-
grams, with emphasis on as accurate mission simulation as p o s s i b l e . The
Astronauts used t h e i r personal contour couches, wore f u l l pressure suits,
breathed 100-percent oxygen, and performed a hand c o n t r o l l e r t a s k while
r i d i n g t h e centrifuge. Electrocardiogram, r e s p i r a t i o n rate, and body
temperature was recorded with each run, both s t a t i c and dynamic. The
runs were monitored by medical personnel u t i l i z i n g closed c i r c u i t t e l e -
v i s i o n from t h e centrifuge gondola, voice communication, and t h e physio-
l o g i c a l parameters noted previously. Physical examinations were conducted
p r i o r t o and following t h e run sessions.

Manned-spacecraft preparation t e s t s conducted with t h e MR-3 space-

c r a f t a t Cape Canaveral were performed j u s t p r i o r t o t h e launching date,
and t h e same physiological parameters were monitored during these prepara-
t i o n s . During these t e s t s , Astronaut preparation procedures and count-
down f u n c t i o n s i n t h e operating spacecraft were followed t o l i f t - o f f time.

Because of t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e environment associated with

t h e countdown and t h a t of t h e f l i g h t , the physiological d a t a generated
during t h e s e two phases a r e presented separately.

The Astronaut's pulse and r e s p i r a t i o n rate responses during countdown

a r e shown i n f i g u r e 1. Pulse r a t e s were p l o t t e d a t approximately 5-minute
i n t e r v a l s during t h e e a r l y p a r t of countdown by counting t h e r a t e s f o r a
30-second duration.. A s l i f t - o f f time approached, pulse r a t e s were counted
a t 15-second i n t e r v a l s f o r 10-second duration and t h i s procedure continued
during t h e f l i g h t . Respiration r a t e s were charted a t approximately
?-minute i n t e r v a l s f o r 30-second durations during t h e countdown and a t
30-second i n t e r v a l s during t h e f l i g h t . Mission times and events occurring
during t h e countdown are shown on t h e a b s c i s s a s c a l e . The Astronaut main-
t a i n e d a pulse r a t e of approximately 80 b e a t s per minute during countdown
with t r a n s i e n t r i s e s t o 90 t o 95 beats per minute during s i g n i f i c a n t
spacecraft checkout events. I n f i g u r e 2 pulse and r e s p i r a t i o n r a t e s f o r
t h e MR-3 f l i g h t phase a r e shown. Again, mission times and events as w e l l
as g-forces a r e present f o r c o r r e l a t i o n . Pulse rate r o s e t o 108 a t
74

9 seconds prior to lift-off and was 126 at the lift-off signal. The
pulse rate climbed during the launch phase to a peak of 138, coincident
with launch-vehicle engine cutoff and the spacecraft separation maneuver.
This rate was sustained for approximately 45 seconds. Pulse-rate
responses to the weightless flight period were somewhat erratic, but
there was a general downward trend to reach a low of 108 just prior to
the onset of reentry accelerations. It was during the weightless flight
period that the Astronaut was most active, manipulating the spacecraft
manual attitude control system and making external observations. The
Astronaut reached a pulse rate of 1 3 2 approximately 30 seconds after
peak reentry acceleration, and the pulse rate on descent fluctuated
between 130 and 108 beats per minute. At loss of signal after impact,
the rate was 111 beats per minute.

The respiration-rate trace quality was fair, although there were

several uninterpretable periods during the countdown and flight. The
Astronaut's head movements within the helmet away from the respiratory
thermistor and an unfavorable paper-recording speed account for some of
the respiration trace problems. Respiration rate was maintained at a
range of approximately 15 to 20 breaths per minute during countdown. A
peak rate of 40 occurred during the launch phase of the flight, and the
rate declined to 20 near the end of the weightless flight phase. During
reentry, the respiration rate reached a high of 30 and fluctuated on
descent between 20 and 25. On this flight, no comment is possible about
the respiration-wave trace depth as a flow volume indicator.

The electrocasdiogram trace quality in the sternal lead ( 2 ) was sat-

isfactory during the countdown and flight. The axillary lead (1)was of
intermittently readable quality, as deterioration of this trace occurred
at T - 120 minutes during the countdown. The electrocardiogram displayed
no significant abnormality during the entire countdown and flight. Mini-
mal sinus arrhythmia was observed during countdown which Astronaut Shepard
has demonstrated during prior training sessions. S-T segment changes con-
sistent with those found in exercise electrocardiograms are noted in por-
tions of the flight record. Samples of telemetry flight physiological
data as received in the blockhouse are shown in figure 3 .

Deep body temperature.was 99O at installation into the spacecraft

and rose to a high of 99.2' near the end of the flight.

Voice transmissions throughout the flight were of excellent quality.

The Astronaut demonstrated coherent communications which were on schedule
during all flight phases. A review of the Astronaut observer motion
picture revealed no evidence of unconsciousness. Eye movements, which
could be discerned fairly well, did not demonstrate nystagmus. A study
of eye movements relative to instrumentation monitoring and control
manipulation indicates that such movements were appropriate to the task
involved. Astronaut monitoring of spacecraft instrumentation was per-
formed satisfactorily. (See subsequent paper by Voas et al.)
 75

Specific questioning of the Astronaut regarding somatic sensations

perceived during the flight revealed little information. During the
phase of launch approximating maximum dynamic pressure, considerable
vibration was encountered so that the instrument panel could not be read.
This vibration lasted for a period of approximately 15 seconds. No dis-
turbing sensations were noted during weightless flight and Astronaut
physiological function appeared in no way to be impaired. Acceleration
launch and reentry g-forces produced stress magnitudes consistent with
those encountered during the training programs. Acceleration-
weightlessness transition phases were noted to produce no subjectively
recognized dist.m3ances.

Pulse and respiration rate responses during the countdown of a space-

craft preparation test are shown in figure 4. As one might have antici-
pated, these rates are lower than the actual flight countdown rates.

The pulse rate responses of the Astronaut from the Redstone g-profile
centrifuge program are plotted graphically against the MR-3 pulse rate
data in figure 5 . Pulse rate responses during the countdown and flight
were entirely consistent with intact physiological function. As depicted
graphically, they are in excess of Astronaut Shepard's centrifuge training
experience. During the centrifuge runs, he frequently demonstrated a
sinus bradycardia, usually occurring after simulated reentry g-forces.
This heart-rate slowing phenomenon was not demonstrated during the MR-3
flight.

Respiration rates during the countdown phase of the MR-3 flight

closely correspond with those rates obtained during the spacecraft prep-
aration tests. As shown in figure 6, the respiration-rate responses
during the flight were consistent with the range of pulse-rate responses
during the centrifuge training programs.

Sumnary and conclusions:

1. Astronaut Shepard demonstrated physiological responses consistent

with intact conscious performance during all phases of the MR-3 flight.

2. Physiological responses to 5 minutes of weightless flight

( interrupted by 23 seconds of retrofire) were uneventful.

3 . Acceleration-weightlessness transition periods produced physio-

logical responses within the limits of intact function. The relative
change in pulse rate in going from weightlessness to reentry acceleration
was comparable to that in going from lg to reentry acceleration on the
centrifuge.
4. Special senses, that is, vision, semicircular canal function, and
hearing appeared intact throughout the flight.
 TABU3 I

EST EVENT
01IO AWAKENED
SHOWER
HIGH PROTEIN BREAKFAST
PHYSICAL EXAM (BRIEF)
DON SENSORS
( A ) PAIR OF STERNAL ECG LEADS
( B ) PAIR OF AXILLARY ECG LEADS
( C ) RESPIRATION THERMISTOR
( D ) DEEP BODY TEMPERATURE
DON SUIT, PRESSURE CHECKS
0355 ENTER TRANSFER VAN (BRIEFING)
0435 ARRIVE AT PAD
0515 ASCEND GANTRY
0520
0625
0637
0700
I INSERTION BEGUN
DENITROGENATION PERIOD ENDS
GANTRY REMOVED
SCHEDULED LAUNCH
071 3
0934 I HOLD FOR WEATHER, ETC.
LIFT-OFF
 77

PHYSI0LOGICAL DATA
MR-3 COUNTDOWN

140r

MINUS TIME,HR 4
I
I I
3

91 82 7 2 45 21
I 1

EVENTS
I INSTALLATION
2 STARTING PURGE
3 TIGHTEN HARNESS: PURGE OFF
4 SUIT PRESSURE CHECK
5 NORMAL SUIT PRESSURE
6 HOLDING: HATCH ON
7 COUNTING: CABIN PRESSURE CHECK
8 PURGE OVER
9 GANTRY REMOVED
IO CABIN INSTRUMENT CHECKS
I I DISCUSS WEATHER
12 SQUIBS FULLY ARMED

Figure l(a)
 PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA
MR - 3 COUNTDOWN

I4Oc P
P1 FJ
JLSE*
R MIN loot ?? A P

I I I I
MINUS TIME, 2 I 112 1)4 LIFTOF\O
HR

EVENT
13 LOCAL WEATHER PROBLEM:
INFORMED POSSIBLE I HR HOLD
14 HOLDING
15 HOLDING : LAUNCH VEHICLE INVERTER PROBLEM
16 HOLDING: GANTRY IN
17 COUNTING: REPURGE CABIN
18 HOLDING: GANTRY AWAY
19 ON STANDBY INVERTER
20 COUNTING
21 REARM SQUIB
22 HOLDING: COMPUTER HOLD:
PILOT INQUIRY
23 COUNT RESUMED
24 ON INTERNAL POWER
25 FIRING COMMAND

Figure l ( b )
 79

PH Y SI 0LOGICAL DATA
MR- 3 - FLIGHT
I40
PULSE, I2O
PERMIN 100
80
RESPIRATION, 40f-/SS*S-
PER MIN 20

_EVENT
I MAXIMUM DYNAMIC PRESSURE
2 LAUNCH-VEHICLE ENGINE CUTOFF:
SPACECRAFT SEPARATION.: TURNAROUND
3 RETROATTITUDE
4 RETROFIRE
5 RETROJET
6 REENTRY ATTITUDE
7 .05g
8 DROGUE CHUTE DEPLOYMENT
9 MAIN CHUTE OEPLOYMENT
10 IMPACT
I I LOSS OF SIGNAL

Figure 2
80

PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA FROM MR-3 FLIGHT

81
82

PHYSI0U)GICAL DATA FROM MR-3 FLIGHT

 83

PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA
SPACECRAFT PREPARATION TEST
b

'MR-3 DATA
PER M I N 7 0
50

RESPIRATION~~?
PER MIN - -- - o-

-1
EVENT I
I I I II
2 3 4 56
I1
78
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
COUNT TIME, MIN -I I5 -105 -95 -85 -75 -65 -55 -45 -35 -25
I

EVENT
I INSTALLATION:
PURGE STARTS
2 SUITFAN TO NORMAL
3 END PURGE:
SUIT PRESSURE CHECK
4 ADJUST STRAPS
5 HATCH CLOSURE BEGINS
6 CABIN PRESSURE\CHECK
7 GANTRY MOVING BACK
8 CHERRY PICKER TO POSITION

Figure 4(a)
84

PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA
SPACECRAFT PREPARATION TEST

PULSE, ~ MR- 3 DATA

PER MIN
60

EVENTS
9 CHERRY PICKER TO POSITION
IO READY TO ARM SQUIB
II CAMERA 8 TAPE RECORDERS ON
12 ON INTERNAL POWER
13 CHERRY PICKER REMOVED
14 GANTRY BACK: READY FOR EGRESS
15 JUST BEFORE REMOVAL

Figure 4(b)
 PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA COMPARISON OF
CENTRIFUGE AND MR-3 FLIGHT
PULSE RATE
I40
I20
PULSE, 100
PER MIN
80
60

PEAK BOOST^ LRETROFIRE

LPEAK
REENTRY

Figure 3

PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA COMPARISON OF

CENTRIFUGE AND MR-3 FLIGHT
RESPIRATION RATE

LpRERk{EAK BOOST LPEAK REENTRY

LPOSTRUN

G -FORCE >
Figure 6
I

87

PILOT TRAINING ND PFEFLIGHT PFEFARATION

By Donald K. Slayton

INTRODITCTION

! All phases of t h e Astronaut t r a i n i n g program a r e discussed h e r e i n ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e generalized a r e a s pointed toward a l l rocket f l i g h t s and
t h e s p e c i a l i z e d a s p e c t s pointed d i r e c t l y toward t h e MR-3 f l i g h t .
I n i t i a l l y , t h e o r i g i n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of t h e t r a i n e e s should be given.
Each i s a highly q u a l i f i e d j e t f i g h t e r p i l o t who graduated from one of
t h e s e r v i c e t e s t - p i l o t schools and has experience as an experimental
t e s t p i l o t . Each has a bachelor's degree i n engineering o r one of t h e
b a s i c sciences, i s p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y and psychologically sound, and i s i n
good p h y s i c a l condition.

Since no ground r u l e s e x i s t e d f o r t h e t r a i n i n g of Astronauts a t t h e

i n c e p t i o n of t h i s program, t h r e e b a s i c philosophies were adopted:

( a ) U t i l i z e any t r a i n i n g device or method which has even remote

p o s s i b i l i t i e s of being of value

( b ) Make t h e t r a i n i n g as d i f f i c u l t as p o s s i b l e with t h e s e devices

even though a n a l y t i c a l s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h e t a s k i s r e l a -
t i v e l y easy

( c ) Conduct t h e t r a i n i n g on a n informal b a s i s except i n t h e

i n t e r e s t s of i n t e l l i g e n t scheduling of i n s t r u c t o r and t r a i n e r
time s i n c e we were a l l assumed t o be well-motivated mature
individuals.

TRAINING PROGRAM

The t r a i n i n g program can be broken down i n t o f i v e major c a t e g o r i e s

as a f u n c t i o n of t r a i n i n g devices. These c a t e g o r i e s a r e academics,
s t a t i c t r a i n i n g devices, dynamic t r a i n i n g devices, e g r e s s and s u r v i v a l
t r a i n i n g , and s p e c i f i c mission t r a i n i n g .

Academics
I
I
All of us needed t o brush up on b a s i c mechanics and aerodynamics.
I n a d d i t i o n , p r i o r t o t h i s t r a i n i n g we had been only b r i e f l y exposed t o
~
many f i e l d s of science such as astronomy, meteorology, a s t r o p h y s i c s ,
 88

geophysics, space t r a j e c t o r i e s , rocket engines, and physiology. I n s t r u c -

t o r s f o r t h e s e s u b j e c t s were drawn from t h e s c i e n t i s t s of t h e Langley
Research Center and t h e Space Task Group. For example, one of t h e
s c i e n t i s t s of t h e Space Task Group gave u s a l e c t u r e on t h e p r i n c i p l e s
of rocket engines and rocket propulsion. D r . W i l l i a m K. Douglas gave
u s a s e r i e s of l e c t u r e s on physiology designed t o give us a b e t t e r
understanding of t h e physiology and construction of t h e human body, a
subject of which we had l i t t l e knowledge p r i o r t o t h i s program. One of
t h e s u b j e c t s he discussed w a s t h e e f f e c t on t h e body of various g-loadings
obtained during f l i g h t and landing impact.
S
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e l e c t u r e s on b a s i c a s t r o n a u t i c s , we were given 1
d e t a i l e d systems b r i e f i n g s by t h e McDonnell A i r c r a f t Corporation engineers 8
concerned with t h e design of t h e various subsystems. Also, t h e engineers
within t h e Space Task Group who were concerned with t h e various i n d i v i d u a l
systems gave us d e t a i l e d b r i e f i n g s and continuously brought us up t o d a t e
with t h e changes occurring t o t h e s e systems. Our knowledge of t h e s e
systems was gained both from formal b r i e f i n g s and from our a t t e n d i n g
coordination meetings i n which t h e s e systems were discussed and changes
t o them made.

A s a supplement t o t h e classroom o r academic work, we a l s o made many

f i e l d t r i p s as a group. One such f i e l d t r i p was a v i s i t t o t h e Convair
Astronautics Division of t h e General Dynamics Corporation i n San Diego,
C a l i f . , where w e observed a t e s t f a c i l i t y where t h e components of t h e
A t l a s a r e t e s t e d . We a l s o went t o t h e McDonnell A i r c r a f t Corporation,
manufacturers of t h e Mercury s p a c e c r a f t , where we had our f i r s t look a t
t h e mock-up of t h e s p a c e c r a f t , and a t t h e b a s i c s p a c e c r a f t s t r u c t u r e
and i t s subsystems being assembled. As a r e s u l t of t h i s i n i t i a l v i s i t ,
we were a b l e t o make many recommendations f o r changes t o t h e cockpit l a y -
out and instrument panel, and t o recommend incorporation of a s i n g l e l a r g e
window and an explosive s i d e h a t c h f o r escape. We went t o t h e Redstone
Arsenal a t Huntsville, Ala., where w e observed t h e Redstone launch v e h i c l e
being constructed and checked f o r f l i g h t . We a l s o went t o Rocketdyne
where we observed rocket engines being constructed and t e s t e d . A s a
group, w e v i s i t e d p r a c t i c a l l y every f a c i l i t y d i r e c t l y concerned with t h e
launching of t h e Mercury s p a c e c r a f t . I n a d d i t i o n , as i n d i v i d u a l s , we
probably v i s i t e d every subcontractor involved i n t h e program.

It w a s obvious q u i t e early i n t h e program t h a t t h e program was t o o

complex f o r a l l of u s t o command a knowledge of a l l t h e d e t a i l e d a s p e c t s
of t h e spacecraft, launch v e h i c l e s , and f l i g h t . Therefore, by each of
us assuming r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r one major area, we were a b l e t o maintain
d e t a i l e d c o n t a c t s with a l l a s p e c t s of t h e program. The following t a b l e
shows the assignment of s p e c i a l t y areas:
 89

Astronaut S p e c i a l t y area

Malcolm S. Carpenter Navigation and n a v i g a t i o n a l a i d s

Leroy G. Cooper Redstone launch v e h i c l e
John H. Glenn C r e w space layout
V i r g i l I. Grissom Automatic and manual a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l
system
Walter M. S c h i r r a L i f e support system
Alan B. Shepard Range, tracking, and recovery
operations
Donald K. Slayton A t l a s launch v e h i c l e

A s an example, I w a s assigned t h e A t l a s launch v e h i c l e . Where p o s s i b l e ,

I attended a l l meetings concerned with mating of t h e A t l a s launch v e h i c l e
with t h e Mercury s p a c e c r a f t and with modifications t o t h e A t l a s launch
v e h i c l e which a f f e c t e d our mission. I n a d d i t i o n , I observed many Atlas
research and development launchings t o note procedures which might
r e q u i r e change f o r manned o p e r a t i o n s . It was t h e n my duty t o r e p o r t my
f i n d i n g s and t h e r e s u l t s of m y t r i p s t o t h e r e s t of our group i n o r d e r
t o keep them up t o d a t e with t h e progress of t h e A t l a s . Each of us d i d
t h e same i n h i s p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i a l t y area.

A valuable by-product of t h e assignment of s p e c i a l t y a r e a s w a s t h e

a b i l i t y t o get an Astronaut input i n t o t h e design of each of t h e systems
involved i n P r o j e c t Mercury. We operated e s s e n t i a l l y i n t h e same manner
as t h e experimental t e s t p i l o t s who work f o r an a i r c r a f t company; we
followed through t h e design phases of o u r p a r t i c u l a r area t o i n s u r e t h a t
no obvious o p e r a t i o n a l a s p e c t s were overlooked.

S t a t i c Training Devices

The next s e t of t r a i n i n g devices used were t h e fixed-base o r so-

c a l l e d s t a t i c t r a i n e r s . The first devices were t h e s e r i e s of procedures
t r a i n e r s . One e a r l y approach used f o r p r a c t i c i n g of retromaneuvers and
r 2 e n t r y maneuvers c o n s i s t e d of an analog computer t i e d i n with a l o c a l l y
constructed hand c o n t r o l l e r and prototype f l i g h t instruments t o allow
u s p r a c t i c e i n f l i g h t c o n t r o l while we were waiting f o r t h e production
procedures t r a i n e r . A modification of t h a t device used t h e Mercury hand
c o n t r o l l e r and f l i g h t instruments and was driven by an F-100 gunnery
simulator computer. We could operate t h i s t r a i n e r on a contour couch
and i n a pressure suit, and gain f'urther t r a i n i n g i n r e t r o f i r e and r e e n t r y .

The f i n a l production procedures t r a i n e r was constructed by McDonnell

A i r c r a f t Corporation. The i n s t r u c t o r sat i n t h e o u t e r c o n t r o l console
of t h e procedures t r a i n e r . The instruments i n t h e o u t e r c o n t r o l console
 90

a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same as within t h e procedures t r a i n e r i t s e l f , so

t h e i n s t r u c t o r can follow t h e motions of t h e p i l o t onboard. I n a d d i t i o n ,
t h e i n s t r u c t o r i s capable of c r e a t i n g any f a i l u r e mode or emergency t h a t
it i s p o s s i b l e t o encounter with t h e v e h i c l e , e i t h e r s i n g u l a r l y or i n
combinations. With t h i s device we have learned t o cope with every p o s s i b l e
emergency t h a t can occur by developing s k i l l i n r a p i d troubleshooting
and i n t a k i n g a p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n s .

In a d d i t i o n t o u s e of t h e t r a i n e r f o r l e a r n i n g modes of f a i l u r e and
c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n s f o r f a i l u r e s , we have a l s o run normal mission p r o f i l e s ,
f o r both t h e Redstone and t h e A t l a s launch v e h i c l e s , and any a b o r t p r o f i l e s
t h a t it i s p o s s i b l e t o obtain, so t h a t we could develop an i n t i m a t e famil-
i a r i t y with t h e s e f l i g h t p r o f i l e s . I n t h e process, w e have developed
f l i g h t p l a n s f o r our a c t u a l f l i g h t s , s i n c e we g e t an exact f e e l i n g f o r
t h e timing of events and know when we have spare time t o do something
t h a t i s not a mandatory p a r t of t h e operation. Since t h i s t r a i n e r was
wired i n e x a c t l y t h e same manner as t h e a c t u a l f l i g h t s p a c e c r a f t , and
s i n c e a l l s p a c e c r a f t changes were immediately cranked i n t o t h e t r a i n e r ,
it has a l s o proved a valuable device i n troubleshooting systems design.
There have been many cases where a system d i d not operate e x a c t l y as we
had envisioned, and we would not have known t h i s f a c t without having t h e
procedures t r a i n e r with which t o work. I n t h e s e cases, we e i t h e r rede-
s i g n e d t h e system or modified our procedures t o compensate f o r t h e
changed system.

The next t r a i n i n g device we used was t h e ALFA T r a i n e r , or A i r

Lubricated Free A t t i t u d e T r a i n e r . A contoured couch was mounted on t o p
of an a i r bearing, which was e s s e n t i a l l y f r i c t i o n l e s s , and with t h e use
of a Mercury hand-controller which a c t u a t e s compressed-air j e t s , t h i s
t r a i n e r could be s t a b i l i z e d and c o n t r o l l e d about a l l t h r e e axes. Obviously
magnitudes of roll and p i t c h a r e l i m i t e d . A t f i r s t t h e t r a i n e r was com-
p l e t e l y open; it has now been completely enclosed so t h a t t h e Astronaut
can only see up through t h e periscope, which i s mounted between h i s l e g s .
On one wall, a screen has been set up upon which t h e f l i g h t p a t h over t h e
e a r t h i s p r o j e c t e d and with t h i s device we can p r a c t i c e maintaining
a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l by watching through t h e periscope and a l s o p r a c t i c e
navigation around t h e e a r t h . I n a d d i t i o n , compressed-air r e t r o r o c k e t s
have been a t t a c h e d t o t h e back of t h e t r a i n e r and allow p r a c t i c e i n con-
t r o l l i n g r e t r o f i r e under dynamic conditions r a t h e r t h a n merely by
watching instruments a s i n the. i n i t i a l procedures t r a i n e r . We f e e l our
primary backup mode of r e t r o f i r e would be with t h e u s e of t h e periscope.

Because one-half of our o r b i t a l f l i g h t path will be on t h e dark

s i d e of t h e e a r t h , and because some people f e e l t h a t stars can be seen
even on t h e b r i g h t s i d e , it was f e l t t h a t some t r a i n i n g i n astronomy
was highly d e s i r a b l e . Therefore, we went t o t h e Moorehead Planetarium
a t t h e University of North Carolina and were e v e n b a s i c i n s t r u c t i o n s
i n t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e various c o n s t e l l a t i o n s and stars. When we f e l t
 91

t h a t we were f a i r l y f a m i l i a r with t h e s e basic i n s t r u c t i o n s , a Link t r a i n e r

with a window t h e exact s i z e of t h e Mercury s p a c e c r a f t was i n s t a l l e d
within t h e planetarium and we p r a c t i c e d navigation by t h e stars a s we
went through an o r b i t a l f l i g h t path. Since t h e f i e l d of view i s r a t h e r
l i m i t e d through t h e Mercury spacecraft window, t h i s L i n k t r a i n e r provided
very valuable e x e r c i s e . We could run through an o r b i t i n approximately
9 minutes and, t h e r e f o r e , obtained a l a r g e amount of t r a i n i n g i n a s h o r t
I
time .
Dynamic Training Devices

The next group of t r a i n e r s a r e t h e dynamic o r s t r e s s - t y p e t r a i n e r s .

The f i r s t of t h e s e a r e t h e weightless or zero-g t r a i n e r s . Since t h e r e
i s no way t o simulate weightlessness on the surface of t h e e a r t h , we flew
i n a i r c r a f t such as t h e C - l 3 l t h r o u g h a parabolic t r a j e c t o r y . For t h e s e
simulations we obtained approximately 15 seconds of weightlessness as we
flew over t h e t o p of t h e maneuver. We also flew i n t h e back of t h e KC-135
where we were a b l e t o g e t approximately 30 seconds of weightlessness. The
i n t e r i o r of t h e KC-135 w a s w e l l padded and we were allowed t o move or
attempt t o move a t w i l l i n a f r e e zero-g s t a t e . A t l e a s t f o r l i m i t e d
periods of time, weightlessness was a l o t of fun, and we d o n ' t a n t i c i p a t e
t h a t it w i l l be g r e a t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r extended periods of time. This con-
d i t i o n of f r e e - f l o a t i n g weightlessness has no d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n t o f l i g h t
i n t h e Mercury s p a c e c r a f t since i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t we a r e strapped i n a
f a i r l y s m a l l cockpit. Therefore, we flew i n t h e back s e a t of F-100's a t
Edwards Air Force Base, where we could o b t a i n up t o 1 minute of zero-g
, time while strapped i n a f i g h t e r cockpit. During t h i s time we could e a t
food, d r i n k water, and so f o r t h . In general, our impressions were t h a t
weightlessness, when we were r e s t r a i n e d i n an a i r c r a f t o r i n t h e Mercury
Spacecraft, w a s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same as any o t h e r g-loading encountered
during f l i g h t . It d o e s n ' t r e a l l y matter whether t h e g-force i s zero
o r 2 or -2, because t h e Astronaut i s a p a r t of t h e v e h i c l e anyway.

As a follow-on t o t h i s zero-g or weightlessness t r a i n i n g , we went

i n t o t h e c e n t r i f u g e t r a i n i n g or high-g t r a i n i n g a t t h e J o h n s v i l l e human
c e n t r i f u g e . A gondola i s mounted on t h e end of a l a r g e revolving arm.
Within t h e gondola we i n s t a l l e d a mock-up of our t o t a l instrument panel
with a c t i v e f l i g h t instruments, driven by t h e c e n t r i f u g e computer and
I
our Mercury hand c o n t r o l l e r , and a l s o a complete environmental c o n t r o l
system from t h e Mercury s p a c e c r a f t . The gondola was then sealed s o t h a t
we could depressurize t h e gondola t o t h e a c t u a l f l i g h t pressure of
5 pounds p e r square inch. I n t h i s way, we could simulate f l y i n g a t
27,000 f e e t with a 5 pound p e r square i n c h , 100 percent oxygen atmosphere,
and we could note t h e e f f e c t s , i f any, of applying high-g under reduced
p r e s s u r e . I n general, we found no ill e f f e c t s . We made simulated
f l i g h t s with and without t h e pressure s u i t i n f l a t e d and were a b l e t o r u n
through a l l Atlas and Mercury normal launch p r o f i l e s and r e e n t r y p r o f i l e s ,
as w e l l as most of t h e p o s s i b l e A t l a s a b o r t r e e n t r y p r o f i l e s . These
abort p r o f i l e s can c a l l f o r a c c e l e r a t i o n s as high as 21g but we
d i d not go q u i t e t o t h i s l e v e l . Some of t h e Astronauts underwent a c c e l -
e r a t i o n s of 18g with no excessive d i f f i c u l t y . The primary advantage of
t h e c e n t r i f u g e was t o give us some p r a c t i c e i n s t r a i n i n g techniques i n
order t o r e t a i n good v i s i o n and consciousness under high-g loadings and
a l s o t o develop techniques f o r b r e a t h i n g and speaking under high-g loads.
We a l s o gained p r a c t i c e i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e v e h i c l e through t h e g-load
range during t h e r e e n t r y , e s s e n t i a l l y a rate-damping maneuver. We were
a l s o a b l e t o tumble t h e gondola, t o go r a p i d l y from a f a i r l y high p o s i -
t i v e g t o a negative g. This tumbling was an attempt t o simulate some
of our a b o r t s , p r i m a r i l y a t maximum dynamic p r e s s u r e where t h e a c c e l e r a -
t i o n s would go f r o m l o g t o -lOg i n approximately 1 second. W e f e e l
t h e c e n t r i f u g e has been one of our most valuable t r a i n i n g devices.

Another dynamic t r a i n i n g device was t h e MASTIF o r m u l t i a x i s s p i n

t e s t i n e r t i a f a c i l i t y a t Lewis Laboratory i n Cleveland, Ohio. For t h i s
device, a s e a t was mounted within a gimballed frame. A Mercury c o n t r o l
handle a c t u a t e d compressed-nitrogen j e t s , and Mercury f l i g h t instruments
were onboard. From an e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l s t a t i o n , high-powered n i t r o g e n
j e t s could be a c t u a t e d which would revolve t h e device up t o 30 rpm about
a l l t h r e e axes simultaneously. Our task was then t o t a k e over c o n t r o l
with t h e hand c o n t r o l l e r and, with t h e use of our f l i g h t instruments
attempt t o b r i n g t h e r a t e s back t o zero and e s t a b l i s h our o r i g i n a l
a t t i t u d e . We experienced no d i f f i c u l t y as f a r as t h e c o n t r o l t a s k was
concerned. However, t h e m u l t i a x i s s p i n t e s t d i d prove t o be a somewhat
nauseating e x e r c i s e a f t e r a f e w runs. This t r a i n i n g r e p r e s e n t s one case
of t r a i n i n g under extreme conditions which we do not a n t i c i p a t e encoun-
t e r i n g . The two main cases where we could e n t e r i n t o a tumble-type
maneuver would be coming o f f t h e booster without any c o n t r o l system
o p e r a t i o n a l o r having a c o n t r o l j e t j a m i n t h e open p o s i t i o n . I n e i t h e r
case, it i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t w e could s t o p tumbling before r a t e s reached
any s i g n i f i c a n t magnitude.

We also took an o r i e n t a t i o n r i d e i n t h e Revolving Room a t Pensacola,

F l a . This room r o t a t e s a t approximately 10 r p m i n an attempt t o simulate
proposals f o r r o t a t i n g a l a r g e space s h i p t o induce a small g - f i e l d
a r t i f i c i a l l y , with the-assumption t h a t weightlessness becomes a major
problem. The o b j e c t of t h e room i s t o show t h e C o r i o l i s e f f e c t s
present, which are not t o o apparent u n t i l movement i s attempted. This
r o t a t i n g room i s again a somewhat nauseating experience t o many people.

Since t h e h e a t s of r e e n t r y i n i t i a l l y were assumed t o be of a f a i r l y

high magnitude, w e dressed i n v e n t i l a t e d p r e s s u r e s u i t s and climbed i n t o
a s t e e l box. The i n t e r i o r of t h i s box was heated up t o approximately
250° F by r a d i a t i n g heat from quartz lamps through t h e walls. We found
t h a t t h e s e temperatures were no g r e a t problem a t a l l , and s i n c e t h e time
 93

t h i s program w a s run, we have discovered t h a t out i n t e r i o r cabin h e a t

load during an a c t u a l A t l a s r e e n t r y i s considerably lower. We no longer
have any qualms about t h e high h e a t loads involved.

We a l s o took a r i d e i n t h e carbon-dioxide chamber a t Bethesda, Md.

We climbed i n t o t h e chamber; it was sealed; and t h e carbon-dioxide con-
t e n t was gradually increased from a normal 0.05 percent t o approximately
4 percent over a period of 3 hours. We were able t o note t h e physio-
l o g i c a l e f f e c t s such as increased breathing, pulse r a t e , flushing, and i n
some cases, a s l i g h t headache. W e f e e l that t h i s carbon-dioxide chamber
w a s a valuable p a r t of our t r a i n i n g , since no one has been a b l e t o devise
a completely s a t i s f a c t o r y p a r t i a l - p r e s s u r e measuring device, a t l e a s t f o r
measuring small p a r t i a l pressures. Therefore, we f e e l t h a t our b e s t i n d i -
c a t i o n of excessive carbon dioxide onboard t h e capsule w i l l be our own
sensations.

Another very valuable p a r t of our t r a i n i n g has been t h e f l y i n g of

high-performance a i r c r a f t . Mainly, we flew two F-102A a i r p l a n e s which
we have now converted t o two F-106~a i r p l a n e s . Since we were a l l brought
i n t o t h i s program as highly q u a l i f i e d j e t p i l o t s , and s i n c e t h i s was one
reason w e were s e l e c t e d t o be Astronauts, we f e l t t h a t it w a s highly
d e s i r a b l e t o maintain this p r o f i c i e n c y . Ground simulators and t r a i n e r s
a r e very valuable f o r p r a c t i c i n g procedures. However, t h e only p e n a l t y
f o r e r r i n g i n a simulator i s t o shut down t h e procedure and s t a r t over.
We f e e l t h a t by s t a y i n g h i g h l y p r o f i c i e n t as p i l o t s of conventional a i r -
c r a f t , we can maintain our sharpness i n making r a p i d judgments and i n
r e a c t i n g accordingly, under somewhat adverse conditions where t h e p e n a l t y
f o r e r r i n g i s g r e a t e r than merely s h u t t i n g down a machine and s t a r t i n g
over again.

Another p a r t of our t r a i n i n g has been t h e a t h l e t i c program. Basi-

c a l l y , t h e a t h l e t i c s have been an i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Some of
u s p l a y hand b a l l , some run, some s w i m , and i f we f e e l l i k e doing
a b s o l u t e l y nothing, t h a t i s our prerogative. We have found t h a t being
as competitive as we a r e , t h e inducement of keeping up with our fellow
t r o o p s i s adequate t o keep most of us working away a t maintaining good
p h y s i c a l condition. The only organized a t h l e t i c s i n which we have
engaged h a s been some SCUBA d i v i n g with t h e Underwater Demolition Team
a t L i t t l e Creek. Here, we e v e n t u a l l y became p r o f i c i e n t enough t o s w i m
a mile underwater f a i r l y e a s i l y . W e a l s o obtained some a d d i t i o n a l
b e n e f i t s because of t h e s i m i l a r i t y of underwater swimming t o t h e condi-
t i o n of weightlessness, e s p e c i a l l y i n murky water such as t h e Chesapeake
Bay. O f course, we also developed p a c t i c e i n b r e a t h i n g with an a r t i -
f i c i a l system under p r e s s u r i z e d conditions. We a l s o f e l t t h a t any
i n c r e a s e i n f a m i l i a r i t y with a water environment w a s d e s i r a b l e s i n c e our
primary recovery area i s i n t h e water.
 94

Egress and S u r v i v a l Training

Another major s e c t i o n of o u r t r a i n i n g i s t h e egress and s u r v i v a l

t r a i n i n g . A s previously mentioned, our primary recovery a r e a i s i n t h e
water and, t h e r e f o r e , a l l of our p r a c t i c e i n egressing has been i n t h e
water. I n i t i a l l y , we put our egress t r a i n e r i n a hydrodynamics tank a t
Langley Research Center and p r a c t i c e d egressing f i r s t i n smooth water
and then i n a r t i f i c i a l l y generated waves. When we f e l t t h a t we had
developed a reasonable amount of p r o f i c i e n c y i n t h a t f a c i l i t y , we took
t h e t r a i n e r down t o t h e Gulf of Mexico, near Pensacola, F l a . We took
t h e egress t r a i n e r out t o sea on a barge, dropped it over t h e s i d e , and
p r a c t i c e d egressing i n t h e open sea, which w a s q u i t e rough on numerous
occasions. Our primary e x i t f o r egress i s through t h e small end of t h e
Mercury s p a c e c r a f t . The Astronaut has t h e option of dropping out d i r e c t l y
i n t o t h e water and then i n f l a t i n g h i s r a f t , or i n f l a t i n g it f i r s t and
egressing i n t o t h e r a f t . This i s a method of egress which would be used
i f t h e Astronaut decided t o g e t out of t h e s p a c e c r a f t before t h e a r r i v a l
of t h e recovery f o r c e s .

Another method of egressing was p r a c t i c e d , where it i s assumed t h e

h e l i c o p t e r s a r e i n t h e recovery a r e a a t t h e time of impact. The h e l i -
copter hooks on t h e s p a c e c r a f t and l i f t s it p a r t i a l l y out of t h e water
so t h a t t h e lower frame of t h e door i s above t h e water l i n e . The
Astronaut t h e n e j e c t s t h e hatch and climbs out of t h e s p a c e c r a f t . The
personnel l i f t i n g l i n e o r "horse c o l l a r , 1 1 as we c a l l i t , i s then lowered
t o the Astronaut and, t h e o r e t i c a l l y , he climbs i n t o t h i s and i s l i f t e d
onboard t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Our f i r s t attempt a t t h e e x e r c i s e w a s obviously
not too smooth and i s another i n d i c a t i o n of why we need t r a i n i n g i n
t h e s e t h i n g s . Astronaut Shepard used t h i s method of e x i t on h i s p a r t i c -
u l a r f l i g h t without, of course, dropping i n t o t h e water f i r s t . H e
entered t h e h e l i c o p t e r completely dry. The advantage of t h i s method of
egress i s t h a t it i s t h e most r a p i d way out of t h e s p a c e c r a f t and p u t s
t h e Astronaut onboard the recovery h e l i c o p t e r i n minimum time. Also,
s i n c e a h e l i c o p t e r dropped a s p a c e c r a f t en r o u t e t o t h e recovery a r e a
during one e a r l y recovery e x e r c i s e , we haven't had u l t i m a t e confidence
i n r i d i n g i n t h e spacecraft while being c a r r i e d by t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

The l a s t method of egress i s t h e underwater one. This method would

be used, f o r example, i f t h e s p a c e c r a f t developed a l e a k r a t e a f t e r
impact of such a magnitude t h a t t h e Astronaut had i n s u f f i c i e n t time t o
get out through t h e small end. I n t h i s case, t h e Astronaut would have
t o blow o f f t h e s i d e hatch. Once t h e hatch i s o f f , t h e capsule r a p i d l y
f i l l s with water, and t h e Astronaut cannot g e t out u n t i l it i s com-
p l e t e l y f i l l e d and, hence, sinking. We have found t h a t we can g e t out
under t h e s e conditions i n around 10 seconds, a t which time t h e small
end of t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s b a r e l y under water.
 95

I n conjunction with our water egress t r a i n i n g , we conducted some

water s u r v i v a l t r a i n i n g . We spent approximately 1/2 day i n one-man
rafts l e a r n i n g how t o d i s t i l l water, p r o t e c t ourselves from t h e sun,
and s i g n a l t h e rescue f o r c e s . T h i s exercise convinced us t h a t w e could
survive f o r a g r e a t number of days i f forced t o r e e n t e r i n an unspecified
recovery area and await recovery f o r extended periods of t i m e .

We a l s o spent 3 days l e a r n i n g desert s u r v i v a l techniques a t Stead

A i r Force Base, near Reno, Nev. Here again, w e learned how t o p r o t e c t
ourselves from t h e sun, how t o u t i l i z e t h e l i m i t e d water supply, and t o
h i l d c l o t h i n g and shelter from our parachutes. There i s a remote
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t we could impact i n t h e w e s t African d e s e r t , should our
o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n be somewhat under speed and our r e t r o r o c k e t s not have
adequate t h r u s t . T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s very remote, but it i s an indica-
t i o n of our attempt t o t r a i n f o r any p o s s i b i l i t y , no matter how remote.

S p e c i f i c Mission Preparation

We have s p e c i f i c mission preparation which prepares u s f o r an

i n d i v i d u a l s p a c e c r a f t and an i n d i v i d u a l launch v e h i c l e . T h i s t r a i n i n g
covers a p e r i o d of time of approximately 8 weeks during which t h e space-
c r a f t i s a t Cape Canaveral undergoing hangar and pad checkouts. The
first o b j e c t of t h i s t r a i n i n g i s o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e s p e c i f i c s p a c e c r a f t
configurations. Even though a l l t h e spacecraft are b u i l t t o a s p e c i f i c
set of drawings and s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , each i s an i n d i v i d u a l and has p e c u l i -
a r i t i e s which a r e not the same i n t h e o t h e r s . I n o r d e r f o r t h e Astronaut
t o become i n t i m a t e l y familiar with h i s p a r t i c u l a r s p a c e c r a f t , he par-
t i c i p a t e s i n all t h e hangar checkouts on it. H e p a r t i c i p a t e s i n r e a c t i o n
c o n t r o l system checks where he can develop a good f e e l f o r h i s p a r t i c u l a r
c o n t r o l system. T h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s a l s o where we g e t our primary
environmental c o n t r o l system t r a i n i n g . The Astronaut r i d e s i n t h e space-
c r a f t when it i s put i n the p r e s s u r e chamber f o r p r e s s u r e checks, and he
o p e r a t e s t h e environmental c o n t r o l system i n conjunction with t h i s check-
o u t . H e a l s o a t t e n d s a l l meetings concerned with t h e check-out and
modification of t h e s p a c e c r a f t , so he i s probably t h e one person most
familiar with a l l d e t a i l s of the s p a c e c r a f t .

I n a d d i t i o n t o maintaining a familiarity with t h e hardware, each

Astronaut mst p r a c t i c e . h i s s p e c i f i c mission f l i g h t plan s i n c e each
mission i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t . H e does t h i s i n t h e procedures t r a i n e r ,
where he runs t i m e and t i m e again over t h e f l i g h t plan which has been
l a i d down f o r h i s p a r t i c u l a r mission. H e a l s o runs through a l l emer-
gencies t h a t anybody can envision happening. During t h i s time, Astronaut
performance data i s procured f o r comparison with flight-test r e s u l t s
after the flight.
 I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e pure Astronaut t r a i n i n g f l i g h t s , each Astronaut
a l s o p r a c t i c e s wlth t h e Mercury Control Center f l i g h t c o n t r o l l e r s and
t h e down-range s t a t i o n s involved i n h i s p a r t i c u l a r f l i g h t . The pro-
cedures t r a i n e r i s t i e d i n t o t h e Mercury Control Center, and simulated
missions a r e flown while various emergencies are simulated p r i m a r i l y t o
t e s t t h e f l i g h t c o n t r o l l e r s . I n t h e process of t h e s e e x e r c i s e s , ground
r u l e s and mission rules are evolved which apply t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
mission.

Once t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s moved t o t h e pad and mated with t h e booster,

(I
t h e Astronaut then p a r t i c i p a t e s i n a l l p r a c t i c e countdowns, radio-
frequency c o m p a t i b i l i t y checks, simulated f l i g h t t e s t s , and s o f o r t h .
Detailed launch procedures are developed with t h e pad crew. Astronaut I

ingress t r a i n i n g i s a l s o obtained a t t h i s time. I n addition, t h e emer-

gency pad rescue crew i s a l s o exercised and techniques a r e developed
f o r rescuing t h e Astronaut on t h e pad should some emergency develop
p r i o r t o t h e launch. These are a l s o f u l l - s c a l e t r a i n i n g programs, with
a l l personnel involved p a r t i c i p a t i n g . During t h i s l a t t e r period of
t r a i n i n g t h e Astronaut i s a l s o concentrating on maintaining himself i n
t h e b e s t of physical condition. Medical personnel are continuously
monitoring h i s h e a l t h and i n s u r i n g t h a t he s t a y s healthy during t h i s
period. P a r t of t h i s program involves p l a c i n g t h e Astronaut on a spe-
c i a l low-residue d i e t and c o l l e c t i n g specimens f o r comparison with post-
f l i g h t specimens.

DISCUSSION

The success of any t r a i n i n g program can only be evaluated when com-

pared with an a c t u a l f l i g h t . It appears t h a t our t r a i n i n g was e n t i r e l y
adequate f o r t h i s f l i g h t and t h a t nothing w a s missed. A s expected, some
f a c e t s of t h e t r a i n i n g program proved t o be of r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e value
and will probably be eliminated from f u t u r e t r a i n i n g . On t h e o t h e r hand,
some items proved t o be of very g r e a t value, and w e w i l l probably p l a c e
much g r e a t e r emphasis on t h e s e f a c e t s i n future t r a i n i n g .
 97

RESULTS OF IN-FLIGHT PIIOT FEEIFORMANCE

J
By Robert B. Voas, Ph. D., John J. Van Bockel,
Raymond G. Zedekar, and Paul S. Backer

INmODUCTION

Studies of man's c a p a b i l i t y t o perform e f f i c i e n t l y i n t h e space

envlroraent have been underway f o r some time. P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n has
been devoted t o t h e novel weightless condition. Research with s p e c i a l
s u b j e c t s i n t h e r e a r s e a t of f i g h t e r a i r c r a f t during zero-g maneuvers
has indicated that t h e r e s t r a i n e d man generally manifests a s l i g h t but
t r a n s i t o r y psychomotor incoordination i n passing from high-g t o zero-g
conditions. A t t h e same time, t h e success of t h e p i l o t s i n accurately
f l y i n g t h e s e Keplerian t r a j e c t o r i e s indicates t h e capacity of t h e t r a i n e d
p i l o t t o operate e f f i c i e n t l y a t zero-g f o r a t l e a s t t h e s h o r t periods
achievable i n manned a i r c r a f t . This type of demonstration has been
extended as t h e increased power of j e t a i r c r a f t permitted increased
periods of weightlessness. The recent f l i g h t of t h e X-15 a i r c r a f t i n d i -
1
cated t h e a b i l i t y of t h e p i l o t t o perform e f f e c t i v e l y through 22 minutes
of weightlessness. With t h e advent of rocket-propelled v e h i c l e s , new
opportunities t o observe man during more prolonged zero-g periods a r e
a v a i l a b l e . This paper presents a report on some q u a l i t a t i v e observa-
t i o n s of t h e Astronaut's performance during t h e MR-3 f l i g h t .

SOURCES OF DATA ON "E3 ASTRONAUT'S PERFORMANCE

The highly successful f l i g h t of the MR-3 i s a p a r t i a l demonstration

of t h e Astronaut's performance capacity i n space. However, since many
of t h e spacecraft functions a r e automatic, t h e f u l l extent of t h e
Astronaut's capacity t o c o n t r o l t h e vehicle can b e s t be indicated by a
d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of t h e t a s k s he attempted t o accomplish. I n evaluating
t h e e f f e c t s of t h e space environment on h i s performance c a p a b i l i t y , f o u r

n
major sources of d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e : the Astronaut's communications t o
t h e ground durlng t h e f l i g h t , t h e p i c t u r e s from t h e onboard pilot-observer
camera, telemetered records of t h e vehicle a t t i t u d e while under manual
c o n t r o l , and h i s own n a r r a t i v e description of h i s a c t i v i t i e s given at
t h e p o s t f l i g h t debriefing. Since t h e MR-3 f l i g h t i s described i n a
subsequent paper by Astronaut Shepard, t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n w i l l be l i m i t e d
t o a discussion of d a t a from t h e f i r s t t h r e e sources.
 98

THE ASTRONAUT'S FLJGHT ACTIVITIES PLAN

The tasks performed by t h e Astronaut during the f l i g h t can be

divided i n t o f o u r groups. F i r s t he must monitor t h e major f l i g h t events
i n order t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e y have occurred c o r r e c t l y . I n t h e event of
a malfunction he m u s t back up t h e function manually. Twenty-seven major
f l i g h t events occurred during t h e MR-3 f l i g h t . A second major area of
a c t i v i t y f o r t h e Astronaut i s communications. The b a s i c communication
ground rules were t h a t t h e Astronaut would r e p o r t a l l s i g n i f i c a n t events
and a l l h i s major a c t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n , he would make one r e p o r t a t
least every 30 seconds during t h e launch and r e e n t r y t o keep t h e ground
informed of h i s status. I n a l l , t h e s e requirements r e s u l t e d i n approxi-
mately 70 communications during t h e f l i g h t . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e two
types of a c t i v i t i e s which were required t o i n s u r e a normal f l i g h t and
t o keep t h e ground informed of t h e f l i g h t ' s progress, a c t i v i t i e s i n two
o t h e r areas were scheduled. I n order t o evaluate t h e manual a t t i t u d e
c o n t r o l systems, it was decided t o have Astronaut Shepard t a k e manual
c o n t r o l at t h e beginning of t h e zero-g p e r i o d s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e auto-
p i l o t had turned t h e s p a c e c r a f t around. From t h i s p o i n t , manual c o n t r o l
was maintained u n t i l s h o r t l y before t h e end of t h e weightless p e r i o d
when t h e Astronaut r e t u r n e d t o t h e a u t o p i l o t f o r a s h o r t time while
looking out t h e window f o r stars before r e t u r n i n g t o manual c o n t r o l
during t h e r e e n t r y . Astronaut Shepard made a number of maneuvers t o
demonstrate t h e adequacy of the manual c o n t r o l system, i n a d d i t i o n t o
those required by t h e mission f l i g h t plan, such as p i t c h i n g t o r e t r o f i r e
a t t i t u d e o r o r i e n t i n g t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o t h e proper r e e n t r y a t t i t u d e . A
f i n a l a r e a of a c t i v i t y was observing t h e e a r t h and sky through t h e space-
c r a f t periscope and window. Astronaut Shepard made a study of t h e sur-
f a c e areas which would be v i s i b l e through t h e periscope during t h e m i s -
sion; t h i s study i s described i n h i s r e p o r t .

The flight plan which r e s u l t e d from t h e incorporation of t h e s e

a c t i v i t i e s was a f u l l one as i l l u s t r a t e d by figure 1. Here t h e approxi-
mate t i m e during which Astronaut Shepard was engaged i n each type of
a c t i v i t y i s i n d i c a t e d . A t t h e bottom of t h e graph are shown t h e time
and duration of t h e 78 communications made by Astronaut Shepard during
t h e f l i g h t . The 27 important s p a c e c r a f t events which t h e Astronaut m u s t
monitor are shown as a f u n c t i o n of mission time. The p e r i o d during which
t h e Astronaut maintained c o n t r o l of t h e s p a c e c r a f t a t t i t u d e i s shown by
t h e unbroken bar, whereas s p e c i f i c a t t i t u d e manuevers are shown r a i s e d
above t h i s l e v e l . F i n a l l y , the time spent on e x t e r n a l observations i s
indicated by t h e upper l i n e .

As can be seen from t h i s a n a l y s i s , the Astronaut was h e a v i l y t a s k

loaded during most of t h e f l i g h t . This was p a r t i c u l a r l y true during
t h e weightless p e r i o d when he w a s attempting t o check o u t t h e manual
a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l system and observe and r e p o r t on t h e ground t e r r a i n as
 99

well as c a r r y out t h e normal monitoring and communications required by

the f l i g h t plan. During t h i s 5 minutes he made more maneuvers than a r e
t y p i c a l l y attempted i n a s i m i l a r period i n a i r c r a f t t e s t f l i g h t s . This
f u l l program r e s u l t e d from t h e decision t o make maximum use of t h e s h o r t
time of weightless f l i g h t a v a i l a b l e . It had been agreed t h a t a c t i v i t i e s
concerned with e x t e r n a l observation and a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l would be c u r t a i l e d
should any v a r i a t i o n of spacecraft function require the Astronaut's
attention.

Analysis of t h e Pilot-Observer Camera Film

The onboard pilot-observer camera f i l m presents a p i c t u r e of t h e

Astronaut's eyes and permits a rough determination of t h e a r e a at which
t h e Astronaut i s looking. From an analysis of t h i s film, it may be
determined whether t h e Astronaut's a t t e n t i o n appears t o be d i r e c t e d
toward appropriate instruments throughout t h e f l i g h t .

Figure 2 shows t h e areas i n t o which t h e panel was divided f c r t h e

purpose of t h i s a n a l y s i s . These numbered areas start a t t h e upper l e f t
of t h e panel and proceed v e r t i c a l l y and h o r i z o n t a l l y t o t h e lower right-
hand corner of t h e panel. Figure 3 presents a b a r chart showing t h e
percent of time t h a t t h e Astronaut appeared t o be looking a t each of t h e
a r e a s shown i n f i g u r e 2 f o r various portions of t h e f l i g h t . Each block
symbol r e p r e s e n t s t h e percent of t i m e spent looking a t a p a r t i c u l a r area
of t h e panel during a 20-second time i n t e r v a l . The panel-area numbers
proceed h o r i z o n t a l l y across t h e t o p and t h e elapsed time i n t e r v a l s pro-
ceed v e r t i c a l l y down t h e left-hand s i d e of t h e f i g u r e .

Figure 3( a) presents t h e period from l i f t - o f f t o launch-vehicle

c u t o f f . Note t h a t f o r t h e f i r s t 20 seconds a f t e r t i m e zero t h e
p i l o t concentrates v i s u a l l y upon area 9, which i s whke t h e Ready and
Mayday l i g h t s a r e located. From approximately l m i n u t e 10 seconds
t o 1minute 40 seconds, h i s a t t e n t i o n i s focused on a r e a 10 which includes
t h e cabin pressure gage. The p i l o t ' s concentration on these p a r t i c u l a r
gages i s i n agreement with t h e importance of t h e s e instruments during
t h e s e two d i f f e r e n t time periods. During t h e launch phase of t h e f l i g h t ,
t h e p i l o t a l s o frequently scans a r e a s 2, 4, 5 , 6, 7, 9, and 11 as he
monitors a l t i t u d e , a c c e l e r a t i o n , p i t c h programing, time, cabin pressure,
f u e l , and oxygen.

A more d e t a i l e d example of t h e eye-scan p a t t e r n f o r a 1-minute time

period during t h e launch phase of t h e mission i s provided i n f i g u r e 4(a).
This f i g u r e represents a standard eye-scan p a t t e r n diagram showing t h e
l i n k values (frequency scan between two instruments), number of f i x a t i o n s ,
and t h e percent of time spent looking a t each p a r t i c u l a r a r e a during a
1-minute period from T + l m i n u t e t o T + 2 minutes. This f i g u r e and f i g -
ure 3(a) i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e p i l o t maintained a good v i s u a l cross-check of
100

p e r t i n e n t instruments during t h e launch phase of t h e f l i g h t , that he did

not become f i x a t e d upon any p a r t i c u l a r instrument f o r a long period of
time, and that t h e i n d i c a t o r s were monitored a t times appropriate t o t h e
f l i g h t program. A p o i n t of i n t e r e s t i s t h e high l i n k value on t h e r a t h e r
long l i n k between t h e clock and t h e f u e l gage. Future manned spacecraft
w i l l have t h e f u e l gage l o c a t e d j u s t below t h e g-meter which w i l l con-
siderably shorten this l i n k . The d e s i r a b i l i t y of this change i s demon-
s t r a t e d by t h e frequent reference t o this gage during t h e launch period.

The eye-scan p a t t e r n during t h e weightless f l i g h t phase ( f i g . 3(b))

i s similar t o t h a t during t h e launch phase, with t h e exception that d i f -
f e r e n t a r e a s that contain gages commensurate with t h e i r importance f o r
t h i s p a r t i c u l a r phase of t h e f l i g h t receive t h e maximum a t t e n t i o n . Note
here t h a t a r e a s 6, 7, and 8, which include t h e rate and a t t i t u d e i n d i -
c a t o r , t h e clock, and t h e periscope, are used extensively during t h i s
phase of the f l i g h t . As would be expected, p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n i s
focused on t h e r a t e and a t t i t u d e instrument w h i l e making t h e scheduled
a t t i t u d e maneuvers and c o n t r o l l i n g the r e t r o r o c k e t f i r i n g .

Figure 4(b) presents a standard scan p a t t e r n f o r t h e f i r s t minute of

weightlessness. This f i g u r e covers a time i n t e r v a l from T + 2:x) t o
T + 3:20. This includes t h e time period from launch-vehicle cutoff
through t h e f i r s t t h r e e a t t i t u d e maneuvers. Once again t h e link values,
number of f i x a t i o n s , and the percentage of time spent viewing each i n s t r u -
ment are given. During t h i s time period, a few d i f f e r e n t instruments,
such as t h e periscope, a r e included i n t h e eye-scan p a t t e r n as compared
with the scan p a t t e r n during launch. The p i l o t again i n d i c a t e s a good
l o g i c a l cross-check of t h e instruments t h a t should be monitored during
t h i s phase of the f l i g h t .

Figure 3 ( c ) presents t h e approximate panel a r e a being observed during

t h e reentry f l i g h t phase. Again t h e eye-scan p a t t e r n s appear t o be con-
s i s t e n t with t h e requirements of t h i s phase of t h e f l i g h t . I n t h e r e e n t r y
portion of t h e mission, h i s v i s u a l a t t e n t i o n i s f i r s t on a r e a 4 which
includes t h e accelerometer during t h e high-g phase and then s h i f t s t o
a r e a 8 which includes t h e periscope as he c l o s e l y monitors t h e deployment
of t h e drogue and main parachutes.

Thus, throughout t h e mission t h e Astronaut's a t t e n t i o n appears t o

be d i r e c t e d towards t h e appropriate instruments o r , a t l e a s t , towards t h e
areas of t h e panel t h a t contain t h e appropriate instruments. H i s scan
p a t t e r n was a c t i v e and t h e r e appeared t o be no wandering of a t t e n t i o n ,
no f i x a t i o n , o r any i l l o g i c a l concentration on a s p e c i f i c s e t of i n s t r u -
mentation. There was no evidence of nystagmus.
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F l i g h t Voice Communications

The f l i g h t voice communications provide an i n d i c a t i o n of how well

t h e Astronaut was able t o keep up with the mission events, how accurately
he was a b l e t o read h i s cockpit instruments, and how well he w a s able
t o respond t o novel o r unusual events during t h e f l i g h t . I n general, t h e
Astronaut made a l l t h e normal r e p o r t s during launch and r e e n t r y very
close t o t h e times appropriate t o t h e events. Comparison of t h e i n s t r u -
ment readings relayed t o t h e ground with telemetered data v e r i f i e d that
t h e s e r e p o r t s were accurate. Throughout t h e f l i g h t Astronaut Shepard
used standard voice procedures developed during simulations with t h e
ground c o n t r o l center. I n a d d i t i o n t o the standard r e p o r t s of space-
c r a f t events and instrument readings, Astronaut Shepard made a number
of unscheduled r e p o r t s of unique events during t h e f l i g h t . During t h e
period of weightless f l i g h t he responded r a p i d l y t o ground communications.
I n a d d i t i o n , he was able t o describe c l e a r l y the unusual sights he s a w
through h i s periscope. I n general, t h e communications confirm t h e impres-
s i o n given by t h e a n a l y s i s of the pilot-observer camera p i c t u r e s t h a t
t h e p i l o t kept up with t h e mission events and that he was a l e r t a t a l l
times f o r novel o r unprogramed events.

Attitude Control

The t h i r d major source of Astronaut i n - f l i g h t performance informa-

t i o n w a s t h e record of spacecraft a t t i t u d e during t h e period i n which t h e
manual c o n t r o l system was i n use. The a t t i t u d e during t h i s period i s
shown i n figure 5 . I n spacecraft a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l i s l e s s c r i t i c a l than
i n a i r c r a f t s i n c e the f l i g h t path i s independent of a t t i t u d e unless rocket
power is being applied. Furthermore, t h e l a c k of aerodynamic damping
permits small r e s i d u a l r a t e s t o displace slowly t h e spacecraft a t t i t u d e s .
For t h i s reason t h e spacecraft a t t i t u d e i s c o n t r o l l e d t o t o l e r a n c e s l e s s
f i n e t h a n those t y p i c a l of a i r c r a f t . I n order t o determine the amount
of d r i f t t o be expected a reference i s needed. Since t h e r e is no com-
parable previous manned f l i g h t experience t h e b e s t reference a v a i l a b l e
is t h e ground simulator. For t h i s purpose, use was made of t h e 10 Mercury
procedures t r a i n e r runs made t h e week before t h e MR-3 f l i g h t . The maxi-
mum excursions observed during aay of t h e s e simulator flights were used
t o d e f i n e t h e shaded a r e a behind t h e three a t t i t u d e l i n e s .

This envelope i l l u s t r a t e s t h e amplitude of t h e a t t i t u d e limits

habitually maintained by Astronaut Shepard during t h e s e t r a i n i n g sessions.
T i g h t e r a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l i s p o s s i b l e and can be maintained i f required;
however, s i n c e t h e spacecraft a t t i t u d e i s not c r i t i c a l , except during
r e t r o f i r e , expenditure of a d d i t i o n a l f u e l t o maintain t i g h t e r limits i s
not J u s t i f i e d . Note t h a t t h e envelope of t r a i n e r runs defines not only
the normal v a r i a t i o n i n a t t i t u d e about t h e t h r e e axes but, i n addition,
it defines t h e scheduling of maneuvers throughout t h e f l i g h t as shown
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by the expansion and c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e envelope and by t h e s h i f t i n g

of t h e c e n t e r of t h e p i t c h envelope t o r e t r o f i r e a t t i t u d e and back t o
r e e n t r y a t t i t u d e . Note that t h e s p a c e c r a f t a t t i t u d e i n each of t h e
t h r e e dimensions i s almost always w i t h i n t h e s e limits during t h e p e r i o d
it i s under rnanual c o n t r o l .

An area of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e r e t r o f i r e p o r t i o n of t h e
mission. During t h i s period t h e f i r i n g of t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s produces
a c c e l e r a t i o n disturbances about t h e axis of t h e v e h i c l e due t o s l i g h t m i s -
alinements of t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s . The Astronaut m u s t counteract t h e s e
misalinement torques with t h e manual c o n t r o l system. This i s t h e most
d i f f i c u l t , and i n an o r b i t a l f l i g h t t h e most c r i t i c a l , maneuver r e q u i r e d
of the Astronaut. From figure 5 it can be seen t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e in a l l
t h r e e axes w a s h e l d f a i r l y steady during t h e r e t r o f i r e period. The
s l i g h t divergence i n yaw a t t i t u d e toward t h e end of t h e period i s not
s i g n i f i c a n t and would not have g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d t h e accuracy of t h e
o r b i t a l r e e n t r y . Although t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s produced by t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s
about each axis could not be determined p r e c i s e l y , Astronaut Shepard
reported t h a t t h e r e t r o f i r e misalinement torques f e l t about t h e same as
those used i n t h e t r a i n e r . I f t h i s i s true then h i s performance i s com-
parable t o t h a t shown in t h e Mercury procedures t r a i n e r and w e l l within
t h e limits r e q u i r e d f o r t h e o r b i t a l mission.

Five s p e c i f i c maneuvers c a r r i e d out using t h e instrument reference

during t h e f l i g h t had been p r a c t i c e d on t h e ground simulator. These
maneuvers are c i r c l e d i n figure 5 and shown i n figure 6 a g a i n s t a back-
ground of s i x simulator runs. The f i r s t f o u r a t t i t u d e maneuvers were
scheduled a t a r a t e of 4' p e r second with a t o t a l a t t i t u d e change of 20°.
However, because of t h e t i g h t program it was o f t e n impossible t o c a r r y
out the f u l l maneuver even on t h e simulator. This i s i l l u s t r a t e d by
the second r o l l maneuver i n which t h e a t t i t u d e s vary among t r a i n e r runs.
Often t h e r e was not time a v a i l a b l e t o r e o r i e n t t o proper i n i t i a l a t t i t u d e
before s t a r t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r maneuver. Thus, not a l l the maneuvers start
from the same a t t i t u d e nor do t h e y a l l achieve p r e c i s e l y t h e nominal
l e v e l s . Once again, t h e t r a i n e r data p r e s e n t a better d e f i n i t i o n of
what t h e Astronaut w a s attempting t o do and what he w a s normally a b l e
t o do than does t h e nominal d e f i n i t i o n of t h e maneuver. A s shown i n
f i g u r e 6 a l l t h e maneuvers f e l l within the envelope of those done on t h e
s i m u l a t o r except the f i r s t roll maneuver. I n t h i s case, due t o t i m e
r e s t r i c t i o n s Astronaut Shepard d i d not accomplish a f u l l 200 a t t i t u d e
change but c u t the maneuver s h o r t a t approximately 12O.

The comparison with t h e ground s i m u l a t o r d a t a i s of p a r t i c u l a r

i n t e r e s t s i n c e it gives an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e performance l e v e l under
e s s e n t i a l l y optimal environmental c o n d i t i o n s . During t h e t r a i n e r runs
used i n t h i s r e p o r t Astronaut Shepard d i d not w e a r h i s f u l l p r e s s u r e
s u i t . He experienced no a c c e l e r a t i o n , n o i s e , v i b r a t i o n , h e a t , reduced
ambient pressure, or weightlessness. He d i d not have a long p e r i o d of
 waiting i n t h e spacecraft during the countdown. H e d i d not experience
t h e psychologically s t r e s s f u l conditions of t h e countdown, launch, and
flight.

His performance on t h e t r a i n e r illustrates t h e general l e v e l that

i s maintained under e s s e n t i a l l y optimal environmental conditions. The
f a c t t h a t t h e performance l e v e l achieved i n f l i g h t with a l l i t s attendant
sources of environmental s t r e s s was generally within t h e envelope of
performance under optimal conditions demonstrates t h a t t h e s e environmental
f a c t o r s d i d not have a major e f f e c t on Astronaut Shepard's performance.

It should a l s o be noted that t h e deviation between f l i g h t and s i m -

u l a t o r performance cannot be s o l e l y attributed t o the e f f e c t s of the
d i f f e r e n t environmental conditions encountered. Another source of
deviation i s t h e f a i l u r e of t h e t r a i n e r t o reproduce with complete
accuracy t h e dynamics of t h e vehicle i n f l i g h t . To t h e extent t h a t the
vehicle c o n t r o l system performs d i f f e r e n t l y than t h e simulated system,
t h e man's apparent performance w i l l change. Thus, t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
a t t i t u d e s were c o n t r o l l e d within the limits o b s e d e d i n t h e t r a i n e r a l s o
provides some evidence t h a t t h e control system simulation w a s f a i r l y
accurate.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The t h r e e sources of data reviewed i n t h i s r e p o r t , t h e onboard

pilot-observer camera film, t h e f l i g h t voice communications, and t h e
s p a c e c r a f t a t t i t u d e record during manual c o n t r o l , i n d i c a t e that t h e
p i l o t met a l l requirements of t h e mission, t h a t he monitored and reported
a c c u r a t e l y t h e c r i t i c a l events of t h e f l i g h t , t h a t he c o n t r o l l e d t h e
a t t i t u d e of the spacecraft within normal limits, t h a t he was a l e r t a t
a l l times t o novel o r unprogrmed events, and t h a t he showed no tendency
t o become f i x a t e d on i r r e l e v a n t instrumentation o r a c t i v i t i e s . I n addi-
t i o n t o t h e b a s i c a c t i v i t i e s required t o insure a successful mission he
made s e v e r a l a t t i t u d e maneuvers t o evaluate t h e manual c o n t r o l systems
I
and spent some time examining t h e earth's surface and r e p o r t i n g what he
w a s a b l e t o see. H i s performance of these a c t i v i t i e s was not only within
t h e limits required f o r a successful mission but t h e q u a l i t y of t h e
performance was comparable t o t h a t achieved on t h e procedures t r a i n e r
under optimal environmental conditions. The close correspondence between
a t t i t u d e maneuvers on manual c o n t r o l i n t h e simulator and those i n f l i g h t
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t r a i n e r s used i n the Mercury program were r e l a t i v e l y
s u c c e s s f u l i n reproducing t h e vehicle c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n f l i g h t .
104

It is apparent t h a t t h e outcome of t h e MR-3 f l i g h t i s i n keeping

with t h e previous experience with manned a i r c r a f t f l y i n g zero-g t r a j e c -
t o r i e s . During a s h o r t b a l l i s t i c f l i g h t Astronaut Shepard was able t o
operate a complex vehicle with no s i g n i f i c a n t reduction i n performance
while exposed t o unusual environmental conditions, such as a 5-minute
period of weightlessness.
 ACTIVITY SCHEDULE DURING MR-3 FLIGHT
EXTERNAL I
OBSERVA- I I I 1 II
TIONS

ATTITUDE I
MANEUVERS
MAJOR
SPACEGRAFT
ACTIONS
MONITORED
>
COMMUNI-
CATIONS k lI I I I I 111

EVENTS LIFTOFF CU IMPACT

0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO II 1213141516
TIME, MIN

Figure 1.

IBSERVED

Figure 2.
106

APPROXIMATE PANEL AREA UNDER OBSERVATION

TI ME

w:40i
0:OO I LAUNCH
0:zo
I :oo
LAUNCH
VEH .
2:20
I CUTOFF

( a ) During launch.
2:32 SPACECRAFT
SEPARATION:
PERISCOPE
EXTEND

4: 46 RETRO COMM.
5:14 RETROFIRE

6 :I3 JETT RETRO

6:45 SCOPE
RETRACT
7:48 .05 G

(b) During weightlessness.

R 8:21MAX. g
8:40
9:20 9:38DROGUE
1o:oo 9:59SNORKEL
1044 MAIN CHUTE
10:40
( c ) During reentry.

0 N sl s
PERCENT: 0-5 5-20 20-40 40-60 60-8080-100

Figure 3
APPROXIMATE EYE-SCAN PATTERN
T + I MIN TO T + 2 MIN
7ATT. 81RATE INDIGATOR

’’

NO. FIXATIONS
PERCENT OF TIME SPENT
ON EACH INSTRUMENT
-I- LINK (HI VALUE)
--I--
LINK (LO VALUE)

(a) During launch.

T + 2:20 MIN TO T+3:20 MIN

(b) During weightlessness.

Figure 4
108

FLIGHT ATTITUDE WITH 10 TRAINER RUNS

IN THE BACKGROUND
CIRCLED AREAS ARE THE MANEUVERS

YAW, DEG
-25 r

ROLL, DEG I_

-25
0
25
2:50 3:20 3:50 4:20 4:50 5:20 5:50 6:20 6:50 7:20
TIME, MIN:SEC

Figure 3 .

COMPARISON OF 5 FLIGHT ATTITUDE MANEUVERS

WITH TRAINER ATTITUDE MANEUVERS
FIRST PITCH MANE'JVER FIRST YAW MANEUVER
-50-

f i
'
PITCH, -25 YAW, I 2.5
DEG 0. '
~ DEG 0
25 12.5
FIRST ROLL MANEUVER SECOND ROLL MANEUVER
-25 -25
ROLL, I2.5 ROLL, 12.5
DEG 0 DEG 0
12.5 12.5
-50
REENTRY
- 25
ATTITUDE PITCH,
MANEUVER DEG
25
50

Figure 6.
 PILOT 'S FLIGHT REpOrcT 9 INCLUDING IN-FLIGHT FILMS

By Alan B. Shepard, Jr.

INTROIXJCTION

My i n t e n t i o n i s t o p r e s e n t my f l i g h t r e p o r t i n n a r r a t i v e form and
t o include t h r e e phases. These phases s h a l l be: (1) t h e p e r i o d p r i o r
t o launch, ( 2 ) t h e f l i g h t i t s e l f , and ( 3 ) t h e p o s t f l i g h t d e b r i e f i n g
p e r i o d . I i n t e n d t o describe my f e e l i n g s and r e a c t i o n s and t o make
comments p e r t i n e n t t o t h e s e t h r e e a r e a s . I a l s o have an onboard f i l m
of t h e f l i g h t t o show a t t h e end of my p r e s e n t a t i o n .

PREFLIGHT PERIOD

Astronaut D. K. Slayton i n a previous paper described t h e program

followed by t h e P r o j e c t Mercury Astronauts during a two-year t r a i n i n g
p e r i o d with d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e various devices used. A l l of t h e s e
devices provided one t h i n g i n common; namely, t h e f e e l i n g of confidence
t h a t t h e Astronauts achieved from t h e i r use. Some devices, of course,
produced more confidence than o t h e r s but a l l w e r e very well received by
t h e group. There a r e t h r e e machines o r t r a i n i n g devices which provided
t h e most a s s i s t a n c e . The f i r s t of these i s t h e human c e n t r i f u g e . We
used t h e f a c i l i t i e s of t h e U.S. Naval A i r Development Center at J o h n s v i l l e ,
Pa., which provide t h e c e n t r i f u g e i t s e l f and a computer t o c o n t r o l i t s
i n p u t s . T h i s computer, through an instrument d i s p l a y , provided a c o n t r o l
t a s k similar t o that of t h e Mercury spacecraft, with i n p u t s of t h e proper
aerodynamic and moment-of-inertia equations. Thus, we were a b l e t o expe-
r i e n c e t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n environment while simultaneously c o n t r o l l i n g t h e
s p a c e c r a f t on a simulated manual system. This experience gave u s t h e
f e e l i n g of muscle c o n t r o l f o r c i r c u l a t i o n and breathing, t r a n s m i t t i n g ,
and g e n e r a l c o n t r o l of t h e spacecraft. I found t h a t t h e f l i g h t environ-
ment w a s very c l o s e t o t h e environment provided by t h e centrif'uge. The
f l i g h t a c c e l e r a t i o n s were smooth, of t h e same magnitude used during
t r a i n i n g , and c e r t a i n l y i n no way d i s t u r b i n g .

The second t r a i n i n g device t h a t proved of g r e a t value was t h e pro-

cedures t r a i n e r . This device will be recognized as an advanced type of
t h e Link t r a i n e r , which was used f o r instrument t r a i n i n g during t h e l a s t
war. W e were a b l e t o use it t o c o r r e l a t e p r e f l i g h t planning, t o p r a c t i c e
simulated c o n t r o l maneuvers, and t o p r a c t i c e o p e r a t i o n a l techniques.
The Space Task Group has two such t r a i n e r s , one a t Langley F i e l d , Va.,
t h e o t h e r a t Cape Canaveral, Fla., and both a r e capable of t h e simulta-
neous t r a i n i n g of p i l o t s and ground crews. A s a r e s u l t of t h e cross-
t r a i n i n g between p i l o t s and t h e ground crews a t t h e P r o j e c t Mercury
Control Center, we experienced no major d i f f i c u l t i e s during t h e f l i g h t .
 110

We had learned each o t h e r s ’ problems and terminology, and I f e e l t h a t

we have a valuable t r a i n i n g system i n use f o r p r e s e n t and f o r f u t u r e
flights.

The t h i r d area of p r e f l i g h t t r a i n i n g , which i s considered a s one of

importance, concerns working with t h e s p a c e c r a f t i t s e l f . The Mercury
spacecraft i s t e s t e d a t Cape Canaveral before being a t t a c h e d t o t h e
Redstone launch v e h i c l e . These t e s t s provide an e x c e l l e n t opportunity
f o r p i l o t s t o l e a r n t h e i d i o s y n c r a s i e s of t h e various systems. After
t h e s p a c e c r a f t has been placed on t h e launch v e h i c l e , more t e s t s a r e
made just p r i o r t o launch day. The p i l o t s have a chance t o p a r t i c i p a t e
i n t h e s e t e s t s and t o work out o p e r a t i o n a l procedures with t h e blockhouse
crew.

These t h r e e a r e a s then, t h e c e n t r i f u g e , t h e procedures t r a i n e r , and

spacecraft t e s t i n g a t t h e launching a r e a provided t h e most valuable aids
during t h e t r a i n i n g period. We spent two y e a r s i n t r a i n i n g , doing many
things, following many avenues i n our d e s i r e t o be s u r e t h a t w e had not
overlooked anything of importance. A s a g e n e r a l comment concerning
f’uture t r a i n i n g programs, t h e s e experiences w i l l undoubtedly permit u s
t o shorten t h i s t r a i n i n g period.

During t h e days immediately preceding t h e launch, t h e p r e f l i g h t

physicals were given. These examinations do not involve more than t h e
u s u a l probing, l i s t e n i n g , and o t h e r medical t e s t s , but I hope t h a t fewer
body f l u i d samples a r e required i n t h e f u t u r e . I f e l t as though an
unusual number of needles were used.

P r e f l i g h t b r i e f i n g was h e l d a t 11:OO a.m. on t h e day before launch

t o c o r r e l a t e a l l o p e r a t i o n a l elements. This b r i e f i n g was helpf’ul s i n c e
it gave us a chance t o look a t weather, radar, camera, and recovery f o r c e
s t a t u s . We a l s o had t h e opportunity t o review t h e c o n t r o l procedures t o
be used during f l i g h t emergencies as w e l l as any l a t e i n p u t s of an oper-
a t i o n a l nature. This b r i e f i n g w a s extremely valuable t o me i n c o r r e l a t i n g
a l l of t h e d e t a i l s at t h e l a s t minute.

PERIOD OF FLIGHT

I include a s p a r t of t h e f l i g h t p e r i o d t h e time from i n s e r t i o n i n t o

t h e spacecraft on t h e launching pad u n t i l t h e time of recovery by t h e
h e l i c o p t e r . The voice and o p e r a t i o n a l procedures developed during t h e
weeks preceding t h e launch were e s s e n t i a l l y sound. The countdown went
smoothly, and no major d i f f i c u l t i e s were encountered with t h e ground
crews, t h e control-center crew, and t h e p i l o t . There has been some
comment i n t h e p r e s s about t h e l e n g t h of time spent i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t
p r i o r t o launch, some 4 hours and 15 minutes t o be exact. This p e r i o d
was about two hours longer than had been planned. A f a c t t h a t i s most
 111

encouraging i s t h a t during t h i s time there w a s no s i g n i f i c a n t change i n

p i l o t a l e r t n e s s and a b i l i t y . The reassurance gained from t h i s experience
a p p l i e s d i r e c t l y t o our upcoming o r b i t a l f l i g h t s , and we now approach
them with g r e a t e r confidence i n t h e a b i l i t y of t h e p i l o t s , a s well as
i n t h e environmental c o n t r o l systems.

A view of t h e f1iB-b plan i s shown i n f i g u r e 1. Our plan was f o r

t h e p i l o t t o r e p o r t t o t h e blockhouse crew p r i m a r i l y p r i o r t o T - 2 minutes
on hard wire c i r c u i t s , and t o s h i f t control t o t h e Center by use of radio
frequencies a t T - 2 minutes. (The symbol T r e f e r s t o l i f t - o f f time.)
This s h i f t worked smoothly and continuity of information t o t h e p i l o t w a s
good. A t l i f ' t - o f f I s t a r t e d a clock-timer i n t h e spacecraft and prepared
f o r noise and vibration. I f e l t none of any s e r i o u s consequence. The
cockpit s e c t i o n experienced no v i b r a t i o n and I d i d not even have t o t u r n
up my r a d i o r e c e i v e r t o f u l l volume t o hear t h e radio transmissions.
Radio communication w a s v e r i f i e d a f t e r l i f t - o f f , and then p e r i o d i c t r a n s -
missions were made a t 30-second i n t e r v a l s f o r t h e purpose of maintaining
voice contact and of reporting v i t a l information t o t h e ground.

Some roughness was expected during t h e period of transonic f l i g h t and

of maximum dy-namic pressure. These events occurred very c l o s e together
on t h e f l i g h t , and t h e r e was general v i b r a t i o n associated with them. A t
one p o i n t my head v i b r a t i o n was such t h a t m y v i s i o n was b l u r r e d f o r a few
seconds. We intend t o avoid a recurrence of t h i s experience by providing
more foam rubber for t h e head support and a more streamlined f a i r i n g f o r
t h e spacecraft adapter ring. These modifications should t a k e care of
t h i s problem f o r f u t u r e f l i g h t s .

I had no o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y during powered f l i g h t . The t r a i n i n g i n

a c c e l e r a t i o n on t h e centrifuge was v a l i d , and I encountered no problem
i n r e s p i r a t i o n , observation, and r e p o g i n g t o t h e ground.

Rocket cutoff occurre4 a t T + 2 minutes 22 seconds a t an accelera-

t i o n of about 6g. It was not abrupt enough t o give me any problem and I
w a s not aware of any uncomfortable sensation. I had one switch movement
at t h i s point which I made on schedule. Ten seconds later, t h e spacecraft
separated from t h e launch vehicle, and I w a s aware of t h e noise of t h e
separation rockets f i r i n g . In another 5 seconds t h e periscope had extended
and t h e a u t o p i l o t w a s c o n t r o l l i n g the turnaround t o o r b i t a t t i t u d e . Even
though t h i s t e s t was only a b a l l i s t i c f l i g h t , most of t h e spacecraft a c t i o n
and p i l o t i n g techniques were executed with o r b i t a l f l i g h t i n mind. I would
l i k e t o make t h e point again that a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l i n space d i f f e r s from
t h a t i n conventional a i r c r a f t . There i s a penalty f o r excessive use of t h e
peroxide f u e l and we do not attempt t o c o n t r o l continually a l l small r a t e
motions. There i s no aerodynamic damping i n space t o prevent a t t i t u d e devi-
a t i o n , but n e i t h e r i s t h e r e any f l i g h t - p a t h excursion o r a c c e l e r a t i o n purely
as a f u n c t i o n of v a r i a t i o n i n spacecraft angles.
112

A t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e f l i g h t I was scheduled t o t a k e c o n t r o l of t h e
a t t i t u d e (angular p o s i t i o n ) by use of t h e manual system. I made t h i s
manipulation one axis a t a time, switching t o p i t c h , yaw, and r o l l i n
t h a t order u n t i l I had f u l l c o n t r o l of t h e c r a f t . I used t h e instruments
f i r s t and then t h e periscope as r e f e r e n c e c o n t r o l s . The r e a c t i o n of t h e
spacecraft was very much l i k e t h a t obtained i n t h e a i r - b e a r i n g t r a i n e r
(ALFA T r a i n e r ) described previously i n t h e paper by Astronaut Slayton.
The spacecraft movement was smooth and could be c o n t r o l l e d p r e c i s e l y .
J u s t p r i o r t o r e t r o f i r i n g I used t h e periscope f o r general observation.

The view shown i n f i g u r e 2 was taken on an e a r l i e r Redstone f l i g h t

but it i s used h e r e because it shows s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s i n one photograph.
The p a r t i c u l a r camera o r i e n t a t i o n during my f l i g h t happened t o i n c l u d e
many clouds and i s not as c l e a r for l a n d viewing. T h i s photograph shows
t h e c o n t r a s t between l a n d and water masses, t h e cloud cover and i t s
e f f e c t , and a good view of t h e horizon. There appears t o be a haze l a y e r
a t t h e horizon. This haze i s a f u n c t i o n not only of p a r t i c l e s of dust,
moisture, and so f o r t h , b u t a l s o o f l i g h t r e f r a c t i o n through atmospheric
layers. The sky i t s e l f i s a v e r y deep blue, almost black, because of t h e
absolute l a c k of l i g h t - r e f l e c t i n g p a r t i c l e s . We are encouraged t h a t t h e
periscope provides a good viewing device as w e l l as a backup attitude-
c o n t r o l i n d i c a t o r and navigation aid.

A t about t h i s p o i n t , as I have i n d i c a t e d p u b l i c l y before, I r e a l i z e d

t h a t somebody would ask me about weightlessness. I use t h i s example again
because it i s t y p i c a l of t h e l a c k of anything u p s e t t i n g during a weight-
less or zero-g environment. Movements, speech, and b r e a t h i n g a r e unimpaired
and t h e e n t i r e s e n s a t i o n i s most analagous t o f l o a t i n g . The NASA i n t e n d s ,
of course, t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s phenomenon during longer p e r i o d s o f time,
but t h e Astronauts approach t h e s e p e r i o d s with no t r e p i d a t i o n .

Control of a t t i t u d e during r e t r o f i r i n g was maintained on t h e manual

system and w a s w i t h i n t h e limits expected. There w a s smooth t r a n s i t i o n
from zero g r a v i t y t o t h e t h r u s t of t h e r e t r o r o c k e t and back t o weightless
f l y i n g again. After t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s had been f i r e d , t h e automatic
sequence a c t e d t o j e t t i s o n them. I could hear t h e n o i s e and could see
one of the s t r a p s f a l l i n g away i n view of t h e periscope. My s i g n a l l i g h t
i n s i d e d i d not show proper i n d i c a t i o n so I used t h e manual backup c o n t r o l
and t h e function i n d i c a t e d proper operation.

A f t e r r e t r o r o c k e t s were j e t t i s o n e d , I used a combination of manual

and e l e c t r i c c o n t r o l t o p u t t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n t h e r e e n t r y a t t i t u d e . I
t h e n went back t o a u t o p i l o t c o n t r o l t o allow myself freedom f o r some
o t h e r a c t i o n s . The a u t o p i l o t c o n t r o l f’unctioned p r o p e r l y so I made
checks on t h e high-frequency voice l i n k f o r propagation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
and then returned t o t h e primary UHF voice l i n k . I also looked o u t both
portholes t o get a general look a t t h e stars o r p l a n e t s as w e l l as t o
g e t oblique horizon views. Because of sun angle and l i g h t l e v e l s I was
unable t o see any c e l e s t i a l bodies. The Mercury P r o j e c t p l a n s a r e t o
i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s e phenomena f u r t h e r on l a t e r flights.
i

A t an a l t i t u d e of about 200,000 f e e t , o r a t t h e edge of t h e s e n s i b l e

atmosphere, a r e l a y w a s actuated a t O.O5g. I had intended t o be on manual I
c o n t r o l f o r t h i s p o r t i o n of t h e f l i g h t but found myself a few seconds
behind. I was a b l e t o switch t o t h e manual system and make some con-
t r o l l i n g motions during t h i s time. We f e e l t h a t programing f o r t h i s
maneuver i s not a s e r i o u s problem and can be corrected by allowing a
l i t t l e more t i m e p r i o r t o t h e maneuver t o g e t ready. We were anxious
t o g e t our money's worth out of t h e f l i g h t and consequently we had a
full f l i g h t plan. However, it paid o f f i n most cases a s evidenced by
t h e volume of data c o l l e c t e d on p i l o t actions.

The r e e n t r y and i t s a t t e n d a n t a c c e l e r a t i o n pulse of l l g w a s not

unduly d i f f i c u l t . The f'unctions of observation, motion, and r e p o r t i n g
were maintained, and no r e s p i r a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s were encountered. Here
again, t h e centrifuge t r a i n i n g had provided good reference. I noticed
no l o s s of p e r i p h e r a l vision, which i s t h e f i r s t i n d i c a t i o n of "gray-out."

A f t e r t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n pulse I switched back t o t h e a u t o p i l o t . I

got ready t o observe parachute opening. A t 21,000 f e e t t h e drogue par-
achute came out on schedule as d i d t h e periscope. I could see t h e
drogue and i t s a c t i o n through t h e periscope. There was no abrupt motion
a t drogue deployment. At 10,000 f e e t t h e main parachute came out and I
was a b l e t o observe t h e e n t i r e operation through t h e periscope. I could
see t h e streaming a c t i o n as w e l l a s the unreefing a c t i o n and could
immediately a s s e s s t h e condition of t h e canopy. It looked good and t h e
opening shock was smooth and welcome. I reported a l l of t h e s e events
t o t h e c o n t r o l c e n t e r and then proceeded t o get ready f o r landing.

I opened t h e f a c e p l a t e of t h e helmet and disconnected t h e hose

which supplies oxygen t o i t s s e a l . I removed t h e chest s t r a p and t h e
knee r e s t r a i n t s t r a p s . I had t h e l a p b e l t and shoulder harness s t i l l
fastened. The landing d i d not seem any more severe than a c a t a p u l t shot
from an a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r . The spacecraft h i t and then flopped on i t s
s i d e so t h a t I was on my right s i d e . I f e l t t h a t I could immediately
execute an underwater escape should it become necessary. Here again,
our t r a i n i n g period was giving us dividends. I could see t h e water
covering one porthole, I could see the yellow dye marker out t h e o t h e r
porthole, and l a t e r on, I could see one of t h e h e l i c o p t e r s through t h e
periscope.

The capsule r i g h t e d i t s e l f slowly and I began t o read t h e cockpit

instruments f o r d a t a purposes after impact. I f o k d very l i t t l e time
f o r t h a t s i n c e t h e h e l i c o p t e r was already c a l l i n g me. I made an egress
as shown i n t h e t r a i n i n g movie; t h a t is,I sat on t h e edge of t h e door
s i l l u n t i l t h e h e l i c o p t e r s l i n g came my way. The h o i s t i t s e l f w a s
uneventful. A t t h i s point, I would l i k e t o mention a device t h a t we
use on our pressure suits that gives watertight i n t e g r i t y . There i s a
s o f t rubber cone attached t o t h e neck r i n g s e a l of t h e suit. When t h e
 114

s u i t helmet i s on, t h i s rubber i s r o l l e d and stowed below t h e l i p of t h e

neck r i n g s e a l bearing. With t h e helmet off, t h i s c o l l a r o r neck cone
i s r o l l e d up over t h e bearing and a g a i n s t t h e neck o f t h e p i l o t where it
forms a w a t e r t i g h t seal. The i n l e t valve f i t t i n g has a locking f l a p p e r
valve. Thus t h e suit i s waterproof and provides i t s own bouyancy.

POSTFLIGHT DEBRIEFING

The h e l i c o p t e r took me t o t h e a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r Lake Champlain, S

where t h e preliminary medical and t e c h n i c a l d e b r i e f i n g commenced. Since 2
no s e r i o u s p h y s i o l o g i c a l d e f e c t s were noted, o n l y an immediate c u r s o r y 0
examination w a s necessary. The period I spent i n t a l k i n g i n t o a t a p e
recorder a t t h i s time with t h e events f r e s h i n m y mind w a s a l s o a help.
I had a chance t o r e p o r t before becoming confused with t h e l t f a c t s . l '

I went from t h e c a r r i e r t o t h e Grand Bahama I s l a n d where I spent

t h e b e t t e r p a r t of two days i n combined medical and t e c h n i c a l d e b r i e f i n g s .
A great d e a l of data was gathered, and t h e experience w a s not unduly
uncomfortable. It appears p r o f i t a b l e t o provide a l o c a t i o n where a
d e b r i e f i n g of t h i s s o r t can be accomplished.

It i s now our plan t o show you a f i l m of t h e f l i g h t taken from t h e I

onboard equipment. The f i l m has been taken from t h e onboard camera and
step-printed t o r e a l time, and t h e t a p e recorder conversations have been
I
I
synchronized f o r t h e e n t i r e f l i g h t . These two recording mediums were not
f l i g h t synchronized s i n c e t h e r e was no requirement f o r t h i s i n data
gathering, but t h e y have been ingeniously j o i n e d f o r your b e n e f i t .

There are some terms used during t h i s film, which may be confusing.
These terms a r e explained as follows:

co p i l o t p r i o r launch

FREEDOM 7 or 7 p i l o t after l i f t - o f f

CAPCOM s p a c e c r a f t communicator i n Control Center

STONEY s p a c e c r a f t cormnunicator i n blockhouse

CTC s p a c e c r a f t t e s t conductor i n blockhouse

TM telemetry

CHASE p i l o t s of t h e chase p l a n e s

I"OCEAN CAPCOM communicator of a s h i p i n t h e landing area

CARDFILE 23 relay a i r p l a n e i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e Bahamas

 onboard f i l m of t h e f l i g h t was introduced a t t h i s point.
3
I n c l o s i n g I would l i k e t o say t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n P r o j e c t
Mercury a r e indeed encouraged by t h e p i l o t ' s a b i l i t i e s t o f u n c t i o n during ~

t h e b a l l i s t i c f l i g h t which has j u s t been described. No i n o r d i n a t e physi-

o l o g i c a l change has been observed, and t h e c o n t r o l e x e r c i s e d before and
a f t e r t h e f l i g h t overwhelmingly support t h i s conclusion. The Space Task
Group i s also encouraged by t h e operation of t h e s p a c e c r a r t systems i n
t h e automatic mode, as w e l l as i n t h e manual mode. We a r e looking f o r -
ward t o more f l i g h t s i n t h e f u t u r e , both of t h e b a l l i s t i c as w e l l as t h e
o r b i t a l type.
 MR-3 FUGHT
INITlATE
RETROFIRE SEQUENCE7 [RETROFIRE
RETRO JETTISONED

TURNAROUND

DROGUE,
SCOPE
MAIN CHUTE DEPLOY. 10:15

Figure 2.

NASA - Langley Field, Va.