Section 1:- Introduction to Networking Concepts

Networking:-

Networking is a collection of computers and other networking devices connected together

to share data and information.

Protocols:-

Protocols are the sets of rules that govern how the computer and other network devices
exchange information over a network.

Basic Network Types:-

1) Local Area Network (LAN):- LAN can be defined as a network that spans a
relatively small geographic area.
2) Wide Area Network (WAN):- WAN can be defined as a network that spans a
relatively large geographic area.
3) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):- MAN can be defined as a network that
spans several LAN across a city wide area geographic area.

Network Architecture:-

1) Peer to Peer Network:- In Peer to Peer networking, all hosts can request and
provide data and services on the network.
Ex:- By connecting two Window XP workstations in order to share information
can be considered as Peer to Peer network.

Peer-to-Peer

2) Client/Server Network:- In Client/Server architecture, all hosts are assigned

specific roles. Client can request for data and services that store on the Server.
Ex:- By connecting Window XP workstation with the Window Server 2003
domain controller can be considered as Client/Server network.

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Client/Server Architecture

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Section 2:- OSI & TCP/IP reference model

OSI(Open System Interconnection):-

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model developed by ISO

(International Organization for Standardization) in 1984. It is now considered the
primary architectural model for inter-computing and internetworking
communications. The OSI model defines the communications process into 7 layers,
which divides the tasks involved with moving information between networked
computers into seven smaller, more manageable task groups.

OSI Model has seven layers:-

1) Application Layer
2) Presentation Layer
3) Session Layer
4) Transport Layer
5) Network Layer
6) Data Link Layer
7) Physical Layer

1) Application Layer: -

• It provides the actual interface between the user applications and the network.
• Protocols:- FTP, SMTP, HTTP, Telnet, DNS, DHCP etc.
• Devices:- Gateway.
• PDU:- Data.

2) Presentation Layer:-

• It is responsible for the data translation and code formatting. It also provides the
encryption and compression of data.
• Protocols:- RTF,GIF,JPG,AVI etc.
• Devices:- Gateway.
• PDU:- Data.

3) Session Layer:-

• It is responsible for establishing, maintaining and terminating the session between

the communication devices.
• Session can either be Half Duplex or Full Duplex.
• Protocols:- RPC, NFS(Network File System), SQL.
• Devices:- Gateway.
• PDU:- Data.

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4) Transport Layer:-

• It is responsible for end to end data transmission and establishes a logical

connection between the source and destination hosts.
• It segments and reassembles data into data input streams.
• Protocols:- TCP, UDP & SPX.
• Devices:- Gateway.
• PDU:- Segmentation.

3) Network Layer:-

• It manages the logical addressing of the devices and also handles the routing.
• Protocols:- IP, IP/SPX, ICMP, ARP, RARP.
• Devices:- Router.
• PDU:- Packet.

2) Data Link Layer:-

• It is responsible for physical transmission of data and can also handles error
notification, network topology and flow control.
• Two sub layer:- LLC and MAC
1) Logical Link Control:- It serves as the intermediary between the physical
layer and upper layers.
2) Media Access Control:-

• Protocols:- PPP, Ethernet Token ring, WAN etc.

• Devices:- Bridge & Switch.
• PDU:- Frames.

1) Physical Layer:-

• It controls the transferring of bits on to the physical wire.

• Protocols:- No.
• Devices:- Hub, Repeater, NIC etc.
• PDU:- Bits.

TCP/IP Model:-

This Model has four layers:-

1) Application Layer:-

• It defines protocols for node to node application communication and also control
user interface specification.

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 • Protocols:- Telnet, FTP,TFTP,SMTP etc.
• DPU:- Data.

2) Host to Host Layer:-

• It provides end to end data communication and ensuring the error free delivery of
data.
• It handles packet sequencing and maintains data integrity.
• Protocols:- TCP, UDP etc.
• PDU:- Datagram, Segment.

3) Internet Layer:-

• It handles routing of data packets between different hosts or networks.

• Protocols: - IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP etc.
• PDU: - Packet.

4) Network Layer:-

• It defines the physical interconnection between hosts and monitors the data
exchange between the host and the network.
• Protocols:- Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI etc.
• PDU:- Frame , Bits.

Protocol Description:-

• Application Layer/Presentation/Session Protocols:-

1) FTP (File transfer protocol):- It is used to send and receive files on internet.
It uses port 20 and 21.
2) Telnet: - It is used to connect to a host and emulate a terminal that the remote
server can recognize. It uses port 23.
3) SMTP (Simple mail transfer protocol):- It is used to send email on the
network. It uses port 25.
4) DNS (Domain naming system):- It is used to resolve a fully-qualified domain
name to IP address. It uses port 53.
5) DHCP (Dynamic host configuration protocol):- It is used to automatically
provide IP address to client computers. It uses port 67&68.
6) HTTP (Hyper text transfer protocol):- It is used to send or receive web
pages on the web that are encoded in html. It uses port 80.
7) POP3 (Post office protocol):- It is used by the e-mail clients to retrieve mails
from the remote servers. It uses port
8) RPC (Remote procedure call):- It enables computers to share methods,
routine and common function on a network.

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 9) NFS (Network file system):- It allows two different types of file system to
interoperate.
10) IMAP (Internet message access protocol):- A protocol for e-mail messages
on the internet.
11) SNMP (Simple network management protocol):- it is used for monitoring
and manages network devices such as router, switch etc. It uses UDP port 161
&162.

• Transport Layer Protocols:-

1) TCP (Transmission control protocol):- It is a connection-oriented protocol,

which ensures guarantee delivery of data packets.
2) UDP (Use datagram protocol):- It is a connectionless protocol which doesn’t
ensures guarantee delivery of data packets.

• Network Layer Protocols:-

1) IP (Internet protocol):- It is a connectionless protocol used for packet

forwarding and routing.
2) IPX/SPX (Internet packet exchange/Sequence packet exchange):- It is a
standard protocol for Novell OS for packet forwarding and routing.
3) ICMP (Internet control message protocol):- It is a management protocol
used for providing message service to IP address. Ex- Ping & Traceroute.
4) ARP (Address resolution protocol):- It is used for finding the hardware
address of a host from a known IP address.
5) RARP (Reverse address resolution protocol):- It is used for diskless
machines to determine their IP address using its physical address.

• Data Link Layer Protocols:-

1) Token Ring:- It is developed by IBM in which computers access the network

through token passing. Usually uses a star-wired ring topology.
2) PPP (Point to point protocol):- refers from WAN topic.
3) Ethernet: - refers from section 3.

TCP & UDP

• TCP is reliable and connection oriented protocol that ensures guarantee delivery
of data.
• TCP utilizes three way handshake method.

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 • Host A sends a synchronous message to Host B to establish a connection.
• Host B sends a acknowledgement message to Host A’s synchronous message
and sends it’s own synchronous message.
• Then Host A responds with a acknowledgement message to Host B’s
synchronous message.

• TCP incorporates windowing for the flow control.

• TCP header has 12 fields:
1) Source Port (16 bits).
2) Destination Port (16 bits).
3) Sequence Number (32 bits).
4) Ack Number (32 bits).
5) Data Offset (4 bits).
6) Reserved (6 bits).
7) Control Bits (6 bits).
8) Window (16 bits).
9) Checksum (16 bits)
10) Urgent Pointer (16 bits)
11) Option (variable)
12) Padding (variable)

UDP is an unreliable and connectionless protocol which doesn’t ensures guarantee

delivery of data.
UDP header has four fields:
Source port (16 bits).
Destination port (16 bits).
Length (16 bits).
Checksum (16 bits).
Compare TCP & UDP

TCP
1) Connection oriented protocol.
2) Provides three way handshake.
3) Sends acknowledgements
4) Reliable but slow.
5) Segments and sequences data.
6) Flow control.
7) Protocol ex-
FTP,SSH,Telnet,SMTP,DNS,HTTP,POP3,
HTTPS/SSL.
UDP
1) Connectionless protocol.
2) No three way handshake.
3) Doesn’t send acknowledgment
4) Unreliable but slow.
5) Doesn’t segments and sequence data.
6) No flow control.
7) DNS,DHCP,SNMP,TFTP,RIP,NFS

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Section 3:- Ethernet Standard and Cable

The Ethernet has become the standard technology used in LAN technology.

The IEEE categories of Ethernet is

1) Ethernet- 802.3
2) Fast Ethernet- 802.3u
3) Gigabit Ethernet- 802.3z

1) Ethernet:-

• Ethernet support transmission up to 10 mbps speed.

• It uses coaxial cable (thinnet or thicknet) and twisted pair cable (10BaseT).
• Ethernet standard include:-
1) 10Base2- 10 mbps speed over thinnet coaxial cable.
2) 10Base5- 10 mbps speed over thicknet coaxial cable.
3) 10BaseT- 10 mbps speed over unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
4) 10BaseFL- 10mbps speed over Fiber cable.

2) Fast Ethernet:-

• It supports transmission up to 100 mbps speed.

• It uses category 5 UTP or optical fiber cable.
• Fast Ethernet standard include:-
1) 100BaseT- 100 mbps speed over UTP cable.
2) 100Base FX- 100 mbps speed over fiber cable.
3) 100BaseSX- 100 mbps speed over multimode fiber cable.
4) 100BaseBX- 100 mbps speed over single mode fiber cable.

3) Gigabit Ethernet:-

• It support transmission up to 1000mbps speed.

• It uses both twisted pair and optical fiber cable.
• Gigabit Ethernet standard include:-
1) 1000BaseT- 1000 mbps speed over UTP(category 5) cable.
2) 1000BaseTX- 1000 mbps speed over UTP(category 6) cable.
3) 1000BaseFX- 1000 mbps speed over fiber cable.
4) 1000BaseSX- 1000 mbps speed over multi mode fiber cable.

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 5) 1000BaseBX- 1000 mbps speed over single mode fiber cable.

Cable:-

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device
to another.
The following types of cable used in networks:-
1) Twisted Pair
2) Coaxial Cable
3) Optical Fiber Cable

1) Twisted Pair Cable:-

• Twisted Pair cable usually contains 2 or 4 pair of wire twisted around each other
to reduce crosstalk.
• Crosstalk is a form of electromagnetic interference or noise that reduces the
strength and quality of a signal.
• Two varieties of Twisted Pair Cable
7) STP
8) UTP (Most popular)

1) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):-

• It contains 4 pair wire twisted around each other.

• Speed range from 4- 100 mbps.
• Maximum length 100m.
• Used in Ethernet, Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet.

(UTP)

• The standard connector for the UTP cable is RJ-45 connector.

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 (RJ-45 connector)

2) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):-

• Speed ranges from 10-155 mbps.

• Maximum length is 100m.
• Used in AppleTalk and Token Rings networks.
• Expensive than UTP cable.

• Categories of UTP Cable

Category Speed Use

1 1 Mbps Voice Only(Telephone Wire).
2 4 Mbps LocalTalk & Telephone (Rarely
used).
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet.
4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used).
5 100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet.
1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet.
5e 1000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet.
6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet.

2) Coaxial Cable:-

• A Coaxial cable consists of a solid copper core surrounded by a plastic insulator,

a braided shield and an insulation sheath.
• It is used to transmit data, voice and video.

Coaxial Cable
• The most common type of connector used with coaxial cable is the Bayone-Neill-
Concelman (BNC).
• Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-
connector, barrel connector and terminator.

BNC Connector
• The two types of coaxial cable is

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 1) Thinnet (10Base2)
2) Thicknet (10Base5)

1) Thinnet (10Base2):-

• It supports transmission speed of 10 mbps.

• Maximum length is 185m.
• Used in Ethernet and Bus networks.
• It uses RG family and BNC connector.
2) Thicknet (10Base5):-

• It supports transmission speed of 10 mbps.

• Maximum length is 500m.
• Used in 10Base5 and linear bus networks.
• It uses RG-8 and RG-11 connector.

3) Fiber Optic Cable:-

• Fiber optic cable consists of a center glass core surrounded by a several protective
materials. It transmits light rather than electrons.
• It supports transmission speed varies from 100 mbps to 1 gbps or 1000 mbps.
• Maximum length is 2 km.
• It is expensive and difficult to install.
• There are two types of fiber optic
1) Single Mode.
2) Multi Mode.
• Single mode can provide more distance than muli mode and more expensive.

Fiber Optic Cable

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Section 4:- Topology and Network Devices

Network Topology:-

The network topology is the physical interconnections of the networking devices. A LAN
is an example of the network topology that exhibits both the physical and logical
topology. Two types of Topology :- 1) Physical Topology.
2) Logical Topology.

1) Physical Topology:-

• The way that the workstations are connected to the network through the actual
cables that transmits data.

• The most common physical topologies are

A) Bus
B) Ring
C) Star
D) Tree

• A) Bus: - All devices are connected to a central cable with a terminator at each
end.

Bus Topology.

Advantage:-
• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus cable.
• Requires less cable length than a star topology.

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Disadvantage:-
• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

B) Ring: - All devices are connected to one another in a shape of a closed loop.

Ring Topology

Advantage:-
• Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit
• Performs better than a star topology under heavy network load
• Can create much larger network using Token Ring
• Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the
computers

Disadvantage:-
• One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in the MAU can create
problems for the entire network.
• Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network.
• Network adapter cards and MAU's are much more expensive than
Ethernet cards and hubs.
• Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load.

C) Star: - All devices are connected to a central network hub, switch or

concentrator.

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 Star Topology.
Advantage:-
• Easy to install and wire.
• No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantage:-
• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
• If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs,
etc.

D) Tree: - It is a hybrid topology that consists of groups of star configured

networks connected to a linear bus cable.

Tree Topology
Advantage:-
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
• Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantage:-
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

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 • If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

2) Logical Topology:-

• The way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next
without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices.
• The Ethernet protocol is a common logical bus topology protocol. LocalTalk is
a common logical bus or star topology protocol. IBM's Token Ring is a common
logical ring topology protocol.

Networking Devices:-

1) Multiplexer:-

• Multiplexer is a device that is used to combine the several signals into one signal.

2) NIC Cards:-

• NIC stands for Network Interface Card.

• It is one of the most important device that is used for communication and to
connect the computer with each other.
• A twisted pair UTP/STP with RJ-45 connector is used to connect the computer
with the Hub or Switch. Fiber optic is also used.
• NIC Card operates on the data link layer and physical layer.
• Every NIC has unique MAC address and no two NIC cards from different
vendors can have same MAC address.

3) CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit):-

• A CSU/DSU is a digital-interface device used to connect a Data Terminal

Equipment device or DTE, such as a router, to a digital circuit (for example a T1
or T3 line).
• A CSU/DSU operates at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model.
• Digital lines require both a channel service unit (CSU) and a data service unit
(DSU):
a) The CSU provides termination for the digital signal and ensures
connection integrity through error correction and line monitoring.

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 b) The DSU converts the data encoded in the digital circuit into synchronous
serial data for connection to a DTE device and provides timing to each end.

4) Repeaters:-

• A repeater is a communication device that retransmits the weak signals with

greater power.
• It receives the signals over the wireless, optical cable and network cable mediums
such as copper wire, UTP/STP and fiber optic.
• Repeaters operate at physical layer.

(Repeater)

5) Hub:-

• Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of LAN.

• A hub contains multiple ports. Hubs don’t look at the data link header and thus
can’t make intelligent forwarding decisions based on MAC address. When a
packet arrives at one port, it is forwarded to the every other port, excluding the
port that frame originated from.
• Hubs works at physical layer.
• Ethernet hubs operate at half duplex mode. At half duplex, devices can either
transmit or receive data, but not simultaneously.
• Ethernet uses CSMA/CD to control media access. Whenever a device wants to
send a packet on the network media, it first listens to the media. If the media is

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 free then it sends the data. If two devices transmit data at the same time, a
collision occurs and each computer stop data transmit for a specific amount of
time before retransmitting their respective packet.
• All ports on a hub belong to the same collision domain.
• Hubs belong to only one broadcast domain. It forward both broadcasts and
multicasts out every port, except for the port the broadcast or multicast originated
from.
• There are three different types of hubs:-
1) Passive
2) Active
3) Intelligent
• Passive hubs don’t amplify the electrical signal of incoming packets before
broadcasting them out to the network.
• Active hubs, on the other hand, do perform this amplification, as does a different
type of dedicated network device called a repeater.
• Intelligent hubs add some more features to that provided by the active hubs. It
helps in improving the performance of the network/LAN and managing the data
communication within the network.

(Hub)
6) Bridge:-

• Bridge is a device that connects two different LAN segments based on same
protocols.
• Bridge works at data link layer.
• It forward frames based on Mac address and reduces traffic between two
segments.
• Types of bridges:-
1) Transparent Bridge
2) Translation Bridge
3) Encapsulated Bridge

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 (Bridge)
• Transparent Bridge simply connects two LAN based on same protocols.
• Translation Bridge can forwards data between two dissimilar protocols, such as
Ethernet to FDDI or Ethernet to Token Ring.

7) Switch:-

• Layer-2 switch makes intelligent forwarding decision based on the MAC address.
• It sends packet only to the intended ports rather than all computers on the
network.
• Unlike hubs, switches can operate at full duplex.
• Each individual port on a switch belongs to its own collision domain. Thus
switches create more collision domains.
• Like hubs, switches belong to one broadcast domain.
• Layer-2 switches will forward a broadcast or multicast out every port, excluding
the port the broadcast or multicast originated from.
• Switches utilize the Spanning Tree Protocol to maintain a loop free environment.
• There are three things that switches do that hubs don’t:-
• Address Learning.
• Intelligent forwarding and filtering.
• Loop Avoidance.
• Switches support three methods of forwarding frames:-
• The Cut-Through (Real Time) method reads only the header of a frame to
determine its destination address. This method transfers frames at wire speed
and has less latency of any of the three methods. No error checking.
• The Fragment Free (Modified Cut-Through) method reads only the first 64
bytes of a frame, which is minimize size of an Ethernet packet. His is the default
mode for a catalyst 1900 family switch.
• The Store and Forward method reads the entire frame and performs a Cycle
Redundancy Check (CRC) to ensure complete reliability. And has the highest
latency of any the three methods due to error checking.

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 (Switch)

8) Router:-

• A router is a device that routes information between different networks or

interconnected networks.
• Layer 3 routers must examine the network layer header of each packet before that
data can be routed. Thus, each packet consumes CPU cycles that result in latency.
• Layer-3 routers do not have ASICs to allow routing to occur at wire speed. Thus,
routing is always slower than switching.
• To route packets, router builds routing table that contain the following :-
•The destination network and subnet mask.
•The “next-hop” information.
•Routing metrics and administrative distance.
• Each port coming off a router creates a separate broadcast and collision domain.

(Router)

9) Gateway:-

• A gateway is a node on a network that serves as the entrance point to another

network.

10) Brouter:-

• Brouter is a device that combines both the features of bridge and router.
• Works at network and data link layers.

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Section 5: Wide Area Network(WAN)

Common WAN Terms:-

1) Customer Premises Equipment (CPE):-

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 • It is owned by the customer and located on the customer premises.

2) Demarcation Point:-

• It is the point where service provider responsibility ends and the CPE begin.

3) Local Loop:-

• This is the physical line connection between the customer’s network and the
service provider’s nearest central office.

4) Central Office (CO):-

• This point connects the customer’s networks to the provider’s switching network.

5) Toll Network:-

• It is the trunk line inside the WAN provider’s network.

WAN Connection type:-

• WANs are generally grouped into three separate connection types:

1) Point-to-Point technologies
2) Circuit-switched technologies
3) Packet-switched technologies

• Point-to-Point technologies:-

 These technologies are often called dedicated or leased line.

 These are leased from the service provider and provide guaranteed
bandwidth from one location to another.
 These are expensive form of WAN technology.
 The cost is determined by the distance of the connection and the amount
of bandwidth allocated.
 Generally, point to point links require no call set-up and the connection is
usually always on. Ex: - T1 or T3.

• Circuit-switched technologies:-

 It requires call set-up to occur before data can be transferred. The session
is usually torn down once the data transferred is complete.
 Circuit-switched lines are generally low speed compared to point to point
lines.
 Ex: - Asynchronous Dial-up & ISDN.

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 • Packet-switched technologies:-

 It enables us to share bandwidth with other subscribers of the service

provider.
 Here bandwidth is not guaranteed.
 Ex: - Frame-Relay & X.25.

WAN Encapsulation:-

• WAN technology operates at data link layer and physical layer.

• By default, HDLC is used for encapsulation.
• Other supported encapsulation types
1) SDLC.
2) PPP.
3) LAPB.
4) Frame-Relay.
5) X.25
6) ATM.

• High level data link control(HDLC):-

 It is a WAN encapsulation protocol used on dedicated point-to-point serial

lines.
 It is a ISO standard protocol and also Cisco’s default encapsulation for
serial.
 It provides no authentication mechanisms.

• Point to Point protocol(PPP):-

 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a standardized WAN encapsulation

protocol that can be used on a wide variety of WAN technologies,
including: Serial dedicated point-to-point lines, Asynchronous dial-up &
ISDN.

 PPP has four components:

• EIA/TIA-232-C – standard for physical serial communication
• HDLC – for encapsulating packets into frames over serial lines
• LCP – for establishing, setting-up, and terminating point-to-point
links.
• NCP – allows multiple Layer-3 protocols (such as IP and IPX) to be
encapsulated into frames.

 PPP supports several features that HDLC does not:

• Authentication
• Compression

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 • Multi-link
• Error Control.

 PPP supports two types of authentication, PAP and CHAP.

 PAP (Password Authentication Protocol) sends passwords in clear text,
and thus does not provide much security.
 CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol) uses MD5 to apply
an irreversible hash.
 To configure serial interface for PPP encapsulation :
Router (config) # int s0/0
Router (config-if) # encapsulation ppp.

 To configure PPP authentication:

Router (config) # hostname Router1
Router (config) # username Router2 password PASSWORD

Router (config) # int s0/0

Router (config-if) # ppp authentication chap

The first line sets the hostname of the router. The second line sets the
username and password used for PPP authentication. The username must
be the hostname of the remote router, and the password must be the same
on both routers.

 To instead configure pap authentication:

Router (config) # int s0/0
Router (config-if) # ppp authentication pap

 To view the encapsulation configured on the interface:

Router# show interface s0/0

 To troubleshoot PPP authentication between two routers:

Router# debug ppp authentication.

• ISDN(Integrated service digital network):-

 ISDN is a circuit-switched WAN connection type that can transmit voice

and data over an existing phone line.
 It has faster call set-up and bandwidth rates than dial-up connection.
 There are two types of ISDN
• BRI (Basic rate interface)- contains two 64 Kbps B-Channel & one
16Kbps D-Channel.
• PRI (Primary rate interface) - contains twenty three B-Channels & one
6Kbps D-Channel.

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• Frame Reley:-

 Frame-Relay is a packet-switched technology, which shares bandwidth

between users on the switched network.
 Frame-relay is less expensive than dedicated WAN lines, but customers
are not guaranteed bandwidth.
 For communication to occur between locations, virtual circuits (VC) must
be created. A VC is a one-way path through the Frame-Relay cloud.
 A frame Relay circuit can either be Permanent (PVC) or Switched (SVC).
 A PVC is always kept active and is the most common virtual circuit.
 A SVC is created only when traffic needs to be sent and is torn down
when the data transfer is completed.

 Frame Relay switches make decision based on the Data Link Connection
Identifiers (DLCIs), whereas Ethernet switches make decision based on
the MAC addresses.
 Frame Relay encapsulation type:-
• Cisco – the default, and proprietary, Frame-Relay encapsulation
• IETF – the standardized Frame-Relay encapsulation.
 Frame-Relay Local Management Interface (LMI) is the type of signaling
used between our router and our provider’s Frame-Relay switch. LMI
provides status updates of Virtual Circuits between the Frame switch and
the router.
 There are three LMI-types:
• Cisco – default and proprietary (naturally)

24
 • ANSI
• Q.933a
 LMI type is auto-sensed on Cisco routers, but can be manually set if
desired.

• Network Address Translation(NAT):-

 Network Address Translation is used to translate between the private

address and public address.
 NAT can perform a public to public address translation and private to
private as well.
 Types of NAT:-
Static NAT- It performs static one to one translation between two
addresses. Most often used to assign public address to a device behind
a NAT enabled firewall or router.
Dynamic NAT- It utilizes a pool of global addresses to dynamically
translate the outbound traffic of clients behind a NAT enabled device.
NAT Overload/PAT (Port Address Translation)-It translate the outbound
traffic of client to unique
 NAT terminology:-
1) Inside Local- the specific IP address assigned to an inside host behind
a NAT-enabled device. (Usually a private address.)
2) Inside Global- the address that identifies an inside host to the outside
world (usually a public address).
3) Outside Global- the address assigned to an outside host (usually a
public address).
4) Outside Local- the address that identifies an outside host to the inside
network. Often this is the same address as the Outside Global.
Note- Inside hosts are within the local network, while outside hosts are
external to the local network.

 NAT terminology example:-

Consider the above example. For a connection from Host A to Host B, the
NAT addresses are identified as follows:
• Inside Local Address- 10.1.1.10
• Inside Global Address- 55.1.1.1
• Outside Global Address- 99.1.1.2
• Outside Local Address- 99.1.1.2

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 Host A’s configured address is 10.1.1.10, and is identified as its Inside
Local Address. When Host A communicates with the Internet, it is
stamped with Router A’s public address, using PAT. Thus, Host A’s
Inside Global address will become 55.1.1.1.
When Host A communicates
with Host B, it will access Host B’s outside Global address of 99.1.1.2. In
this instance, the Outside Local address is also 99.1.1.2. Host A is never
aware of Host B’s configured address.

 To configure static NAT:

The first step to configure Static NAT is to identify the inside (usually
private) and outside (usually public) interfaces:

Router (config) # int e0/0

Router (config-if) # ip nat inside

Router (config) # int s0/0

Router (config-if) # ip nat outside

To statically map a public address to a private address, the syntax is as

follows:

Router (config) # ip nat inside source static 172.16.1.1 158.80.1.40

This command performs a static translation of the source address

172.16.1.1 (located on the inside of the network), to the outside address of
158.80.1.40.

 To configure Dynamic NAT:

When configuring Dynamic NAT, the inside and outside interfaces must
first be identified:
Router(config)# int e0/0
Router(config-if)# ip nat inside

Router(config)# int s0/0

Router(config-if)# ip nat outside

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 Next, a pool of global addresses must be specified. Inside hosts will
dynamically choose the next available address in this pool, when
communicating outside the local network:

Router(config)# ip nat pool POOLNAME 158.80.1.1 158.80.1.50 netmask

255.255.255.0
The above command specifies that the pool named POOLNAME contains
a range of public addresses from 158.80.1.1 through 158.80.1.50.

Finally, a list of private addresses that are allowed to be dynamically

translated must be specified:

Router(config)# ip nat inside source list 10 pool POOLNAME

Router(config)# access-list 10 permit 172.16.1.0 0.0.0.255

The first command states that any inside host with a source that matches
access-list 10 can be translated to any address in the pool named
POOLNAME. The access-list specifies any host on the 172.16.1.0
network.

 Configuring NAT Overload (or PAT)

Recall that NAT Overload (or PAT) is necessary when the number of
internal clients exceeds the available global addresses. Each internal host
is translated to a unique port number off of a single global address.

Configuring NAT overload is relatively simple:

Router(config)# int e0/0
Router(config-if)# ip nat inside

Router(config)# int s0/0

Router(config-if)# ip nat outside

Router(config)# ip nat inside source list 10 interface Serial0/0 overload

Router(config)# access-list 10 permit 172.16.1.0 0.0.0.255
Any inside host with a source that matches access-list 10 will be translated
with overload to the IP address configured on the Serial0/0 interface.

 Troubleshooting NAT

To view all current static and dynamic translations:

Router# show ip nat translations

To view whether an interface is configure as an inside or outside NAT

interface, and to display statistical information regarding active NAT
translations:

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 Router# show ip nat statistics

To view NAT translations in real-time:

Router# debug ip nat

To clear all dynamic NAT entries from the translation table:

Router# clear ip nat translation.

VPN(Virtual Private Network):-

• It enables organization to create private networks over the public internet

infrastructure that maintain confidentially and security. Virtual means
“Information within a private network is transported over a public network”.
Private means “The traffic is encrypted to keep the data confidential”.

• Benefits:

 Cost saving-By using broadband, VPNs reduce connectivity costs while

increasing remote connection bandwidth.
 Security- Advance encryption and authentication protocols data from
unauthorized access.

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  Scalability.

• Types of VPN:-
1) Site-to-Site VPN- Organization use site-to-site VPNs to connect dispersed
location in the same way as a lease line or frame-relay connection is used.

 Site-to Site VPN are extensions of the classic WAN.

 In a site-to-site VPN, hosts send and receive TCP/IP traffic through a
VPN gateway, which could be a router or PIX firewall or an Adapter
Security Appliance (ASP).
 The VPN gateway is responsible for encapsulation and encryption
outbound traffic for all of the traffic from a particular site and sending it
through a VPN tunnel over the internet to a peer VPN gateway at the
target site. On receipt, the peer VPN gateway strips the headers, decrypts
the contents and relays the packet towards the target host inside its private
network.

2) Remote Access VPN- In a remote access VPN, each host typically has VPN
client software. Whenever the host tried to send any traffic, the VPN client s/w
encapsulation and encrypts that traffic before sending it over the internet to the
VPN gateway at the edge of the target network. On receipt, the VPN gateway
handles the data in same way as it would handle data from a site-to-site VPN.

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 • Characteristic of secure VPN:-
1) Data Confidentially- Protects data from spoofing.
2) Data Integrity- Guarantees that no tempering or altercation occurs.
3) Authentication- Ensures that only authorized senders and devices enter the
network.

• VPN Components- VPNs uses cryptographic tunneling protocols to provide

protection against packet sniffing, sender authentication and message integrity.

 Components required establish this VPN includes:

- An existing network with servers and workstation.
- Internet connection.
- VPN gateways.
- Appropriate software to create and manage VPN tunnel.

• Encapsulation- It is referred to as tunneling because encapsulation transmits data

transparently from network to network through a shared network infrastructure.

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• Encryption- Encryption codes data into different format using secret keys.

• Decryption- Decodes encrypted data into the original format.

• VPN tunneling- It encapsulates an entire packet within another packet and sends
the new packet over a network.

 Protocols:-
- Carrier Protocols: The protocols over which the information is
traveling (Fame-Relay, ATM, and MPLS).
- Encapsulating Protocols: The protocols that is wrapped around the
original data. (GRE, L2F, IPSec, L2TP, PPTP)
- Passenger Protocol: The protocol over which the original data was
being carried. (IPX, AppleTalk, IPv4, IPv6)

• VPN Data Integrity- The degree of security provided by any encryption

algorithm depends on the length of the key.

• Symmetric Encryption- It is also called as secret key cryptography.Encryption

and decryption uses the same key. Typically used to encrypt the content of a
message. Ex:- DES, 3DES, AES.

Asymmetric Encryption- It is also called as public key cryptography.Encryption

and decryption uses different keys. Typically used in digital signature and key
management. Ex:- RSA.

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 • Some common Encryption algorithms:-
1) Data Encryption Standard (DES)-
 It was developed by the IBM.
 DES uses a 56-bit key.
 DES is a symmetric key cryptography.

2) Triple DES (3DES)-

 A newer version of DES that encrypt with one key, decrypt with another
key and then encrypts one final time with another key.

3) Advance Encryption Standard (AES)-

 AES provides stronger security than DES and is more efficient than 3DES.
 It offers three different key lengths- 128, 192 and 256 bits key.

4) Rivert, Shamir, and Adleman (RSA)-

 It is an asymmetrical key cryptography.
 The keys use a bit length of 12, 768, 1024 or larger.

• IPSec:-

 IPSec is a set of protocols that secure traffic over an untrusted network

such as internet.

 There are two main IPSec framework protocols:

Authentication Header(AH).
Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP).

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 Authentication Header (AH)-
• It provides both authentication and data integrity.
• It doesn’t provide confidentiality of data.
• It doesn’t encrypt data.
• AH uses hash algorithm to compute a hash value on both the payload
and header of a packet, ensuring integrity of the packet.
• AH won’t work through a NAT enable device.

 Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)-

• It provides Authentication, Confidentially and Integrity secure. Thus, it
does encryption and more secure the AH.
• It also uses hash algorithm for data integrity. However, the hash doesn’t
include the IP header of the packet and thus ESP will work through a
NAT device.

 IPSec relies on exiting algorithm to implement encryption, authentication

and key exchange.
1) DES- Encrypts and decrypts data packet.
2) 3DES- Provides significant encryption strength of 56-bits.
3) AES- Provides strong encryption, depending on the key length used.
4) MD5- Authenticates packet data, using a 128-bit shared secret key.
5) SHA-1- Authenticates packet data, using a 160-bits shared secret key.
6) DH- Allows two parties to establish a shared secret key used by
encryption and hash algorithm.

 IPSec configuration-
• When configure an IPSec gateway to provide security services, first
choose an IPSec protocol. ESP or ESP with AH or AH.
• If the IPSec is implemented with ESP, then choose the encryption
algorithm that is appropriate for the desired level od security:DES, AES
or 3DES.
• Then choose an Authentication algorithm to provide data integrity, MD5
or SHA.
• Establish the sharing of key information between peers. DH1 or DH2 or
DH5.

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Section 6: Routing & Switching

Routing:-

Routing is the process of sending packets from one network to another network.

Router Memory Component:-

Memory Writable Volatile Function

ROM No No Stores bootstrap.
Flash Yes No Stores IOS
NVRAM Yes No Stores startup-config.
RAM Yes Yes Stores running-config.

Router Boot process:-

• When a router is turned on. The bootstrap is loaded from ROM. Then the
bootstrap runs the power on self test (POST).
• If the post completes successfully, the bootstraps attempts to load IOS from the
Flash memory.
• If the bootstrap doesn’t find the IOS in Flash, it loads the basic IOS from the
ROM into the RAM. If the bootstrap does find the IOS, it loads the IOS into
RAM.
• After that the IOS attempts to loads the startup-config file from the NVRAM.
• If the startup-config is not found in NVRAM, the IOS attempts to load a
configuration file from TFTP server. If no TFTP responds, the router enters initial
configuration mode.
• If the startup-config is found in NVRAM, it is loaded into RAM.
• Then the startup-config becomes the running-config in RAM.

Routing principles:-

• Every router makes its decision alone, based on the information it has its own
routing table.
• The fact that one router has certain information in its routing table doesn’t mean
that other router have the same information.
• Routing information about a path from one network to another doesn’t provide
routing information about the reverse or return path.

Path Determination:-

• The path determination function is the process of how the router determines
which path to use when forwarding a packet.

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 • To determine the best path, the router searches its routing table for a network
address that matches the packet’s destination IP address.

 Directly connected network- If the destination IP address of the packet

belongs to a device on a network that is directly connected to the one of the
router’s interface, that packet is forward directly to that device.

 Remote network- If the destination IP address of the packet belong to a

remote networks then the packet is forward to another router.

 No Route determined- If the destination IP address doesn’t belong to

either a connected or remote network and if the router doesn’t have a default
route, then the packet is discarded.

• The router encapsulates the IP packet into the Layer-2 data link
frame of the exit interface.
• The type of encapsulation is determined by the type of interface
1) Fast Ethernet- Ethernet frames.
2) Serial – PPP frame.

Switching Function:-

• The switching function is the process used by a router to accept a packet on one
interface and forward it out to another interface.
• When a router receives a packet, it does three works-
1) De encapsulates the layer-3 packet by removing the layer-2 frame header and
trailer.
2) Examines the destination IP address in the routing table.
3) Encapsulates layer-3 packet into a new layer-2 frame and forward it out.

• As a packet travels from the source device to the final destination device ,
the layer-3 IP address don’t change, however the layer-2 data link address change
at every hop.

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