Air Pollution, Lichens and Mosses

by Kevin J. Lyman
EDITOR'S NOTE: This article is reprinted without illustrations from LORE magazine, a benefit of
museum membership. ©1996 Milwaukee Public Museum, Inc.

As early as the mid 1800's, botanists became aware that lichens and mosses were
becoming uncommon in areas within and surrounding large towns and cities. They began to
recognize that air pollution emitted from these urban areas was affecting the colonization and
growth of these organisms.

In 1866, William Nylander, a Finnish naturalist, was the first to link the disappearance of
lichens and air pollution. He noticed that some lichen species present within Luxembourg
Gardens, Paris, were missing in other parts of the city. He attributed these differences to air
quality. Over the next thirty years, fumes from coal-burning industrial furnaces gradually led
to the eradication of the lichen population within the park.

Along with lichens, mosses too have been disappearing from large cities since the late
1800's. Even though some species of mosses and lichens can be found in the harshest
environments (Antarctic, Arctic and deserts), most species are very sensitive to air pollution.
There are, however, a few species that can survive in areas where the pollution levels are
relatively high and there are several other species that can tolerate moderate levels of air
pollution. By knowing which of these species are most sensitive to air pollution and
documenting their presence or absence, it is easy to determine how "clean" or "dirty" the air
is.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) does the most widespread damage to lower plants, even though it is
only one of several air pollution components in the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide pollution is the
result of industrial and urban emissions.

Why are mosses and lichens sensitive to air pollution? Since mosses and lichens lack
roots, surface absorption of rainfall is the only means of obtaining vital nutrients which are
dissolved in rainwater. Lichens and many mosses lack protective surfaces that can selectively
block out elements including pollutants that are dissolved in rainwater.

Lichens act like sponges, taking in everything that is dissolved in the rainwater, and
retaining it. Since there is no means of purging the SO2, the sulfur content accumulates within
the lichen and reaches a level where it breaks down the chlorophyll molecules which are
responsible for photosynthesis in the algae. Photosynthesis is the process green plants use to
convert sunlight energy to chemical energy which in turn is used by the plant. In the case of
lichens, when the photosynthetic process stops in the algae, the algae die and this leads to the
death of the fungus.

Many mosses assimilate much of their nutrients and water through their tiny leaves.
Unlike the leaves of higher (flowering) plants which have a waxy covering called a cuticle,
mosses lack this protection. This allows mosses to take in water quickly through their leaves
during rains or high humidity, and dry out fast when the air dries. This rapid and direct
absorption is detrimental when the moisture is laden with pollutants.

Since it is known that different species (especially lichens) vary in sensitivity to air
pollution, scientists can use these organisms as monitors of air pollution and as indicators of
air quality. This is very useful because modern air quality instruments cannot measure the
effects air pollution has on living cells and they are limited to measuring present conditions.

One can readily tell what the air quality is in their own backyard, park or woodlot just
by looking at what is growing on the bark of older trees. Take some time and look at the bark
of some older trees. Hopefully, a few scattered patches of gray or orange lichens can be seen
growing on the bark. Farther away from a city, there is an obvious change in what is growing
on tree trunks. A good place to see this is in the northern part of Wisconsin where the number
of lichens and mosses growing on the trunks and branches of trees will be a lot higher. Yet
there are still areas where air pollution levels are too high for lichens and mosses to grow.
These areas are termed "lichen deserts" or "moss deserts." As the air quality in these lichen
and moss deserts improve, both lichens and mosses will begin to reappear in a slow process of
recovery.

Botany staff at the museum are actively working on a project involving lichens and air
pollution. This project is a five year study currently being done with funding from the newly
formed National Biological Survey. The study involves using a lichen species called
Hypogymnia physodes which tolerates moderate levels of air pollution. This lichen was taken
from a site in Door County, Wisconsin and transplanted to four sites along the Lake Michigan
shoreline. The northern most transplant, which is also the control site, is in Door County. The
southern most transplant is at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. The source site in Door
County contains large numbers of Hypogymnia physodes, and the area has relatively low
levels of air pollution. In the past, this lichen could be found all around Lake Michigan but it
has perished in many places as the result of high levels of air pollution. For this study, the
transplanted lichens, still attached to their original branches, were tied to artificial trees made
of PVC pipe. Once a year, a few of the lichens are removed from the artificial trees and sent
to a laboratory for chemical analysis. The chemical analyses show any additional
accumulations or loss of SO2 when compared with the initial chemical analyses from the first
year. After two years, it has been discovered that the SO2 levels have increased at the three
sites south of Door County. The highest level being at Indiana Dunes, the lowest level at the
Door County site. This project will reveal that if the lichens can survive, it is an indication
that pollution levels in these areas are stabilizing or declining. In addition, valuable
information will be obtained on the levels of several other pollutants, including sulfur, on the
western and southern shore of Lake Michigan.

Lichens and mosses are sensitive to air pollution and have disappeared from many
metropolitan and industrial areas over the last century. It is possible to take advantage of their
sensitivity to pollutants and use them as biomonitors in transplant studies. Lichens and mosses are
valuable research tools and through the information they provide, we can have a better
understanding of the impact air pollution has on the environment.

WHAT ARE LICHENS?

Lichens (Latin, lichen, from the Greek word meaning "tree moss") are unusual
organisms because they consist of fungal threads and microscopic green alga living together
and functioning as a single organism. The main body of a lichen is called a thallus and does
not resemble either the fungal or algal parts. Both components receive some benefit from this
symbiotic association. Simply, the algae within the thallus manufacture sugars that the fungus
can live off of and in return, the fungus provides protection for the alga. Lichens do not have
roots, stems and leaves so they must receive their nutrients from rainfall.

Lichens grow readily and luxuriously on rocks, soil, trees or artificial structures in unpolluted
habitats. Lichens can live in unfavorable terrestrial habitats throughout the world, including the
Arctic, Antarctic and deserts. They are considered pioneer species in some habitats, because they
are often the first organisms to invade newly exposed rock or soil. Following the colonization of a
substrate, lichens may promote soil formation by adding organic material and dissolving minerals
from the rock. In Wisconsin, there are approximately 565 different species of lichens.

WHAT ARE MOSSES?

Mosses belong to a group of green plants known as bryophytes (from the Greek words
bryon, "moss" and phyton, "plant"). Bryophytes which include mosses, liverworts and
hornworts, do not produce flowers, fruits or seeds. All reproduce by spores and can also form
new plants from small fragments of stems and leaves that are broken off. Bryophytes have
structures that resemble roots, stems and leaves but they lack true water and food conducting
tissues.

Though relatively small, they can sometimes form a conspicuous component in many
ecosystems. Commonly found growing on rocks, soil, rotting logs, trees and even shingles,
bryophytes favor cool moist habitats like woodlands, stream banks and swamps. Mosses can
withstand harsh environmental conditions as well and can be found in the Arctic, Antarctic
and deserts. They also grow on sand dunes, where they play an important role stabilizing the
shifting sands. Mosses along with lichens, are sometimes the first organism to colonize newly
exposed soil. There are 532 species of bryophytes in Wisconsin of which 395 are mosses, 133
are liverworts, and 4 are hornworts.