APRIL 2008

Online
Geo file 567

Garrett Nagle

Forest Microclimates
The term ‘forest microclimate’ refers Figure 2: Seasonal temperature variations of (a) mean monthly temperatures and
to the wide variety of small-scale (b) mean monthly temperature ranges for four types of Italian forest
conditions that can be experienced
within a forest. Forest microclimates °C
°F
vary widely, because forests vary 3
widely. A forest has four distinct Forteto Oak Maquis 4

ABOVE
2
layers which all interact with each
2
other: the air above the forest, the 1
canopy layer (the tree’s vegetation), Open

Forest temperatures compared with those in the open

0 0
the trunk space (chosen study area), Scots Pine
and finally the forest floor. The 1 2
density, layering, height and type of
BELOW
2 4
vegetation vary considerably
3 Norway Spruce
between tropical and temperate 6
Beech
forests, and between deciduous and 4
8
coniferous forests. Consequently, the (a) Mean monthly temperature
5
impacts on microclimate vary too. 3
The vertical structure of a forest
GREATER

Forteto Oak Maquis 4

2
largely determines the forest
1 2
microclimate. Much of the impact
Open
on climate is explained by size, 0 0
coverage, stratification, branching
1 2
(bifurcation), periodicity of growth
Scots Pine
(i.e. evergreen or deciduous), and 2
LESS

size, density and texture of the
leaves.
Microclimate can be defined as the
climate at a small scale, say from
1cm to 1000m. There are at least five
variables which, together,
characterise the microclimate:
sunlight exposure, wind exposure
(magnitude and direction),
precipitation, temperature (of air
and soil), and moisture content (of
air and soil).
In tropical forests, the average
height of the taller trees is of the
order of 46–55m. Some trees reach
over 60m. In contrast, the dominant
height of temperate forests is up to
Figure 1: Tree albedos (%)
Aleppo pine
Monterrey pine
Loblolly pine
Lodgepole pine
Scots pine
Oak – summer
Oak – spring
Eucalyptus
Sitka spruce
Norway spruce
Birch and aspen
(late winter)
Orange trees
Tropical rain forest
Cocoa
Source: Barry and Chorley (1988)
30m. In addition, tropical Fig 567_02 Mac/eps/illustrator
forests
commonly possess a greaterNELSON
Artist: David Russell Illustration
diversity of species, seldom less
than 40 per hectare and sometimes
over 100, compared with less than
25 tree species in temperate forests,
and in some coniferous forests,
sometimes only one species.
Radiation
Forest canopies significantly change
the pattern of incoming and
outgoing radiation. The forest
17
canopy absorbs much of the
10
incoming solar radiation
11
(insolation). In addition, much of
9 laterally to the trunk space.
the radiation is reflected – average
9
albedo in a forest is 5–15% (Figure
15
1), but it can reach nearly 33%.
12
Coniferous forests have albedos of
19
about 8–14%, and values for
12
deciduous woods range between 12
12
and 18%, increasing as the canopy
becomes more open. Consequently,
25
only a small proportion of the
32
sunlight reaches the ground – as
13
small patches of light, known as
16
sunflecks. This is especially so in
4
3
Norway Spruce 6
4 Beech
(b) Mean monthly temperature ranges 8
5
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
GeoFile Series 26 Issue 3
tropical rain 11forests
s/s where the
THORNES PUBLISHING
density of vegetation
is high.
Consequently, temperatures within a
forest tend to be lower than outside
the forest. However, in a deciduous
forest in winter – when the forest has
lost its leaves – the temperature
within the woodland is likely to be
similar to that outside the woodland.
For dense beech forests, 80% of the
incoming radiation is intercepted by
the treetops and less than 5% reaches
the forest floor. The greatest
trapping occurs in sunny conditions,
because when the sky is overcast the
more diffuse incoming radiation has
greater possibility of penetration
The amount of light reaching the
forest floor varies greatly with
vegetation type. About 50–75% of
the outside light intensity may
penetrate to the floor of a birch-
beech forest. In contrast, in a pine
forest the level is just 20–40%, and in
a spruce and fir forest 10–25%.
However, in areas of tropical rain
forest the figure may be as low as

Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2008

April 2008 no.567 Forest Microclimates
0.1%. Inputs of solar radiation vary
over the course of the day. Peak
input is around midday, while the
losses during the night are limited,
as the vegetation traps and returns
much of the outgoing long-wave
radiation.
The vegetation in forests also affects
the nature of radiation reaching the
surface. Short-wave radiation
(especially the blue wavelength) is
absorbed by the leaves, hence the
proportions of long-wave radiation
and infra-red radiation increase
towards ground level. This light is
less suitable for plants, and so there
are fewer plants at ground level.
The vegetation also affects the
amount of outgoing radiation. This
long-wave radiation comes from the
atmosphere, tree-canopy, forest floor
and the soil. There is interception,
re-absorbtion and re-emission of
long-wave radiation, thus there is
relatively little loss of long-wave
radiation direct to space.
There are important seasonal
variations, too (Figure 2). In winter,
radiation inputs are reduced and the
effect of woodlands on microclimate
is reduced. In deciduous woodland
this is especially so. The effect of
woodland is greatest when the trees
are in full leaf and radiation is at its
highest. For deciduous trees, more
than 70% of the light may penetrate
when they are leafless. There are also
long-term variations, too. In a Scots
pine forest in Germany, 50% of the
outside light intensity was recorded
at ground level at 1.3 years, only 7%
at 20 years and 35% at 130 years.
Woodland type has a major impact
on microclimate. In general,
coniferous trees show much less
seasonal variation than deciduous
trees. There is, nevertheless,
considerable variation between types
of trees. Take deciduous trees, for
example. Birch leaves are small and
have a lower density than oak or
beech, thus larger amounts of light
can reach the forest floor. Sycamore
leaves are much larger and allow less
light to reach the ground. Similarly,
pine leaves (needles) are less dense
than thus of the sitka spruce, thus
more light reaches the ground in a
pine plantation than in a spruce one.
The layering or vertical structure of
forests is important too. An open
canopy allows an understorey to
develop. This layer of vegetation
Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2008
Figure 3: Wind velocity profiles: (a) a dense stand of 20m high ponderosa pines; (b)
a grove of 25m high oak trees, both bare and in leaf
35 a
30 Ponderosa
Pine Forest
25
Height (metres)
20
15
10
5
0 0
0 1
Source: Briggs et al. (1997)
intercepts both incomingFigand out-Mac/eps/illustrator
567_03
going radiation. In a tropical rain THORNES
NELSON
forest, there may be four orArtist:
five David Russell Illustration
layers of vegetation, each
intercepting incoming and outgoing
radiation. Consequently, in areas
where the forest is intact, less than
0.1% of sunlight that reaches the
canopy of a tropical rain forest
reaches the forest floor.
Forest vegetation has an important
effect on micro-scale temperature
conditions. Shelter from the sun,
blanketing at night, heat loss by
evapotranspiration, reduction of
wind speed, and the obstruction of
vertical air movement all influence
temperature. Inside the forest, daily
maximum temperatures are lower
and minima are higher. This is
particularly apparent during
periods of high summer
evapotranspiration, which decrease
daily maximum temperatures and
cause mean monthly temperatures
in tropical and temperate forests to
fall below those outside. In
temperate forests, the mean annual
temperature may be about 0.6°C
lower than that in surrounding
open country. The greatest
differences are found in summer,
when the mean monthly differences
may reach 2.2°C in summer but not
exceed 0.1°C in winter, and on hot
summer days the difference can be
nearly 3°C.
Wind
Forests also influence air movement. In addition, the lower wind speed
Air movement within forests is
slight compared with that in the
open. Wind speed may increase
slightly above the canopy, but it
drops as the canopy is approached.
Wind speed is lowest in areas where
the vegetation density is highest.
Near the trunks of trees there is a
120
b
Oak grove 100
In leaf
80
Height (feet)
Bare
60
40
20
2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4
Wind speed (m s–1)
GeoFile Series 26 Issue 3
general absence11 s/s of leaves, and so
wind speed may rise. Near the
PUBLISHING
ground, small plants reduce wind
speed. Thus the pattern of air flow
within a forest can be quite complex.
Measurements for European forests
show that at a distance 30m into a
woodland, wind velocities are just
60–80% of those in open land, at
60m just 50%, and by 120m just 7%.
Studies in Brazilian rainforests have
shown that a wind speed of 2.2m/s
outside an evergreen forest was
reduced to 0.5m/s at about 100m
within, and was negligible at
1,000m.
Knowledge of the effectiveness of
forest barriers has been utilised in
the construction of wind breaks, to
protect crops and soil. The denser
the obstruction, the greater the
level of shelter immediately behind
it, although the downwind extent of
its effect is reduced by turbulence
caused by the barrier (Figure 3).
There are also some less obvious
microclimatic effects of forest
barriers. The reduction of
horizontal air movement in forest
clearings increases the frost hazard
on winter nights.
Moisture
The humidity conditions within
forest stands are very different to
those in the open. Vapour pressure is
generally higher in a forest than
outside it. This is due to the large
volume of leaves transpiring water.
means that there is less evaporation
from the air. The lower air
temperatures of the forest also
reduce the amount of evaporation
that occurs. As day-time
temperatures of the forest are cooler
than outside the forest, the relative
humidity of the forest should be
 April 2008 no.567 Forest Microclimates

Figure 4: Diurnal patterns of microclimate variables in pasture and in forest, measured over 24 days in late winter (a–e) and
late summer (f–j)

Winter Summer
1000 1000
Photosynthetically
available radiation

a f
800 Pasture
800
Pasture
600 600
(PAR)

400 400 Forest

200 Forest 200

0 0
4 4
Wind speed (m s–1)

b g
3 Pasture 3
Pasture
2 2

1 Forest 1
Forest
0 0
25 25
c h
Pasture
Air temp. (°C)

20 20
Forest
15 15
Pasture
10 10
Forest
5 5
8 8
d i
Vapour pressure

6 6
Pasture
deficit
(mB)

4 4
Pasture
2 2 Forest

0 Forest 0

25 25
e Pasture j
Soil temp. (°C)

20 20

15 15 Forest
Pasture
10 10
Forest
5 5
00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 24:00 00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 24:00
Time Time

Source: Davies-Colley et al. (2000)

higher than outside – typically 5% Forests also affect

GeoFile precipitation
Series 26 Issue 3 floors of pine forests is 70% of that
higher than outside. Evaporation through the direct
Fig 567_04 interception
Mac/eps/illustrator 11 of
s/s in the open in Arizona in summer,
from the forest floor is usually much rainfall by the
NELSON canopy.PUBLISHING
THORNES This varies and only 42% in the Mediterranean
less because of the decreased direct Artist: David
with crown Russellwith
coverage, Illustration
season, region.
sunlight, lower wind velocities, and with the rainfall intensity.
lower maximum temperatures, and Measurements in German beech Microclimate contrast:
generally higher forest air humidity. forests indicate that, on average,
they intercept 43% of precipitation forest versus pasture in
The humidity of forest stands is in summer and 23% in winter. Pine Pirongia Forest Park New
influenced by the amount of forests may intercept up to 94% of
evapotranspiration and it increases Zealand
low-intensity precipitation but as
with the density of vegetation little as 15% of high intensity, the In both winter and summer, much
present. The humidity in the forest average for temperate pines being less light reached the forest floor
is generally 3–10% higher than the about 30%. than was received in pasture
humidity outside the forest, (Figures 4a and 4f). Wind speed was
especially in summer. Mean annual consistently higher in pasture than
relative humidity in beech forests The amount of water on the forest in forest (Figures 4b and 4g). Air
in Germany and Switzerland is floor is reduced due to interception temperature in forest followed a
9.4% higher than beyond the forest. by vegetation. Offsetting this, similar diurnal pattern to that in
however, evaporation from the bare pasture, although temperature was

Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2008

April 2008 no.567 Forest Microclimates
consistently higher in pasture than
in forest during daylight for both
winter and summer (Figures 4c and
4h). Air temperature maxima in
pasture and forest were generally
reached at about the same time in
both seasons.
The diurnal pattern of vapour
pressure deficit (VPD) (Figures 4d
and 4i) was more marked in summer
than in winter and more marked in
pasture than in forest. VPD maxima
occurred between 2.00 p.m. and 3.00
p.m. At the forest site, VPD was
fairly constant over the day during
the winter period, whereas in
summer the VPD in the forest
displayed a similar day-time pattern
to pasture, although the peak was
shorter and lower.
Soil temperature at 100mm depth
was about 10°C higher in summer
than in winter (Figures 4e and 4j).
Soil temperature in forest displayed
little diurnal variation in either
season. In contrast, pasture soil
temperature varied diurnally, with
minima near dawn and maxima in
the afternoon between 4.00 p.m. and
5.00 p.m.
Microclimate gradients across the
forest edge
Forest fragmentation has created
large areas subject to ‘edge effects’,
in which ecological conditions
contrast with interior forest as
regards vegetation structure and
productivity, under-storey species,
and microclimate. At a point 80m
into the forest from the edge, light
was only about 0.7% and wind speed
about 20% of that in the open, and
there was much less diurnal
fluctuation in soil temperature, air
temperature and vapour pressure
deficit (VPD). The gradient was less
steep for wind speed, air temperature
and VPD, with at least 40m being
required to stabilise these variables
when wind was directed into the
forest. These findings suggest that
forest buffers of at least 40m may be
needed to protect forest reserves and
streams from climatic exposure.
A study of forest
microclimates in Santa
Cruz, California
The Santa Cruz Redwood forest in
California was the selected study
area, of particular interest due to the
dense canopy cover that the
Redwoods provide. There are large
Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2008
stands of Redwood trees, which Conclusion
reach over 100m in height.
Forest climates vary markedly, and
On a sunny day, gradual heating of there are large-scale variations
the trunk space (i.e. below the within forests, spatially and
canopy) occurs. Soil temperatures temporally, both seasonally and over
remained fairly constant, but are a longer timescale. The effects on
substantially warmer than those microclimate vary with many factors
recorded on rainy days. When there such as size, stratification, evergreen
is less solar radiation, due to or deciduous, and size, density and
increased cloud cover, the trunk shape of the leaves. These factors in
space is not heated as effectively. As turn influence the microclimate with
a result of this there is relatively respect to temperature, radiation,
little difference between the wind (magnitude and direction),
temperatures at the shoulder and precipitation and humidity. It is
knee levels on a cold and wet day. likely that increased human
activities in forests will have a
Heating rates within the trunk space knock-on effect on forest climates.
are affected by the presence of a
canopy. The amount of radiation Bibliography
that penetrates the trunk space is Barry, R., and Chorley, R. (1998)
dependent upon factors such as the Atmosphere, weather and climate,
height of the trees, the density of the Routledge.
canopy vegetation, the species of the Briggs, K., et al. (1997) Fundamentals
stand, the angle of solar incidence of the physical environment, Routledge.
and the weather conditions in the Davies-Colley, R. J., Payne G. W.
area. and van Elswijk, M. (2000)
‘Microclimate gradients across a
The conclusions from this study forest edge’, New Zealand Journal of
suggested that Ecology (2000) 24(2): 111–121 New
Zealand Ecological Society
• Cloud cover restricts the trunk
Oke, T.R. (1992) Boundary Layer
space warming.
Climates, Cambridge University
• Trunk space becomes very warm
Press.
on sunny days.
• Trunk space heating is restricted
by wind.
• The results showed that the
highest air temperature recorded
would occur approximately two
hours after the solar noon, at
around 3 p.m. Rainy days did not
show any peak in air
temperatures in the trunk space
at any time. (Cooling rates were
not studied in as much depth due
to field time.)
• Soil temperatures remain
relatively constant on rainy and
sunny days, temperatures are
higher on warm days than on
rainy days due to good heat
retention.
Focus Questions
1. Describe the main characteristics of forest micro-climates. Suggest
reasons for these characteristics.
2. Suggest ways in which human impact on forests could influence climate
patterns.
3. Describe how and why forest microclimates vary.