Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jerry Thiel is the Director of the Metal Casting Center at the University of Northern
Iowa. He has a diverse industrial background and has held management positions
in the metal casting and related industries for over 30 years. His background in-
cludes metal casting experience in steel, iron and non-ferrous alloys. Mr. Thiel
holds degrees in materials science, manufacturing and manufacturing process
development and has published numerous research papers pertaining to molding
and core materials for the foundry industry. He is a past chairman of the Hawkeye
chapter of the American Foundry Society as well as currently serving on the AFS
4A, 4B, 4N, 4K and 4H national committees.
2
Table of Contents
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4
5
The ESP Advantage - Engineering Support
Our experienced team of degreed engineers can help develop a casting for your spe-
cific product application.
Design Example:
Tillage Shank Mount
We were asked to design a casting to take the
place of a weldment in a large piece of tillage Load applied
equipment. at mounting
hole
The customer had previous issues with the
mounting pins breaking in application. And the
casting had to be designed to reduce the break-
age seen in application.
6
The ESP Advantage - Quality Control
Quality control is one of the crucial elements of suc-
cessfully sourcing a product globally. We have over-
come this concern through building relationships
with our global casting partners by defining and
documenting our expectations with them.
Dimensional Inspection:
Surface Profilometer
Romer arm©—portable CMM
Visual CMM
CMM
7
8
9
10
11
Introduction to Metal Castings
ESP International is a global supplier of
machined steel, iron and aluminum cast-
ings. ESP is located in Cedar Rapids, Iowa
and currently has sources and joint ven-
tures for a variety of metal castings in the
US, China, India, and Taiwan.
History of Castings
The first casting on record is a copper
frog from Mesopotamia, dated to around
3200 BC. Iron, a more common material
cast today, was discovered in China
around 2000 BC and first used iron in a
casting process around 600 BC.
12
Metal Casting in a Global Market
Today’s Global Market Global Metal Production
A continuing challenge for
anyone involved with manu-
facturing or producing a 50 42.5
product is keeping costs 40
40.8
40.4
down. One solution is to
Metric Tonnes
in Millions
2004
source product in low cost 30 21.7
2005
countries. Utilizing a casting 20
19.6
9.9 12.3 2006
design will help realize the 10
18.7
9.0 11.7
cost benefits of castings, but
0 6.6 10.4
pairing that with a low cost
source while maintaining Gray Iron
Ductile Iron
Steel
quality takes that savings to Aluminum
Data from American Foundry Society.
the next level, and is ESP’s
forté.
only makes it more difficult to control the
Today metal castings are produced on a quality of a product.
global scale. Figure 4 gives a snap shot of
the global metal casting market today, ESP has overcome this by building rela-
with China and India playing a major role tionships with our global casting suppliers
in the production of metal castings. and by defining our expectations. And
most importantly, quality control is per-
One of the main concerns when sourc- formed by ESP’s SQE’s and quality lab, lo-
ing a product globally is part quality. In- cated on site in the region where your
dia and China both have the ability to parts are sourced. Supplier Quality Engi-
compete on a global scale as far as part neers are deployed for onsite inspection
quality. What is important as a buyer of of first articles and supplier audits. Close
global castings is maintaining a level of monitoring of production part manufac-
quality control on your parts. The fact turing ensures that the quality of your
that you could be many time zones away parts will meet the level you demand.
13
14
The Casting Process
Investment Casting _______________ 16
15
Investment Casting
Investment Casting Process and the castings will be cut from the tree.
The shell mold investment casting
process starts out with the creation of a There are variations of this process
wax mold, from which the wax pattern is across the globe. The type of refractory
made. This wax mold must be sized to material used can vary from a true ceramic
account for two shrink factors, one for the to a silicate or sand material. The ceramic
wax itself and the other for the steel. investment cast process will yield a cast-
ing with an excellent surface finish, while
After enough wax patterns are pro- the silicate investment cast will yield a
duced, a pattern assembly or tree is cre- casting with a rougher, sand cast like, sur-
ated. Here the wax patterns are glued face finish, but with a lower part cost.
onto a main gating system.
16
Investment Casting
17
Sand Casting
Sand Casting Process ment available for molding will often de-
All sand casting processes start out with termine what mold materials can be used.
the creation of what is termed tooling. Hand molding, which is typically used for
This tooling consists of a pattern which is lower production volumes, will use a
a positive replica of the part and forms the lighter weight material for the mold, such
outside surfaces of the casting. On hori- as wood, plastic or aluminum. Automated
zontally parted patterns the top half of molding will require a steel or tool steel in
the pattern is called the cope and the bot- order to maintain the mold life at a rea-
tom half is called the drag. Sand cores sonable level.
form the internal surfaces of the casting
and are made from tooling named core Mold Making Processes
boxes. The cost for casting tooling is usu- After the tooling is created a mold is
ally separate from the cast part cost or made from that pattern. In sand casting
may be amortized over a specified quan- there are many different processes used
tity of castings. to create molds. The two most common
methods are:
It should be noted that all tooling is not
created equal. The size and type of equip-
18
Sand Molding Process
1. Green Sand Molding plate is assembled to a flask and is
2. No Bake Molding filled with green sand. This assembly
is then lifted and then dropped, pro-
1. Green Sand Molding viding the jolting action that helps to
Green sand molding is the most com- compact the sand around the pat-
mon process for making molds for small tern plate.
to medium size metal castings. Typically a
silica sand is used with a mixture of ben- b. Squeezing
tonite clay and water. This coating of clay Squeezing is a process where the
and water allows the sand grains to stick pattern plate is again assembled to a
together when compacted against a pat- flask and filled with green sand. The
tern surface. The sand mixture is com- assembly is then squeezed either by
pacted in a removable flask that is at- hydraulic or pneumatic pressure
tached to the pattern. After the sand is
compacted the pattern is removed reveal- c. Jolting/Squeezing
ing a cavity in the sand mold. This sand Both jolting and squeezing are com-
mold is used only once and sand recycled bined into a jolt-squeeze machine.
after use. This helps to give good uniform sand
compaction properties to the mold.
2. No Bake Molding
No bake molding uses a polymer resin The cope and drag portions of the mold
instead of clay and water to hold the sand are created using these processes. The
in place. The term no-bake comes from necessary cores are then placed into the
the early forms of resins where heat was cope or drag and the two halves of the
required to bond the sand. Current resins mold are then assembled together.
use a room temperature chemical reac-
tion resulting when components in the Once the mold is finished, metal is
right proportion are brought together. In poured into the mold and allowed to cool.
no bake molding the sand, resin and cata- And once the metal has cooled sufficiently
lyst are mixed in a continuous mixer and the mold then goes through shakeout to
the mixture is delivered right into the remove and possibly reclaim the sand.
flask. Vibration is sometimes used to com- The gating system is trimmed off, the cast-
pact the sand. The mixer is controlled by ing cleaned up and the final product is
the operator to deliver sand when ready for shipment to the customer.
needed.
The process shown here involves a lot of
Compaction in the green sand process hand operations and produces horizon-
can either be by hand or by using ma- tally parted molds. This process is suited
chinery. Jolt-squeeze molding is a com- for low to medium production volumes.
mon manual process used to make Higher volume parts are produced on
molds. This process uses a molding ma- automatic molding machines. Molds pro-
chine that both jolts and squeezes the duced by these machines may be either
sand onto the pattern plates . horizontal or vertical. The use of auto-
matic molding machines lowers the labor
a. Jolting required and increases the production
Jolting is a process where the pattern rate.
19
Shell Molding Process
Shell Molding box which contains the resin coated and
Shell molding is a variant of the sand uncured sand. The dump box is tipped
molding process and uses a heat activated allowing the sand to flow onto the hot
resin to bind the sand together similar to surface of the pattern and held there until
cold box or no bake molding. Although a desired shell thickness is created. At
shell molding produces a mold with much which time the dump box is tipped back
less sand and resin used. Dimensional to its resting position and any uncured
control and surface finish are improved sand flows off of the pattern surface and
with shell molding back into the dump box.
In shell molding a pattern for the cope This cured mold shell is stripped from
and drag are still utilized. Metal patterns the pattern plate and the cope and drag
are heated to a temperature around 450°F shells, as well as any cores, are then glued,
which is required to cure the resin binder. clamped or clipped together for pouring.
The patterns are assembled to a dump
20
Lost Foam Casting Process
made. The casting de-
sign can have undercuts,
minimal draft, anything
that can be placed into
the foam tool. Also, the
final foam pattern can
be made from several
pieces of EPS foam that
are glued together al-
lowing design flexibility
not possible in other
casting processes. If the
part is small, a tree of
multiple foams can be
glued together. This fi-
nal foam piece will also
have a gating system
attached to it for pour-
ing
21
22
Cast Materials
Introduction to Metals _____________ 24
Ferrous Alloys ____________________ 24
Iron _____________________________ 25
Gray Iron ______________________________ 25
Ductile Iron ____________________________ 26
Austempered Ductile Iron ________________ 27
Cast Steels _______________________ 28
AISI Materials _____________________ 29
Materials Selection ________________ 32
Material Properties ________________ 32
Tensile Strength ________________________ 33
Yield Strength __________________________ 33
Elongation _____________________________ 33
Hardness ______________________________ 33
Weight __________________________ 33
Weldability_______________________ 33
Machinability ____________________ 34
Heat Treatability __________________ 34
Material Cost _____________________ 34
23
Introduction to Metals
The choice of a metal alloy used is as the material will be of the highest con-
critical to a successful casting as the ac- cern.
tual design itself. The part application
and strength requirements will determine Ferrous Alloys
whether a ferrous (iron base) or non- The family of ferrous alloys are com-
ferrous alloy is chosen. non-ferrous alloys posed primarily of iron (Fe) and carbon
would include Aluminum, Magnesium, (C). The ferrous family is also broken into
Copper, Lead, and Nickel base alloys. two materials, iron and steel.
Every alloy will have a specific set of The amount of carbon determines
physical properties and the alloy choice whether a material is a steel or an iron.
will depend on the application require- Any iron based material with the carbon
ments. If a part will be used in a salt water content above 2% (and up to ~4%) is con-
environment, corrosion resistance of the sidered an iron. Anything with the carbon
alloy will be important. If fatigue life is content below 2% is considered a steel.
important, the mechanical properties of
24
Grey Iron (Carbon Content 2-4%)
and pearlite. The chemistry of the iron is
modified to obtain the grade of gray iron
desired.
25
Ductile Iron (Carbon Content 2-4%)
take advantage of its compressive strength 2500
Ductile Iron
ASTM A897 1050-750-7
Ductile iron, also called nodular iron or
spheroidal graphite (SG) iron, is character- ASTM A897 1200-850-4
ized by the presence of graphite in a
1000
500
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Elongation
The addition of either magnesium (Mg)
or cerium (Ce) creates nucleation points
from which the graphite nodules form.
Irons containing these nodules are much
stronger and have better ductility than a
conventional gray iron. The mechanical
properties of a ductile iron are determined
by the size and shape of the graphite nod-
ules along with the composition of the ma-
trix structure.
26
Austempered Ductile Iron
The physical and mechanical properties of then rapidly cooled to 450-750 ˚F and
ductile iron are characterized by: soaked at this temperature to form the mi-
crostructure required. There are six stan-
1. Good tensile and yield strength. dard ASTM grades available listed in Table
2. Greatly improved ductility over 2.
gray iron.
3. Improved fatigue strength over Austempered Ductile Iron ASTM 897-06
gray iron. Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation
4. Good machinability (Mpa) (Mpa) (%)
5. A lower modulus of elasticity than
750 500 11
steel
900 550 9
There are various grades of ductile iron 1050 750 7
available. Table 1 displays some of the 1200 850 4
more common grades used. Also Figure 1400 1100 2
15 displays a chart showing tensile 1600 1300 1
strength vs. material elongation values for
these grades.
27
Cast Steels (Carbon Content <2%)
Cast Steels Element Percentage Primary Function
There are many Manganese 0.25—2.0 Increases hardenability
types of carbon and Promotes and austenitic structure
alloy steels used for Combines with sulfur to prevent brittleness
castings. The choice Sulfur <0.5 Contributes to machinability
of which will depend Reduces weldability and ductility
greatly on the applica- Nickel 0.3—5.0 Promotes an austenitic structure
tion. Acts as a toughener
Increases hardenability
Cast steels can be 12—20 Improves corrosion resistance
broken into five ge- Chromium 0.3—4.0 Increases hardenability
neric groups, (Table 4), Improves corrosion resistance
which depend on the Increases high-temperature strength
Can combine with carbon to form wear resis-
carbon and alloy con- tant microconstituents
tent.
Molybdenum 0.1—0.5 Increases hardenability
Promotes grain refinement
Steels will also con- Increases high-temperature strength
tain many different
Vanadium 0.1—0.3 Increases strength while retaining ductility;
alloying elements Promotes grain refinement
within their chemical Will combine with carbon to form wear re-
composition. Table 3 sistant microconstituents
shows the various al- Silicon 0.2—2.5 Removes oxygen in steel making
loying elements and Improves toughness
the effects that they Increases hardenability
have on the steel alloy. Copper 0.2—0.5 Improves corrosion resistance
The more common
Aluminum <2.0 Aids nitriding
elements are carbon, Restricts grain growth
silicon (0.2%-2.5%), Removes oxygen in steel melting
manganese (0.25% -
2.0%), and sulfur (max
0.05%).
Cast steels are often used when the im- exhibit certain material properties. This
pact properties or elongation of irons are could range from enhancing mechanical
insufficient for the application. Cast steels properties like tensile strength and elonga-
must also be specified if the part is to be tion, to improved machinability or harde-
welded. Cast steel alloys are formulated to nability.
28
AISI Materials
Class AISI Series Major Constituents
Carbon Steels 10XX Carbon steel
11XX Resulfurized carbon steel
Alloy Steels
Manganese 13XX Manganese 1.75%
15XX Manganese 1.00%
Nickel 23XX Nickel 3.50%
25XX Nickel 5.00%
Nickel-chromium 31XX Nickel 1.25%, chromium 0.65 or 0.80%
33XX Nickel 3.50%, chromium 1.55%
Molybdenum 40XX Molybdenum 0.25%
41XX Chromium 0.95%, molybdenum 0.20%
Nickel 1.80%, chromium 0.50 or 0.80%, molybdenum
43XX
0.25%
46XX Nickel 1.80%, molybdenum 0.25%
48XX Nickel 3.50%, molybdenum 0.25%
Chromium 50XX Chromium 0.30 or 0.60%
51XX Chromium 0.80, 0.95 or 1.05%
5XXXX Carbon 1.00%, chromium 0.50, 1.00 or 1.45%
Chromium-vanadium 61XX Chromium 0.80 or 0.95%, vanadium 0.10 or 0.15% min
Multiple alloy 86XX Nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.50%, molybdenum 0.20%
87XX Nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.50%, molybdenum 0.25%
92XX Manganese 0.85%, silicon 2.00%
93XX Nickel 3.25%, chromium 1.20%, molybdenum 0.12%
Manganese 1.00%, nickel 0.45%, chromium 0.40%,
94XX
molybdenum 0.12%
97XX Nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.17%, molybdenum 0.20%
98XX Nickel 1.00%, chromium 0.80%, molybdenum 0.25%
The more common heat treat processes
are: AISI materials, shown in Table 5, are com-
1. Anneal – provides a soft low strength mon steel materials that are widely speci-
structure with maximum ductility fied in wrought plate and bar product. Be-
2. Normalize – provides a medium cause of the extensive use of these materi-
strength and hardness with improved als, cast equivalents are always sought af-
ductility ter. When looking for a cast material from
3. Quench and Temper – Provides the a global source, a large number of the AISI
maximum strength levels with good materials can be found in a suitable cast
ductility and wear resistance. form.
29
AISI Materials
Wrought 1020 steel (normalized @ 870
2500 degC)
1500
Cast ASTM A148 90-60
500
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Elongation
Care must be taken to specify the mate- ues than the plate steel. There are stan-
rial properties required of the alloy being dards that govern the material properties
poured. For example, specifying a 1020 of the plate, but there may not be for the
steel casting, that may have been con- AISI cast material. It is pertinent to com-
verted from a weldment made out of 1020 municate both the material properties re-
plate could result in a cast 1020 material quired and intended application for a steel
that has different elongation and yield val- casting to your casting manufacturer.
30
AISI Materials
Steel materials can also exhibit different
material properties depending on the heat
treatment. Figure 15 shows a plot of ten-
sile strength vs. elongation of a few alloys.
One thing to note is the difference in ma-
terial properties between the identical al-
loys that have different heat treatments.
AISI 4140 is used as an example here be-
cause of its common use as a highly heat
treatable steel alloy. The trend shown, di-
minishing elongation with increasing ten-
sile strength, is common across all steel
materials.
31
Material Selection
One of the most important considera- 1. Material Properties
tions when sourcing a casting is the mate- As discussed in previous chapters, a
rial selection. Many factors determine cast material will contain various ele-
what material will be used for the casting ments, with each one playing a role in
as shown in Figure 16. The mechanical the mechanical properties of the mate-
properties, tensile strength, yield strength, rial. This composition will define the
elongation and hardness, play a major role achievable range of the mechanical
in the selection of a material for an applica- properties of a cast material. The four
tion. Although other properties, such as mechanical properties that are most
material weight, cost, machinability and commonly defined are the tensile
hardenability will play a role in the selec- strength, yield strength, elongation and
tion of a material. hardness.
32
Mechanical Properties
Elongation - Elongation is
2500 the amount of permanent
deflection of a material as it
is stressed to failure. This is
expressed in a percentage of
the materials original gage
length.
2000
Hardness - Hardness is a
measure of the resistance of
a material to deform. This is
measured by methods such
Tensile Strength (MPa)
33
Machinability, Cost
being welded and a post heat on the hardening. 4140 on the other hand is
weld itself. a good candidate for induction hard-
ening or through hardening.
An alloy steel can be welded but a
different approach is taken because 6. Material Cost
some alloys will have a low carbon The cost of materials will always af-
content but will contain other ele- fect a casting design. The use of the
ments that will create a brittle weld. A lowest cost material for the applica-
carbon equivalency calculation, Fig- tion is essential for a financially suc-
ure 18, should be performed on the cessful project.
alloy to determine the weldability of
the alloy. Just placing materials in order from
highest to lowest cost per kilogram, it
would look like, Aluminum, Steel, then
Iron. Although Aluminum is the high-
est cost per kilogram, it may be justi-
fied, because of Aluminum’s low den-
sity, from a weight savings potential.
As well when you have a choice be-
tween using steel or ductile iron in a
casting design, the material proper-
ties of a steel may allow for a thinner
section in areas and thus a lower cost
part.
34
Casting Quality
Introduction to Casting Quality _____ 36
35
Introduction to Casting Quality
Introduction require chemical composition to be veri-
Castings are often purchased to specifica- fied but not mention the mechanical prop-
tions originating from organizations such erties. It is best when using external speci-
as the American Society for Testing Materi- fications, to verify that the material the
als (ASTM), American Society of Mechanical specification defines will actually fit the ap-
Engineers (ASME), Society of Automotive plication.
Engineers (SAE), American Iron and Steel
Institute (AISI), and International Organiza- Mechanical Properties
tion for Standardization (ISO). Purchasers It is common practice to verify the me-
of castings may require additional specifi- chanical properties of a material. Some of
cations for specialized applications. the mechanical properties that are in-
spected are tensile properties, bend prop-
Some common requirements of a casting erties, impact properties, fatigue proper-
may include evaluation of: ties and hardness. These properties are
described in detail below.
1. Chemical Composition
2. Mechanical Properties Tensile Properties
3. Dimensional Tolerances It’s common practice to verify the tensile
4. Surface Roughness and Integrity properties of a cast material. The proper-
5. Internal Soundness ties tested may include ultimate tensile
6. Nodule and Flake shape and size (for strength, yield strength, elongation and
gray and ductile irons) reduction of area. The material tested is
taken from a representative sample, test
Chemical Composition bar of the same metal used to cast the
Steel castings are commonly ordered to parts.
mechanical property specifications. Addi-
tional requirements may include heat or Bend Properties
corrosion resistance. The chemical compo- Bend properties of a cast material are
sition of the material is specified in order to typically not measured. This is more com-
produce a material that fits the application monly applied to weld qualification tests.
it will be used in. Measuring the bend properties of a mate-
rial is performed by taking a bar of given
In the example of a steel, if the applica- dimensions, bending it to a specified angle
tion is non structural and not of a critical around a pin of given radius and monitor-
nature, the composition of the material ing for cracks on the surface of the material
may not be controlled as tightly as if it
were an application that had a low factor Impact Properties
of safety and a very tightly controlled me- An impact property or toughness is de-
chanical property specification. termined by measuring the amount of en-
ergy needed to fracture a sample. The
If an ASTM specification is being used, Charpy V-notch test is a common test used
the composition may be fairly open, but to do this. Typically, the better the ductil-
the mechanical properties are controlled ity and strength of a material , the better
tightly. the toughness.
36
Casting Tolerancing
TOLERANCE GRADE CT (mm)
METHOD MATERIAL
STEEL GRAY IRON DUCTILE IRON COPPER ALLOY ZINC ALLOY
SAND CASTING (MANUAL)
11~14 11~14 11~14 10~13 10~13
SAND CASTING (AUTOMATIC)
8~12 8~12 8~12 8~10 8~10
PERMANENT MOLD CASTING
- 8~10 8~10 8~10 7~9
INVESTMENT SODIUM SILICATE 7~9 7~9 7~9 5~8 -
CASTING CERAMIC 4~6 4~6 4~6 4~6 -
NOMINAL DIMENSION CASTING DIMENSION TOLERANCE GRADE CT (mm) (Given as Total Tolerance on value, ie 95 +/- 1.1 is grade CT9)
FROM TO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
- 10 0.09 0.13 0.18 0.26 0.36 0.52 0.74 1 1.5 2 2.8 4.2
10 16 0.1 0.14 0.2 0.28 0.38 0.54 0.78 1.1 1.6 2.2 3 4.4
16 25 0.11 0.15 0.22 0.3 0.42 0.58 0.82 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.6 6 8 10 12
25 40 0.12 0.17 0.24 0.32 0.46 0.64 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.6 3.6 5 7 9 11 14
40 63 0.13 0.18 0.26 0.36 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 10 12 16
63 100 0.14 0.2 0.28 0.4 0.56 0.78 1.1 1.6 2.2 3.2 4.4 6 9 11 14 18
100 160 0.15 0.22 0.3 0.44 0.62 0.88 1.2 1.8 2.5 3.6 5 7 10 12 16 20
160 250 - 0.24 0.34 0.5 0.72 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 14 18 22
250 400 - - 0.4 0.56 0.78 1.1 1.6 2.2 3.2 4.4 6 9 12 16 20 25
400 630 - - - 0.64 0.9 1.2 1.8 2.6 3.6 5 7 10 14 18 22 28
630 1000 - - - 0.72 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 6 8 11 16 20 25 32
1000 1600 - - - 0.8 1.1 1.6 2.2 3.2 4.6 7 9 13 18 23 29 37
1600 2500 - - - - - - 2.6 3.8 5.4 8 10 15 21 26 33 42
2500 4000 - - - - - - - 4.4 6.2 9 12 17 24 30 38 49
4000 6300 - - - - - - - - 7 10 14 20 28 35 44 56
6300 10000 - - - - - - - - - 11 16 23 32 40 50 64
Fatigue Properties
Fatigue testing consists of stressing a ma- The tolerance of a raw casting is largely
terial for a number of cycles and determin- defined by the type of process used. An
ing the number of cycles needed to cause investment cast part will yield significantly
failure. better dimensional capability from a sand
An S-N curve can be developed for the cast part. A sand cast part that has a sand
material, the S representing stress and the mold compacted by an automated ma-
N representing the number of cycles. Also chine will yield a better dimensional capa-
determined from this testing is the endur- bility than a sand mold created by hand.
ance limit of the material.
Fatigue testing can be used to qualify de- There is some tolerance used up in the
signs, processes and materials but rarely is creation of the pattern as well. The pattern
this done by regular heat lot evaluation. is built expecting a certain amount of con-
traction from the pattern to the final part.
Hardness The correct amount of adjustment that is
Hardness is a measure of the resistance of made to the pattern for the alloy being
the material to indentation. This is meas- poured can be uncertain due to the part
ured by methods such as Brinell, Vickers geometry and this can drive to a larger tol-
and Rockwell. Hardness tests are often erance on the final part. If certain dimen-
used to verify the heat treatment and sions are critical, a small amount of capabil-
physical properties of the cast steel for in- ity castings, using the production process,
dividual furnace loads. can be poured before regular production
begins.
Dimensional Tolerances
A castings dimensional tolerance is de- The size and the weight of the part will
veloped from various factors. determine the tolerance required on spe-
37
Casting Defects
cific dimensions. Table 6 shows the casting Die Casting 20 - 120 RMS
tolerances (CT) achievable for several ma- Ceramic Investment Cast 60-200 RMS
terials and mold making processes. Toler- Silica Investment Cast 300-560 RMS
ance grades will differ for different casting
Shell Mold 120-300 RMS
processes. The tolerance table shows the
different tolerances required for various Sand Casting 560-900 RMS
dimensions.
In a complex mold, there may be 4 or face, a die cast part about a 64 µinch RMS
more components in the mold that need surface while a sand casting will be around
to be assembled before pouring. This as- 500 µinch RMS.
sembly of the mold will also determine the
dimensional variation of the parts. Critical The surface finish will be modified in ar-
dimensions of the parts should be de- eas where a gate or riser has been re-
signed so that they are molded in as few moved. This can be a broken area where
components as possible. the gate was snapped off or a ground/cut
surface where the gate was removed.
Flatness
The surface finish in all casting processes
Casting Mechanically
As Cast can be modified through out the part by
Length Straightened
shot or bead blasting if needed but adds
cost to the final part.
1" 0.20mm 0.10mm
Internal Soundness
2" 0.38mm 0.15mm The internal soundness of a casting can
be important in some applications. But
4" 0.64mm 0.25mm keep in mind, it is very difficult to cast a de-
fect free casting. Determination of the ac-
6" 0.76mm 0.38mm ceptable defect level in a casting is impor-
tant and over specification of the defect
level will lead to higher scrap rates and
higher casting costs.
Surface Finish
As shown in Table 8 the surface finish of a
casting will vary greatly depending on the
process being used. An investment cast
part will yield about a 125 µinch RMS sur-
38
Porosity & Inclusions
mon being, porosity, inclusions and shrink-
age. For this look into casting defects we
will limit the discussion to these three spe-
cific defects.
Porosity:
Definition: Porosity is a void in the cast-
ing that is characterized by smooth interior
walls that are shiny or in the case of iron,
are covered with a thin layer of graphite.
These voids can appear in one large cavity
or several small cavities dispersed through-
out the casting.
Possible Causes: Inclusions:
1. Mechanical Gas Entrapment Definition: Inclusions are a piece of for-
A large amount of mold or core gas eign material in the cast part. An inclusion
with insufficient evacuation from the can be a metallic, intermetallic or nonme-
mold cavity tallic piece of material in the metal matrix.
Entrainment of air due to turbulence
in the gating system Possible Causes:
1. Metallic Inclusions
2. Metallurgical Origin Charge materials which have not
Excessive gas content in melt been completely dissolved in the
In the case of steel and irons, forma- melt.
tion of carbon monoxide by the reac- Exposed core wires or rods.
tion of carbon with oxygen present in
the melt.
2. Intermetallic Inclusions
Remedies Combinations formed between the
Include vents in the mold cavity to melt material and a metallic impurity
allow the escape or air
Review gating design for turbulent 3. Non-metallic Inclusions
areas Loose sand in the mold
Ensure that the sprue is kept full dur- Flakes of refractory coating breaking
ing pouring loose from the mold
Reduce pouring height
For steel, deoxidize the melt ade- Remedies:
quately Avoid entrainment of slag and dross
For iron, avoid using rusty charge ma- from the furnace while filling the ladle
terial which will introduce oxides into Use siphon, teapot and bottom pour
the melt ladles
For non-ferrous alloys, avoid exces- Keep pouring basins and sprue filled
sive melt temperatures and use care during pouring
in degassing. Use strainer cores or filters
Create slag traps in casting gating
39
Shrinkage
carbon and silicon content as al-
lowed, to decrease volumetric con-
traction of the metal during solidifica-
tion
Limit the pouring temperature so that
the liquid contraction is minimized.
Inspection Methods
There are various test methods that may
be employed to evaluate the soundness of
a casting. These can be destructive or non-
destructive tests. The more common tests
employed are magnetic particle inspec-
tion, radiography and a method of destruc-
tive testing where a part is milled in small
Care should be taken when creating layers to reveal defects.
molds to reduce the likely hood of
non-metallic inclusions These inspection methods are employed
in some way on a majority of castings. Al-
Shrinkage though care must be taken when specify-
Definition: Is a vacancy typically internal ing the defect severity levels for each
to the casting that is caused by a molten method. Over specifying will always lead
island of material that does not have to a more expensive part than what is
enough feed metal to supply it. Shrinkage needed.
cavities are characterized by a rough, den-
dritic, interior surface. All materials that are specified have cer-
tain minimum inspection criteria, typically
Possible Causes: involving chemical analysis and mechani-
Volume contraction of the metal, ei- cal property verification.
ther from liquid contraction of the Whether to specify added testing can be
melt or from contraction during dependent on some of the variables listed
phase change from liquid to solid below
Insufficient feed metal in defect areas.
Gating, feeding system and part design 1. The casting has a proven history with
creates locally hot areas within the little to no issues
casting that are not fed well. 2. The design uses large safety factors
3. The application is not critical
Remedies 4. The part can be cast with little trouble
Avoid heavy isolated casting sections
that are difficult to feed. Extra testing may be required if:
Design the part with a progressive
change in casting thickness 1. The design is new and untested
Design the gating and feeding system 2. There are low safety factors used in
to provide for directional solidifica- the design
tion back to the risers.
For gray and ductile irons, increase
40
Defect Detection
Magnetic Particle Inspection
This is a non-destructive test used to de-
tect surface or near-surface defects in fer-
rous materials only.
Radiography
Radiography is used if internal inspection
of a casting is needed. Internal defects
such as shrinkage voids, porosity, and in-
clusions can be found using this method.
41
Defect Detection
Similar to magnetic particle inspection, seen using this method.
the defects are compared to reference ra-
diographs to determine the severity level Figures 23 and 24 shows a comparison
of the defect. Severity levels range from between two methods of destructive test-
1—5, one being small, five being large. ing. Figure 23 uses a ―bread loaf‖ cutting
method. This method is typically used
There are limitations here that are de- when inspecting a large part that does not
scribed shown in Figure 22. Their will be have tight control on the castings defect
areas in a casting that an x-ray cannot be level.
obtained. If these areas are critical another
method of inspection may need to be em- Figure 24 shows a method used for de-
ployed. fect inspection of a majority of parts. Fig-
ure 24 is a localized inspection for a large
Destructive Testing shrinkage cavity, although this can be per-
Another method of casting defect inspec- formed on a whole part.
tion, which is more labor intensive, is a de-
structive test. This method uses a mill to Destructive testing gives a very good
cut away layer by layer in the part and re- three dimensional view of the void, where
veal the defects present in the part. as a radiograph will only be a two dimen-
sional representation of the defect. This
This method will reveal large defects but method of testing is also a quick and easy
Level 1 defects and metallic inclusions that check where radiographic inspection may
are revealed in a radiograph may not be not be readily available.
42
Casting Design Guidelines
Introduction to Design Guidelines ___ 44
Casting Shrinkage_________________ 45
Controlling Casting shrinkage___________________ 46
43
Introduction to Design Guidelines
Introduction Cores are a separate part of the casting
When designing a casting it’s important mold that are typically created from a
to consider the tolerancing capabilities chemically bonded sand and placed into
(both dimensional and geometric) of the one half of the mold before both the cope
casting process being used as well as any and drag are assembled. Cores typically
draft and required minimum radii and fil- for the internal surfaces of the castings.
lets.
44
Casting Shrinkage
45
Controlling Casting Shrinkage
employed in such a way as to reduce the
amount of shrinkage or move it into a non-
critical area of the casting.
46
Junction Design
the section divided by the surface area. fillet radius equal to the rib thickness, up to
Areas with higher modulus are the last to a 1‖ fillet. Sharp interior corners allow the
solidify and must be risered molding sand to superheat causing rough
surfaces. Sharp exterior corners may cause
Fillets and Radii hard spots and chill in iron castings.
Generous rounds and fillets are trade-
marks of a good casting design. They im- Junction Design
prove the appearance of a casting as well The design of a junction in a casting can
as help to distribute strains and reduce as cause shrinkage cavities to form. In Figure
cast stresses present in the part. 33 below, there are two junctions shown, a
―T‖ and ―L‖ junction. The thickness of the
As well, generous fillets will help with the casting here is consistent, although at the
pour of the part. As a casting is poured, center of the junction, there is an area that
the melt velocity and geometry of the part may form shrinkage porosity.
may cause turbulence to occur in certain
areas. This turbulence encourages the For the ―T‖ junction, it is typical to use the
melt to mix with the air in the casting cav- Fair design, in most alloys and definitely in
ity and form oxide inclusions. Having ade- irons you will be safe to use this design.
quate corner fillets will help the molten Although if you are casting in an alloy that
metal to flow and fill the cavity adequately has a high amount of solidification shrink-
with a reduced chance of turbulent flow. age you may need to reduce the molten
area by adding a divot as shown.
In the case of a junction design as shown in
Figure 32, adding a fillet at the base of the With the ―L‖ junction, the Fair design is
rib will help transition the flow of metal common also, although there is greater
and reduce the chance of turbulence in risk of a shrinkage defect in this design. In
this area. A simple rule of thumb as far as materials with low solidification shrinkage,
fillet sizing for this junction is to make the such as ductile and gray iron, you will most
47
Print Requirements
likely not have an issue. In high alloy mate- need to have good elongation in your ma-
rials you will experience a higher risk of terial, this may require a specific heat treat
shrinkage defects in the Fair design, over to the part. You may need to maintain a
the Good. consistent surface finish in an area and this
may define, for the foundry, areas that gat-
As well in ―L‖ junction, there is usually lit- ing and risering can and cannot be.
tle issue with having a generous radius on
the external corner. A casting can also have the part number,
heat lot and foundry code cast into the
Machining and Casting Drawings part. Specification of the location and size
Casting drawings will include information of this lettering is required. If raised letter-
about the casting geometry (size, shape, ing causes interference, the lettering can
draft, radii, etc..) The casting drawing will be cast in a recessed pad.
also contain the acceptable tolerance level, A machined casting will have dimensions
defect level, and surface finish. As well as for the machined features as well as di-
any inspection requirements, radiography, mensions relating the machined features
magnetic particle inspection, destructive to the cast features. The machining print
testing. Material will be defined on the may include a note on corner breaks re-
print with possibly the mechanical proper- quired, surface finish callouts for the ma-
ties of the material. Geometric dimension- chined surfaces, geometric tolerances, etc.
ing and tolerancing may also come into
play on a casting design. Foundries typically prefer two drawings,
one for the casting and one for the finished
All of this, when included on a print, machined part. The casting print will in-
helps convey the expectation of the part to clude the amount of finished stock re-
the foundry. Make sure to display what is quired. 3mm or 0.125‖ of machine stock is
critical to your part on the print. If you typical.
48
When geometric tolerancing is used on a
casting print or machined casting print, it is
always good practice to establish datum
points at specific locations on a cast sur-
face for the various datum planes. With
the surface inconsistencies, this practice
allows consistent inspection and layout at
the foundry, machinist, outside inspection
lab and customer. All tooling can be built
to reference these datum points and it will
go a long way to help with any dimen-
sional issues that may come up with a ma-
chined casting.
49
Weldment to Casting Conversion
Introduction start looking at weldments and designing a
Casting designs allow the designer more cast equivalent, it is good to start with the
freedom in the part design than a weld- weldments that take the most time to fab-
ment. The design can be very fluid and ricate and may not make the best use of
conform to almost any shape. As well cast- the plate material. As well, if there are any
ings generally have equivalent fatigue current issues with the weldment, such as
properties when compared to a fabricated fatigue failures, a casting may be a good
design. candidate.
50
Weldment Conversion Example
51
Weldment to Casting Conversion
To start the design work first determine tures. This needs to be taken into account
the functional features in the application. in the casting design. In the case of a cast
Ask the questions : Where does the casting boss that is drilled, the boss should be
attach to the application? What will need sized such that with the cast tolerances the
to be bolted or welded to the casting? drilled hole will not create a thin wall on
These things will probably carry over from the boss.
the weldment design to the casting design.
The process of designing a cast alterna-
Once the functional features are identi- tive can be difficult in some cases and just
fied, determine how these features can be looking at one part to convert may not be
connected by cast material. Some weld- the best solution. It’s always a good idea
ments use a boxed or tube section be- to look at the system of parts and possibly
tween the various features. This is not eas- combine features of multiple components
ily produced in either investment or sand into a single casting.
casting. In this case the choice of an I-
beam or C-section may be required.
52
53