Full Report Changed

Design of Converting Solar Energy
into Electrical Energy for Domestic

Utilization Incorporating
MPPT
Session 2003
Project Advisor
Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi
Author
Arsalan A Rahim 2003-E-121
Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology
Lahore, Pakistan
2007
In the name of Allah, the most gracious, the most
merciful & he taught Adam the names of all things
and he taught man that which he know not
Al-Quran
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, all praise to Almighty Allah who
gave me the courage and patience to carry out this work
successfully. Who created the heaven and the earth, night
and day and sun for solar energy which named the title of
my project.
I express my sincere appreciation for the

encouragement, excellent advice and valuable help which I
got from my project adviser Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi,
without whose sympathetic supervision this work would
have not been possible. He provided me an innovative and
professional hand to streamline all my activities and
maximize my potential.
My special thanks goes to my friend Mr Zafar for

solving my problems, providing technical skills and
invaluable help during the project.
Finally, my deepest and most sincere thanks to my

family for their endless love, encouragement and
understanding they have shown during the whole time and
helping me in completing the most expensive Solar energy
project without any financial assistance from any other
source.
Contents:
Page #
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Alternate Energy Development Board 3
Chapter 2 Project Abstracts 7

2.1 Solar Cells 7
2.1.1 History 8
2.1.2 Structure 8
2.1.3 Size & Wattage 10
2.1.4 Modules 11
2.1.5 Array 11
2.1.6 General Diagram of a Module 12
2.2 Solar Insolation 13
2.2.1 Solar Insolation Map of World 14
2.3 What is MPPT? 15
2.4 Phases of the Project 18
2.5 Block Diagram of the Project 20
Chapter 3 Scope, Socio-Economic Benefits & Utilization 21

3.1 Present Status Around the Globe 22
3.2 Cost per Watt 24
3.3 StandAlone Home PV Systems Around the Globe 26
3.3.1 Grid Interactive Systems 28
3.4 Power Plants Around the Globe 29
3.5 Recent Developments In the World 31
3.6 Scope in Pakistan 32
Chapter 4 Purchased Hardware Items 33

4.1 Solar Panel 33
4.1.1 Sharp Solar Panel NT-175U1 37
4.2 Batteries 38
Chapter 5 Problem Statement 39

5.1 Techniques for MPPT 39
5.2 Algorithm for Maximum Power Point 41
5.2.1 Selection 42
5.3 Solar Tracker Implementation 43
5.3.1 Sun Intensity 44
5.3.2 Movable Stand Implementation 45
5.3.3 Software Technique 49
5.4 Battery Charging Phases 50
5.4.1 State of Charge 51
5.5 Charge Controllers 51
Chapter 6 Software Development 52

6.1 Time Dependant Solar Tracker Software 52
6.1.1 Display Procedure 53
6.1.2 Checking the Min and Hour Limits 54
6.1.3 Incrementing the Min & Hour Code After
Checking 54
6.1.4 Season Check Code 55
6.1.5 October Season Setting Pre-programmed
in Mirco-controller 56
6.2 MPPT Algorithm 57
6.2.1 16 bit by 16 bit Multiply Algorithm 58
6.2.2 24 bit by 8 bit Division Algorithm 59
6.2.3 32 bit by 8 bit Division Algorithm 61
6.2.4 Battery Voltage Testing 63
6.2.5 MPPT Algorithm 65
6.2.6 Block Always Running 66
6.2.7 Button Selection for Value to be Displayed 67
6.2.8 Serially Receiving Data from Tracker & Input
Controller Code 68
Chapter 7 Simulation 72
7.1 Solar Tracker Simulations 72
7.1.1 Simulation Results 76
7.2 MPPT Controller Simulations 77
7.2.1 ADC Simulation 77
7.2.2 DAC Simulation 78
7.2.3 Tracker & Input Controller Keypad
Simulations 78
7.2.4 MPPT Controller 79
7.2.5 MOSFET Driver & MOSFET 80
7.2.6 MOSFET Driver Simulation Results 81
Chapter 8 Hardware 83
8.1 DC Supply 83
8.2 Time Dependant Solar Tracker 84
8.2.1 Hardware Abstracts 85
8.3 MPPT Controller 86
8.4 MOSFET Driver & MOSFET 87
Chapter 9 Results 91
Chapter 10 Alternate Energy Resources 92

10.1 Solar Thermal Energy 92
10.1.1 Parabolic Trough 94
10.1.2 Central Reciever 95
10.1.3 Dish Reciever 96
10.2 Wind Energy 96
10.3 Tidal Energy 98
10.3.1 Advantages 99
10.3.2 Disadvantages 99
Chapter 11 Appendix 101

Dedicated to my loving parents
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Energy is need of the modern world and for a developing
nation like Pakistan the need of the hour is to explore new means of
energy which are cheap and environment friendly. Keeping in the
view the bullish energy demand which is increasing more than 10%
per year for which these sources are unable to meet the demand:
• Thermal
• Hydro
• Nuclear
• Gas
Due to the following economical, political and geological problems

present in Pakistan:
• No national consensus on the construction of new Dams due to

provincial problems
• Limited sites for construction of Dams
• Increasing oil prices for Thermal Power Plants around the

globe resulting in high cost per unit which greatly effects the
industrial sector
• Non-availability of civilian nuclear technology with refusal of

developed nations for co-operation in this sector
• Large Transmission Line Losses due to distances between

generations and load centers
• Non-usage of biggest coal reserviours in Sindh for power

generation at-least for few years to come as efforts have been
started to use those reserviors.
1
In the light of the above mentioned points, it is desirable that a

quick bulk power be provided to the National Grid through other
energy resources so that black-outs in our industrial city like Karachi
could be avoided which can greatly contribute to the industrial sector
which demands consistency and realiability of power which will
sustain our growth in the coming years until new dams and nuclear
installations are ready for power generation.
All over the world new means of energy are being discovered
like Wind and Solar which will be the source of energy for the new
generation. Keeping in view the mushroom growth in the industrial
sector in Pakistan the energy requirement is increasing day by day
and is expected to be double in 10 years. With the shortage of new
water reserviors and soaring Oil rates which are the major raw
material for energy generation in Pakistan we should try to find
Alternate Energy Resources like Solar Energy which is cheap and
affordable with a little investment for a longer period.
Significance of the proposed research and application duly

supported with recent developments in the outer world support that
there are many energy sources yet to be explored like Solar in
Pakistan. Solar Energy the gift of God free to everyone can be
utitlized with a little investment for a longer period which provides
clean, safe and environment friendly Energy for any Application from
House Hold to Industrial use.
The Electricity in Pakistan is an expensive source of energy &

with everyday increasing prices the common man plus the industrial
sector is getting underneath this burden. Much of the Industrial
Sector has shifted to produce its own energy by gas, fuel or any other
fossil fuel but the increase in Oil Prices in the world market has held
back this source too. Pakistan being a developing Nation has a Max
energy requirement. This requirement is expected to double up to
year 2015 and to meet this challenge we don’t have water reserviors
for hydro energy which is the cheap source of energy in Pakistan.
With no new dam being completed in Pakistan the Prime Minister
and the President has ordered to utilize other sources of energy. In
this context a board with the name of Alternate Energy Resource
Development (AEDB) been formed to promote, explore and make
use of other sources of energy.
2
1.1 Alternate Energy Development Board

(AEDB)
Alternate Energy Development Board re-organized by the
present Government in Febraury 2005 to promote alternate energy
resources in Pakistan through public and private sector.
Some of the main features and targets assigned to the board

as as follows:
• The main area that has been approved is that 10% of all
electrical energy produced in the country will be shifted to
Alternative/Renewable energy resources by the year 2015.
This gives a target of around 1700 MW of production through
Alternative technologies on the lower side and 2700 MW on the
higher side.
• More than 800 million dollars investment has been offered to

the Alternative Energy Development Board. The interested
groups belong to Canada, China, Denmark, Germany, India,
Iran, Russia, Spain, Sweden, USA, and UAE etc.
• 2% of investment made in power sector should be dedicated to

development of Alternative/ Renewable Energy Technologies
Base in Pakistan.
• All localities not planned/anticipated to be connected with

national grid in next 20 years are to be earmarked for
Alternative/ Renewable Energy resources.
• All industrial production related to Alternative/ Renewable

Energy will be given special tax holidays for next ten years,
development in Pakistan.
The Board has also tabulated some graphs
9 Proposed Growth of Alternate Renewable Energy in Pakistan

9 Depletion of Oil and Gas reserves in Pakistan
Which are presented for an insight in the whole matter.
3
PROPOSED GROWTH OF ALTERNATIVE RENEWABLE ENERGY IN PAKISTAN
Chapter 1
6000
5000
4000
MAX
3000
4
MIN
2000 1775 W
1000
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
MAX 0 0 60 160 300 450 650 900 1150 1400 1650 1800 2100 2400 2800 3200 3650 4100 4500 5000 5500
MIN 0 0 40 100 170 250 350 460 580 730 900 1100 1350 1550 1800 2000 2250 2600 2950 3300 3650
YEAR
Fig 1.1.1
INTRODUCTION
GAS
Fig 1.1.2
OIL
5
So as the development of Alternate Energy Resources in

Pakistan is heading its course I have presented in my project the
basic building blocks of a Solar Photovoltaic Power System for
Domestic use which can be installed at the load center.
6
Chapter 2 PROJECT ABSTRACTS
2 PROJECT ABSTRACTS
The sun has produced energy for billions of years. Solar
energy is the solar radiation that reaches the earth.
Enough sunlight falls on the Earth's surface each minute to

meet world energy demands for an entire year. The sun is a fusion
reactor delivering 1.52 x 1018 KWh/year to earth. All of mankind's
energy needs total less than 0.1% of this amount.
The United States receives more energy in the form of sunlight

in less than 40 minutes than from all the fossil fuels they burn every
year.
Solar energy can be converted directly or indirectly into other

forms of energy, such as heat and electricity. The major drawbacks
(problems, or issues to overcome) of solar energy are:
1. The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the

earth's surface
2. The large area required to collect it at a useful rate
2.1 Solar Cells

Solar cells as the name implies are designed to convert at-least
a portion of available light into electrical energy. They do this with the
use of chemical reactions.
The photovoltaic effect is the electrical potential developed

between two dissimilar materials when their common junction is
illuminated with radiation of photons. So the electrical energy
generated through solar cells is categorized as Photovoltaic energy
or simply PV energy.
7
2.1.1 History
The development of the solar cell stems from the work of the
French physicist Antoine-Cesar Becquerel in 1839. Becquerel
discovered the photovoltaic effect while experimenting with a solid
electrode in an electrolyte solution; he observed that voltage
developed when light fell upon the electrode.
About 50 years later, Charles Fritts constructed the first true
solar cells using junctions formed by coating the semiconductor
selenium with an ultra thin nearly transparent layer of gold. Fritts's
devices were very inefficient, transforming less than 1 percent of the
absorbed light into electrical energy.
These early solar cells however, still had energy-conversion

efficiencies of less than 1 percent. This impasse was finally
overcome with the development of the silicon solar cell by Russell
Ohl in 1941.
In 1954, three other American researchers, G.L. Pearson,

Daryl Chapin, and Calvin Fuller, demonstrated a silicon solar cell
capable of a 6-percent energy-conversion efficiency when used in
direct sunlight.
By the late 1980s silicon cells, as well as those made of gallium

arsenide, with efficiencies of more than 20 percent had been
fabricated.
In 1989 a concentrator solar cell, a type of device in which

sunlight is concentrated onto the cell surface by means of lenses,
achieved an efficiency of 37 percent due to the increased intensity of
the collected energy. In general, solar cells of widely varying
efficiencies and cost are now available.
2.1.2 Structure
Modern solar cells are based on semiconductor physics .They

are basically P-N junction photodiodes with a very large light-
sensitive area. The photovoltaic effect, which causes the cell to
convert light directly into electrical energy, occurs in the three energy-
conversion layers.
8
The first of these three layers necessary for energy conversion

in a solar cell is the top junction layer (made of N-type
semiconductor).
The next layer in the structure is the core of the device, this is
the absorber layer (the P-N junction).
The last of the energy-conversion layers is the back junction

layer (made of P-type semiconductor).
Fig 2.1.2
9
Sunlight is composed of photons or particles of solar energy.

These photons contain various amounts of energy corresponding to
the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike
a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be
absorbed. Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate
electricity. When enough sunlight (energy) is absorbed by the
material (a semiconductor), electrons are dislodged from the
material's atoms. Special treatment of the material surface during
manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to
free electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the surface.
When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed.

When many electrons, each carrying a negative charge, travel toward
the front surface of the cell, the resulting imbalance of charge
between the cell's front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential
like the negative and positive terminals of a battery. When the two
surfaces are connected through an external load, electricity flows.
2.1.3 Size & Wattage
The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a PV

system. Individual cells can vary in size from about 1 cm (1/2 inch) to
about 10 cm (4 inches) across. One cell only produces 1 or 2 watts.
10
2.1.4 Modules
As one cell only produces 1 or 2 watts which isn't enough

power for most applications. To increase power output, cells are
electrically connected into a packaged weather-tight module.
2.1.5 Array
The solar array is defined as a group of several modules

electrically connected in series-parallel combinations to generate the
required current and voltage.
Fig 2.1 Fig 2.1.4 Fig 2.1.5
11
2.1.6 General Diagram of a Module
Construction of PV module:
1) Frame
2) Weather-proof junction box
3) Rating plate
4) Weatherprotection for 30-year life
5) PV cell
6) Tempered high transmissivity coverglass,
7) Outside electrical bus,
8) Frame clearance
Source: Solarex Corporation, Frederick, Maryland,
Fig 2.1.6
12
2.2 Solar Insolation

The amount of electromagnetic energy (solar radiation) incident
on the surface of the earth is called Solar Insolation. Basically that
means how much sunlight is shining down on us.
By knowing the insolation levels of a particular region we can

determine the size of solar collector that is required. An area with
poor insolation levels will need a larger collector than an area with
high insolation levels. Once you know your region's insolation level
you can more accurately calculate collector size and energy output.
The values are generally expressed in kWh/m2/day. This is the

amount of solar energy that strikes a square metre of the earth's
surface in a single day. Of course this value is averaged to account
for differences in the days' length. There are several units that are
used throughout the world.
The conversions based on surface area as follows:
1 KWh/m2/day = 317.1 btu/ft2/day = 3.6MJ/m2/day
The raw energy conversions are:
1kWh = 3412 Btu = 3.6MJ = 859.8kcal
It is presumed that at "peak sun", 1000 W/m² of power reaches

the surface of the earth. One hour of full sun provides 1000 Wh per
m² = 1 kWh/m² - representing the solar energy received in one hour
on a cloudless summer day on a one-square meter surface directed
towards the sun.
13
Some Facts about Solar PV power available to us
1. The United States receives more energy in the form of sunlight

in less than 40 minutes than from all the fossil fuels they burn
every year
2. Roughly 100 square miles of solar panels placed in the

southwestern U.S. could power the whole USA.
3. The sun is a fusion reactor delivering 1.52 x 10 18 kWh/year to

earth. All of mankind's energy needs total less than 0.1% of this
amount
2.2.1 Solar Insolation Map of World
Fig 2.2.1
14
2.3 What is MPPT ?
Solar cells are characterized by a maximum Open Circuit

Voltage (Voc) at zero output current and a Short Circuit Current (Isc)
at zero output voltage. Since power can be computed via this
equation:
P=I*V
Then with one term at zero these conditions
(V = Voc / I = 0, V = 0 / I = Isc )
also represent zero power. As you might then expect, a combination

of less than maximum current and voltage can be found that
maximizes the power produced (called, not surprisingly, the
"maximum power point").
The function of a MPPT is analogous to the transmission in a

car. When the transmission is in the wrong gear, the wheels do not
receive maximum power. That's because the engine is running either
slower or faster than its ideal speed range. The purpose of the
transmission is to couple the engine to the wheels, in a way that lets
the engine run in a favorable speed range in spite of varying
accelleration and terrain.
In a PV panel, voltage is analogous to engine speed. Its ideal

voltage is that at which it can put out maximum power. This is called
its maximum power point. (It's also called peak power voltage,
abbreviated Vpp). Vpp varies with sunlight intensity and with solar
cell temperature.
In order to charge a battery (increase its voltage), the PV

module must apply a voltage that is higher than that of the battery. If
the PV module's Vpp is just slightly below the battery voltage, then
the current drops nearly to zero.
When the panel is directly connected to the battery bank, the

module voltage is dragged down to a lower-than-ideal voltage. Thus
the panel starts working at the battery voltage giving a less current
then it can supply at its Maximum Power Point Voltage.
15
The Current and Voltage Characteristics of a typical panel are

presented here:
Fig 2.3.1
The above plot is at 1 Sun i.e. the total energy available from
the sun is purely converted into electrical energy having 100%
efficiency but this is rarely achieved as sunlight is not present all
round the day at equal strength with also clouds present at some
days.
16
Another plot for different variations of Sun energy available is

given below
Fig 2.3.2
The maximum power point of a solar module is the

point along the I-V curve that corresponds to the
maximum output power possible for the module. This
value can be determined by finding the maximum area
under the current versus voltage curve.
I-V Curve
Fig 2.3.3
17
2.4 Phases Of The Project
1. Availability and Purchase of Solar Panel with Its Shipping

Plus Testing:
• Testing includes the formation of table giving us the total

voltage, total current, wattage at different times of a day.
• Calculating the average solar energy produced per day
• Total AH battery rating needed when the sun is not available.
• Calculate the sun rotation path and find it from PAKMET office
2. In order to save time, using a domestically made Inverter

which converts the stored energy in battery to AC Power
for domestic use
3. Testing the Process Uptil This Point by Connecting the

Main Components by Manual Switches:
• Testing the three equipments Solar Panel, SCC, DC to AC

Inverter and load connected and this is done using Manual
Switches (Direct contact of Panel to Batteries without any
Charge Controller)
4. Solar Panel Movement Using Motor/Hydraulics and

Rotating with Computer Control Using Mirco-Controller
• Solar Panel Rack/Mount design.

• Deciding which solution to use to rotate it either motor or
hydraulics
• Software Development of Solar Tracker with its Simulation
• Then the biggest challenge is to rotate with computer control
integrated with a Micro-Controller
• Also tryin to make it automatic control according to sun
movement.
18
5. Designing MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracker) Charge

Controller and its Implementation on a PCB (if possible)
plus Testing:
• Software Development of MPPT Controller with its Simulation

• Availability of components of the Solar Charge Controller
• Testing it by implementing it on the BreadBoard
• Designing it on the Protel Software and implementing it on PCB
• Testing the PCB
6 Project Summary (Report):
• Project Report
7. Simulation :
• Simulation in FLASH MX of the total Project plus Power Point

Presentation
19
2.5 Block Diagram of the
Project
Chapter 2
Solar MPPT
Panel Solar Charge DC to AC Load
Controller Inverter
20
24V
Battery
Bank
PC
Solar Tracker
PROJECT ABSTRACTS
Fig 2.5
Chapter 3 SCOPE, SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS & UTILIZATION
3. SCOPE, SOCIO-ECONOMIC
BENEFITS & UTILIZATION
Photovoltaic energy is useful for several reasons.
9 Conversion from sunlight to electricity is direct, so that bulky

mechanical generator systems are unnecessary.
9 The environmental impact of a photovoltaic system is minimal,

requiring no water for system cooling and generating no by-
products.
9 Short lead time to design, install, and start up a new plant
9 The plant economy is not a strong function of size.
9 Power output matches very well with peak load demands.
9 Static structure, no moving parts, hence, no noise.
9 High power capability per unit of weight.
9 Longer life with little maintenance because of no moving parts.
9 Highly mobile and portable because of light weight.
21
3.1 Present Status Around the Globe

At present, PV power is extensively used in stand-alone power
systems in remote villages all around the globe especially in these
countries.
1. U.S.A.
2. Australia
3. Austria
4. Mexico
5. Japan
A graph showing the cummulative growth of PV installations in

U.S.A is shown below for a span of 16 years
Fig 3.1.1
22
For around the globe, the trend is easily depicted from the below
graph
Fig 3.1.2
23
3.2 Cost Per Watt
The cost $ per watt for PV power plants or standalone system

is quite high due the energy consumption in Silicon Layers
preparation and forming it in crystalline form for Junction formation,
but it is decreasing with new technologies introduced such as
concentrator technology & Thin Film PV Juntion Technology. A graph
showing the decrease in energy consumption per cm2 of PV cell
manufactured is shown:
Fig 3.2.1
24
With decreasing energy consumption for PV cell manufacture

the cost $ per KWhr has decreased considerably.
Fig 3.2.2
International Standard nowadays for PV installation cost are

generally $4.5 to $5 per watt.
25
3.3 StandAlone Home PV Systems Around

the Globe
Many StandAlone PV Systems are installed at homes which

vary from 2 KW to 9 KW. Initial cost for these installations is high but
with the facility of Tax Rebates, Constitution Laws & Monetary
assistances in developed countries facilitates the development of
such systems
Some of the systems are presented here
Germany, 3 kW System
Fig 3.3.1
26
Kyoto, Japan 5KW System
Fig 3.3.2
Claifornia, USA 6.1KW System

Fig 3.3.3
Source: Mitsubishi Electric
27
3.3.1 Grid Interactive Systems
A recent development in renewable energy technology is grid-

interactivity. In a grid-interactive system, electricity is still generated
by solar panels. The DC electricity from the panels passes through a
grid-interactive inverter, which converts the DC electricity into AC.
This AC electricity is then used by any loads operating in the

house, and if there is surplus electricity being generated by the
panels, the inverter will feed the electricity into the main electricity
grid. Conversely, when the panels aren't generating enough
electricity to power the house, the grid will supply power to the house
via the inverter.
In Australia, a growing number of electricity utilities are

supportive of grid-interactive systems, and will pay you for your
electricity if the amount you generate exceeds the amount you use
during the billing period.
The roof of the Aquatic Center in Atlanta (Figure 3-8), venue of

the 1996 Olympic swimming competition, is one of the largest grid-
connected powerplants.
Roof (pv) of Atlanta’s Aquatic Center with 345 kW grid-connected

power system.
Source: Georgia Institute of Technology
Fig 3.3.4
28
3.4 Power Plants Around the Globe
Many Power Plants are present around the globe supplying

power to the Grids. Many are present in U.S.A. but now with recent
surge in oil prices many countries are planning and infact many have
started to develop Power Plants ranging upto 300MW.
Some of the PV Power Plants are
Power Generation Plant Okinawa, Japan 750 kW System

Fig 3.4.1
29
Small Power Plant Austria 400KW System

Fig 3.4.2
Platform Gunma, Japan 200 kW System

Fig 3.4.3
Source: Mitsubishi Electric
30
3.5 Recent Developments In the World

A race between the developed countries in this century has
started for the World Largest Solar PV Power Plant
Some of the recent deveopments are as follows:
¾ China Plans World's Largest Solar Power Plant with an amount

of $766 million
¾ A 154 MW power plant (concentrated solar power,

photovoltaic) in Australia has been funded and will begin
operations in 2008, reaching full capacity in 2013. The projects
are the first to be funded under a $379 million package That
sounds like it's farther along than China's project.
¾ A proposed 300 MW power plant in New Mexico recently

completed the first study phase, and is now looking for
contracts to purchase the power.
¾ Two solar stirling farms ,one 300 MW, the other 500 MW that
already have 20-year purchasing contracts in hand. The first 1
MW is scheduled for completion in spring 2007. The full 300
MW farm is scheduled for 2010 completion. The 500 MW farm
should be done by 2012.
Some key features which has lead to rapid development in this

sector are the laws and the incentives given by the governments of
the countries
¾ California Public Schools all power by PV power enforced by a

law there
¾ Japan has a residential market of 350 MW per year
¾ Public utilities in New Mexico must acquire or generate at least

ten percent (10%) of their electricity from a renewable
resource, one that is self-regenerating, such as solar, wind,
and/or hydro electric.
31
3.6 Scope in Pakistan

Present Government has taken considerable efforts for
development of Renewable Energy Resources in Pakistan.
An Alternate Energy Development Board has been established

which has been given consitutional protection and it has formulated
its policy for next 10 years whose key features have been discussed
before but are again given here.
¾ The main area that has been approved is that 10% of all
electrical energy produced in the country will be shifted to
Alternative/Renewable energy resources by the year 2015.
¾ 2% of investment made in power sector should be dedicated to

development of Alternative/ Renewable Energy Technologies
Base in Pakistan.
¾ All industrial production related to Alternative / Renewable

Energy will be given special tax holidays for next ten years,
development in Pakistan.
With these appealing incentives, it is supposed that the day is

not far when Pakistan will also be joining the race for the World
Largest Solar PV Plants.
Many locations in Balochistan and North-West of Punjab have

been identified for PV installations which are very far from grid and
are best suited for PV installations by climate conditions also.
32
Chapter 4 PURCHASED HARDWARE ITEMS
4. PURCHASED HARDWARE
ITEMS
4.1 Solar Panel
Since I needed Solar cells for my project, I opted to import a

big Solar panel as nothing like this is available in Pakistan as no
industry or infrastrusture is present.
It was a tedious job to first select the best ones from the so big
market outside with so many manufacturers with so much
fluctuations in the prices with each vendor.
Some of the companies which are famous for making Solar

panel are as follows:
1. Solarex
2. Siemens
3. Sharp
4. Mitsibushi
5. BP
6. Evergreen
7. Kynocera
Of them Solarex produces the bulk solar panels with Siemens

and Sharp having also a large share in PV Panel production around
the globe.
33
The vendors I contacted through internet are as follows
1. Affordable Solar Online

2. DiscountPtv.com
3. WE Online
4. Other Powers.com
5. PartsOnSale.com
6. Alter Systems Online
7. Dependable Solar Products.com
8. SolarPanelStore.com
I personally phone called them and contacted them for best

prices and selected Sharp as the Manufacturer company from the
vendor Alter Systems Online.
The panel which I selected was NT-175U1 of 175W Peak

Power. The module specifications are as under
Electrical Characteristics
Cell Single crystal silicon
No.of Cells and Connections 72 in series
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) 44.4V
Maximum Power Voltage (Vpm) 35.4V
Short Circuit Current (Isc) 5.55A
Maximum Power Current (Ipm) 4.95A
Maximum Power (Pm)* 175W
Minimum Power (Pm)* 157.5W
Encapsulated Solar Cell Efficiency (ηc) 16.20%
Module Efficiency (ηm) 13.45%
PTC Rating (W)** 153.80
Maximum System Voltage 600VDC
Series Fuse Rating 10A
Lead Wire with MC
Type of Output Terminal
Connector
* (STC) Standard Test Conditions:25°C,1 kW/m2,AM 1.5

** (PTC) Pacific Test Conditions:20°C,1 kW/m2,AM 1.5,1 m/s wind
speed
34
Mechanical Characteristics
62.01 x 32.52 x 1.81" /
Dimensions (A x B x C below)
1575 x 826 x 46mm
Weight 37.485lbs / 17.0kg
Packing Configuration 2 pcs per carton
66.93 x 38.19 x 5.12" /
Size of Carton
1700 x 970 x 130mm
Loading Capacity (20 ft container) 168 pcs (84 cartons)
Loading Capacity (40 ft container) 392 pcs (196 cartons)
Absolute Maximum Ratings

Operating Temperature -40 to 194°F / -40 to +90°C
Storage Temperature -40 to 194°F / -40 to +90°C
Dielectric Isolation Voltage 2200 VDC max.
Fig 4.1.1
35
The I-V curves and P-V curves of the Panel are shown below
Fig 4.1.2
36
4.1.1 Sharp Solar Panel NT-175U1
Fig 4.1.3
Some Key features which make it one of the best in market are
• Module features 16.2% encapsulated cell efficiency and

13.45% module efficiency.
• Using breakthrough technology
• Modules use a textured cell surface to reduce reflection of
sunlight and BSF (Black SurfaceField) structure to improve
conversion efficiency.
• An anti-reflective coating provides a uniform blue color and
increases the absorption of light in allweather conditions.
• Ideal for grid-connected systems and designed to withstand
rigorous operating conditions
37
4.2 Batteries
The size of the battery bank required will depend on the
storage capacity required, the maximum discharge rate, the
maximum charge rate, and the minimum temperature at which the
batteries will be used.
Battery voltage is difficult to change after your system is built,

so carefully selection is necessary
I selected a battery bank voltage of 24V as the panel is

desgined for this purpose and it is normally used voltage around the
world for simple small systems.
Many types of Batteries can be used
1. Lead Acid Batteries

2. Wet Gell Batteries
I selected Lead Acid Batteries due to their deep cycle charging

and discharging capability and it is easily available here. Since
maximum 12V battery is available I had to put two batteries in series
to make a 24V battery bank. Each battery is 42Ah.
Thus the total energy that could be stored is
V x I = 24 x 42Ah = 960Wh
Selection of 24V Battery bank is also on the fact that the panel
Open circuit voltage does not drop below 24V from the dawn to the
dusk so it can effectively provide produced amperes to the battery
thus charging it
38
Chapter 5 PROBLEM STATEMENT
5. PROBLEM STATEMENT
On the hardware point of view the following were the problems
being faced:
• Technique Used for Isolation between the Battery and Panel

• Algorithm used to calculate the Maximum Power Point on the
V-I curve
• Hardware Deisgn of the Movable stand to track the Sun
• Technique used for the Solar Tracker
• Battery Charging States to be implemented by the MPPT
controller
5.1 Techniques for MPPT

To understand what is MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracker)
the examination of the electrical principle of the peak power operatio
is done.
If the array is operating at voltage V and current I on the i-v

curve, thepower generation is P = V · I watts. If the operation moves
away from the above point, such that the current is now I + ∆ I, and
the voltage is V + ∆ V,the new power is as follows:
P + ∆P = (V + ∆V) . (I + ∆I)
Which, after ignoring a small term, simplifies to the following:
∆P = ∆V.I + ∆I.V
The ∆P should be zero at peak power point, which necessarily

lies on a locally flat neighborhood.
39
Therefore, at peak power point, the above expression in the

limit becomes as follows:
dV / dI = - V / I
We take note here that dV/dI is the dynamic impedance of the

source, and V / I is the static impedance.
Fig 5.1.1
40
5.2 Algorithm for Maximum Power Point

There are three electrical methods of extracting the peak power
from the module, as described below:
1. Impedance Method
In the first method, a small signal current is periodically injected

into the array bus and the dynamic bus impedance Zd = dV/dI and
the static bus impedance Zs = V/I are measured. The operating
voltage is then increased or decreased until
Z d = – Zs
At this point, the maximum power is extracted from the source.
2. Slope Method
In another electrical method, the operating voltage is increased

as longas dP/dV is positive. That is, the voltage is increased as long
as we get more power. If dP/dV is sensed negative, the operating
voltage is decreased.
The voltage is kept put if the dP/dV is near zero within a preset
dead band.
41
3. Factor Method
The third method makes use of the fact that for most pv cells,
the ratio of the voltage at the maximum power point to the open
circuit voltage (i.e.,Vmp / Voc ) is approximately constant, say K.
For example, for high-quality crystalline silicon cells K = 0.72.

An unloaded cell is installed on the array and kept in the same
environment as the power-producing module, and its open circuit
voltage is continuously measured.
The operating voltage of the power-producing array is then

set at K·Voc , which will produce the maximumpower.
5.2.1 Selection
• I selected Slope Method because it is easy to implement it at

the point where the slope is 1 on the I-V curve using Micro-
Controllers.
• A buck-converter with the MOSFET operated by the Micro-

controllers with DAC as interface between the gate and the
micro-controllers is used. The buck converter provides
islolation between the Solar panel and the batteries and
because of the duty cycle the effective voltage at which the
Solar Panel operates is given by
Vo = Vin * D
where D is the duty cycle.
For example in case of maximum power being produced, the

open circuit voltage is 44.4V and maximum power point voltage is
35.4V. thus the Duty cycle needed at the MOSFET is
D = 35.4 / 44.4 = 0.7973 or 79.73% of the total cycle time.
42
5.3 Solar Tracker Implementation
Solar tracking is the process of varying the angle of solar

panels and collectors to take advantage of the full amount of the
sun’s energy. This is done by rotating panels to be perpendicular to
the sun’s angle of incidence. Initial tests in industry suggest that this
process can increase the efficiency of a solar power system by up to
50%.
Given those gains, it is an attractive way to enhance an

existing solar power system. The goal is to build a rig that will
accomplish the solar tracking and realize the maximum increase in
efficiency. The ultimate goal is that the project will be cost effective –
that is, the gains received by increased efficiency will more than
offset the one time cost of developing the rig over time. In addition to
the functional goals, it must be aesthetically pleasing, and it must be
weatherproof.
The major factors influencing the electrical design of the solar

array are as follows:
• Sun intensity
• Sun angle
• Load matching for maximum power
• Operating temperature.
The first two points can be handled by a Solar Tracker which

keeps the solar panel directing the sun at a desired angle.
43
5.3.1 Sun Intensity
The magnitude of the photo current is maximum under full

bright sun (1.0 sun). On a partially sunny day, the photocurrent
diminishes in direct proportion to the sun intensity. The i-v
characteristic shifts downward at a lower sun
Fig 5.3.1
intensity as shown in Figure. On a cloudy day, therefore, the short

circuit current decreases significantly. The reduction in the open-
circuit voltage however is small.
Fig 5.3.2
The photoconversion efficiency of the cell is insensitive to the

solar radiation in the practical working range.
44
For example, upper Figure shows that the efficiency is

practically the same at 500 watts/m2 and 1,000 watts/m2 .This
means that the conversion efficiency is the same on a bright sunny
day and a cloudy day. Lower power output on a cloudy day is only
because of the lower solar energy impinging the cell.
The sun really only rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in
the west on two days of the year - the first day of spring and the first
day of fall. The sun rises in a direction north of east and sets in a
direction north of west during the spring and summer months
(northerly latitudes). The sun rises in a direction south of east and
sets in a direction south of west during the fall and winter months
(northerly latitudes). The sun reaches its peak (zenith) at a point due
south of the observer (northerly latitudes). The time this occurs is
defined as solar noon. The sun's zenith is closer to the horizon
during fall and winter months, and is higher in the sky during spring
and summer months. The sun rises earlier and sets later during the
spring and summer months, with the opposite being true during the
fall & winter months.
Since the Sun rises from the east and sets in the west. It is
preferable to move the panel from the east to the west as the day
progresses.
Around the year the sun trajectory also changes
For Solar Tracker, there were two objectives
(i) Firstly to develop the movable stand which can be

moved within 120o atleast
(ii) Software technique used to move it
5.3.2 Movable Stand Implementation
A movable stand was designed in AutoCad by a Mechanical

Engineer. The diagram of it are shown here.
45
Fig 5.3.3
46
Fig 5.3.4
47
Fig 5.3.5
48
5.3.3 Software Technique
Two options were present to be used. They were as follows
(i) Using a photo-sensor to calculate the sun position and

directing the motor to that specific position
(ii) Using just time dependant Solar Tracker which after a

specific time rotates the panel in the fixed direction and
returns it back to the east position after sunset.
I selected the second technique because my intentions

were to concentrate on the MPPT not the tracking of Solar
panel, because there is only a slight increase in current if the
panel is kept at perpendiculat to the sun position. Also the two
axis tracking was rejected by me because of its cost. As it is
only a single solar panel two much investment on the tracking
mechanism will increase the cost per watt of the system. So to
keep it simple one axis rotation with time as the parameter was
chosen as the ultimate solution.
49
5.4 Battery Charging Phases

Lead acid batteries used in the project can be charged in three
phases:
1. Bulk Charge
The first stage of 3-stage battery charging. Current is sent to

batteries at the maximum safe rate they will accept until voltage rises
to near (80-90%) full charge level. Voltages at this stage typically
range from 10.5 volts to 15 volts. There is no "correct" voltage for
bulk charging, but there may be limits on the maximum current that
the battery and/or wiring can take.
2. Absorption Charge:
The 2nd stage of 3-stage battery charging. Voltage remains

constant and current gradually tapers off as internal resistance
increases during charging. It is during this stage that the charger puts
out maximum voltage. Voltages at this stage are typically around
14.2 to 15.5 volts.
3. Float Charge:
The 3rd stage of 3-stage battery charging. After batteries

reach full charge, charging voltage is reduced to a lower level
(typically 12.8 to 13.2) to reduce gassing and prolong battery life.
This is often referred to as a maintenance or trickle charge, since it's
main purpose is to keep an already charged battery from
discharging. PWM, or "pulse width modulation" accomplishes the
same thing. In PWM, the controller or charger senses tiny voltage
drops in the battery and sends very short charging cycles (pulses) to
the battery. This may occur several hundred times per minute. It is
called "pulse width" because the width of the pulses may vary from a
few microseconds to several seconds. Note that for long term float
service, such as backup power systems that are seldom discharged,
the float voltage should be around 13.02 to 13.20 volts.
50
5.4.1 State of Charge
The state of charge for a 12V Lead acid battery is given below
with volts per cell indicated. A 12V battery has 6 cells
State of 12 Volt Volts per

Charge battery Cell
100% 12.7 2.12
90% 12.5 2.08
80% 12.42 2.07
70% 12.32 2.05
60% 12.20 2.03
50% 12.06 2.01
40% 11.9 1.98
30% 11.75 1.96
20% 11.58 1.93
10% 11.31 1.89
0 10.5 1.75
Fig 5.4.1
5.5 Charge Controllers

A charge controller is a regulator that goes between the solar
panels and the batteries. Regulators for solar systems are designed
to keep the batteries charged at peak without overcharging.
Since my project also uses MPPT Algorithm, I opted for

the bulk charging and the float charge phases of charging the
battery. Bulk charging occurs when the battery voltage is less
than the required voltage and the MPPT algorithm works. When
the required voltage is reached, float charge phase takes place
just tapering off the current until a significant constant value +
the required voltage is reached. At this point the battery
charging is totally stopped. All this is done with the automatic
programmed micro-controllers.
51
Chapter 6 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
6 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
Software development for the two circuits is to be done
1. Time Dependant Solar Tracker

2. MPPT Algorithm
6.1 Time Dependant Solar Tracker Software

The technique to be used here is that a digital clock giving real
time is developed, A calendar year divided in 4 parts
1. January – March
2. April – June
3. July – September
4. October – December
This was done because the axis of solar rotation from the east
to the west remains almost constant during one of the divided parts.
Thus the Sun takes almost a constant time to move from east to the
west during the whole day.
The rising of the sun at the dusk and the sunset times were
recorded. It was decided that the panel will be moved after every 1 hr
to make it perpendicular to the sun position.
A linear actuator speed motor was used to move the panel

from the east to the west. The motor moves panel a definite length if
the motor supply is kept on for a definite time.
I used Assembly Language for code writing as I decided to use

AT89C51 micro-controller.
52
Some parts of the software developed are shown here for

knowledge of the reader about the work done:
6.1.1 Display Procedure
DISPLAY:
CALL JOIN
DIGIT_1:
MOV A, #11110000b
ANL A,R5
RR A
RR A
RR A
RR A
MOV B,#0
CJNE A,B, DIGIT_1_PRINT
JMP DIGIT_2
DIGIT_1_PRINT:
MOV P2, A
SETB P1.0 ;MAKING PORT 1.0 TO PRINT THIS

CALL D_DELAY
MOV P1,#0
DIGIT_2:
MOV A, #00001111b
ANL A,R5
MOV P2, A

CALL D_DELAY
MOV P1,#0
DIGIT_3:
MOV A, #11110000b
ANL A,R6
RR A
RR A
RR A
RR A
MOV P2, A

CALL D_DELAY
MOV P1,#0
DIGIT_4:
MOV A, #00001111b
ANL A,R6
MOV P2, A

CALL D_DELAY
53
MOV P1,#0
RET
6.1.2 Checking the Minute and Hour Limits
;--------------------CHECKING IF MIN HAND HAS REACHED 59-------------------
CHECK_MIN:
MOV A, R6
MOV B, #59h
CJNE A,B, CHECK_MIN_RET
MOV 62H,#0
MOV 63H,#0
CALL CHECK_HR
RET
CHECK_MIN_RET:
CALL INC_MIN
RET
;---------------------------CHECKING IF HR HAS REACHED 23:00---------------
CHECK_HR:
MOV A,R5
MOV B,#23h
CJNE A,B, CHECK_HR_RET
MOV A,R6
MOV B,#59h
CJNE A,B,CHECK_HR_RET
MOV 60H, #0
MOV 61H, #0
RET
CHECK_HR_RET:
CALL INC_HR
RET
6.1.3 Incrementing Minute & Hour Code after Checking
;---------------------------------INC MIN HAND------------------------
INC_MIN:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #9
CJNE A,B,INC_MIN_2
JMP INC_MIN_1
INC_MIN_2:
INC A
MOV 63H, A
RET
INC_MIN_1:
MOV 63H, #0
MOV A, 62H
INC A
MOV 62H, A
RET
;----------------------------INCREMENTING HR HAND-----------------------
54
INC_HR:
MOV A, 61H
MOV B, #9
CJNE A,B,INC_HR_2
JMP INC_HR_1
INC_HR_2:
INC A
MOV 61H, A
RET
INC_HR_1:
MOV A, #0
MOV 61H, A
MOV A, 60H
INC A
MOV 60H, A
RET
6.1.4 Season Check Code
;-------------------------------SEASON CHECK---------------------
SEASON_CHECK:
JB P1.4, JAN_MARCH
JB P1.5, APR_JUNE
JB P1.6, JULY_SEP
JB P1.7, OCT_DEC
RET
JAN_MARCH:
CLR P0.2
SETB P0.3
SETB P0.4
SETB P0.5
CALL JAN_SETTING
RET
APR_JUNE:
SETB P0.2
CLR P0.3
SETB P0.4
SETB P0.5
CALL APR_SETTING
RET
JULY_SEP:
SETB P0.2
SETB P0.3
CLR P0.4
SETB P0.5
CALL JULY_SETTING
RET
OCT_DEC:
SETB P0.2
SETB P0.3
SETB P0.4
55
CLR P0.5
CALL OCT_SETTING
RET
6.1.5 October Season Settings Pre-programmed in Micro-

Controller
OCT_SETTING:
MOV 50H, #0 ;6 am in Morning

MOV 56H, #3 ;12 pm in Noon
MOV 5AH, #4 ;4 pm in Evening
MOV 5BH, #0 ;5 pm in Evening
MOV 5CH, #39 ;6 pm in Evening
MOV 5DH, #0 ;7 pm in Evening
RET
56
6.2 MPPT Algorithm

As the slope algorithm is selected, the technique to be used is
given in detail below:
The following steps are followed in loop again and again
1. For a given duty Cycle D, the current, voltage are taken from
the ADC’s thus calculating the power P
2. Secondly the duty cycle is decreased a little from D to D1 by a

constant value and similary at this point Power P1 is calculated.
3. Then the duty cycle is increased from D to D2 by a specified

constant and the power P2 is calculated again.
4. If P2 – P1 > 0 then D is given the value D2 and P = P2

else
If P2 – P1 < 0 then D is given the value D1 and P = P1
else
If P2 – P1 = 0 ≈ Tolerance then D is not changed
5. Again repeating from step 1.
The above stated algorithm operates the MOSFET at the duty

cycle D which is at slope 1 or the point where the Maximum Power is
achieved or the point where there is maximum area under the I-V
curve.
Tolerance value in the step 4 is used because it is very rarely

possible that the power calculated in two step is exactly equal so
matching upto some significant digit is used.
It was decided that the hardware to be distributed because of

the numerous calculation to be done in micro-controllers. So there
are 3 micro-controllers to be used, so three different programs doing
different steps of the algorithm using three mico-controllers.
57
Distributed Elements
1. Data Logger
2. Tracker or Input Controller
3. Display Controller
1. Data Logger
It interfaces the ADC to the micro-controller AT89S51 for the

measurement of Voltage, Current, Power, Battery voltage Since the
programs will be written in Assembly so tedious calculations
algorithms have to be implemented such as
• 24 bit by 8 bit division Algorithm

• 16 bit by 16 bit multiplication Algorithm
• 32 bit by 8 bit Division Algorithm with Rounding off facility
Since it calculates the data parameters, it is named the data logger

as it logs the data for the Tracker or Input controller.
Different code segment of the Data logger are shown below
6.2.1 16 bit by 16 bit Multiply Algorithm
;---------------------------MULTIPLICATION ALGORITHM (16 BIT BY 16 BIT)------
MULTIPLY:
;Multiply R5 by R7
MOV A,R5 ;Move the R5 into the Accumulator

MOV B,R7 ;Move R7 into B
MUL AB ;Multiply the two values
MOV R2,B ;Move B (the high-byte) into R2
MOV R3,A ;Move A (the low-byte) into R3
;Multiply R5 by R6
MOV A,R5 ;Move R5 back into the Accumulator

ADD A,R2 ;Add the low-byte into the value already in R2
MOV R2,A ;Move the resulting value back into R2
MOV A,B ;Move the high-byte into the accumulator
ADDC A,#00h ;Add zero (plus the carry, if any)
MOV R1,A ;Move the resulting answer into R1
MOV A,#00h ;Load the accumulator with zero
ADDC A,#00h ;Add zero (plus the carry, if any)
MOV R0,A ;Move the resulting answer to R0.
;Multiply R4 by R7
MOV A,R4 ;Move R4 into the Accumulator
58

ADDC A,R1 ;Add the current value of R1 (plus any carry)
MOV R1,A ;Move the resulting answer into R1.
MOV A,#00h ;Load the accumulator with zero
ADDC A,R0 ;Add the current value of R0 (plus any carry)
MOV R0,A ;Move the resulting answer to R1.
;Multiply R4 by R6
MOV A,R4 ;Move R4 back into the Accumulator

ADDC A,R0 ;Add it to the value already in R0 (plus any carry)
MOV R0,A ;Move the resulting answer back to R0
;Return - answer is now in R0, R1, R2, and R3
RET
6.2.2 24 bit by 8 bit Division Algorithm
;---------------------------DIVISION ALGORITHM (24 BIT BY 8 BIT)-----------
DIV24:
MOV R4, #0H

MOV R5, #0H
MOV R6, #0H
MOV 30H, #0H
MOV 31H, #0H
MOV 32H, #0H
MOV 33H, #0H
MOV 34H, #0H
CLR C ;Clear carry initially

MOV B,#00h ;Clear B since B will count the number of left-shifted bits
div1:
INC B ;Increment counter for each left shift
MOV A,R3 Move the current divisor low byte into the accumulator
RLC A ;Shift low-byte left, rotate through carry to apply highest bit to high-byte
MOV R3,A ;Save the updated divisor low-byte
MOV A,33h
RLC A
MOV 33h,A
MOV A,34h
RLC A
MOV 34h,A
JNC div1 ;Repeat until carry flag is set from high-byte
59
div2: Shift right the divisor
MOV A,34H ;Move high-byte of divisor into accumulator

RRC A ;Rotate high-byte of divisor right and into carry
MOV 34H,A ;Save updated value of high-byte of divisor
MOV A,33H ;Move high-byte of divisor into accumulator

RRC A ;Rotate high-byte of divisor right and into carry
MOV 33H,A ;Save updated value of high-byte of divisor
MOV A,R3 ;Move low-byte of divisor into accumulator

RRC A ;Rotate low-byte of divisor right, with carry from high-byte
MOV R3,A ;Save updated value of low-byte of divisor
CLR C ;Clear carry, we don't need it anymore
MOV 32h,R2 ;Make a safe copy of the dividend high-byte

MOV 31h,R1 ;Make a safe copy of the dividend middle-byte
MOV 30h,R0 ;Make a safe copy of the dividend low-byte
MOV A,R0 ;Move low-byte of dividend into accumulator

SUBB A,R3 ;Dividend - shifted divisor = result bit (no factor, only 0 or 1)
MOV R0,A ;Save updated dividend
MOV A,R1
MOV R7,33H
SUBB A,R7
MOV R1,A
MOV A,R2
MOV R7,34H
SUBB A,R7
MOV R2,A
JNC div3 ;If carry flag is NOT set, result is 1
MOV R2,32h
MOV R1,31h ;Otherwise result is 0, save copy of divisor to undo subtraction
MOV R0,30h
div3:
CPL C ;Invert carry, so it can be directly copied into result
MOV A,R4
RLC A ;Shift carry flag into temporary result
MOV R4,A
MOV A,R5
RLC A
MOV R5,A
MOV A, R6
RLC A
MOV R6, A
DJNZ B,div2 ;Now count backwards and repeat until "B" is zero
RET
60
6.2.3 32 bit by 8 bit Division Algorithm
DIVISION:
CALL DIV24
MOV A, R4
CALL BANK_1
MOV R0, A
CALL BANK_3
MOV A, R0
MOV B, #0
CJNE A,B, DIV_AGAIN_1
CALL BANK_1
MOV A, R0
RL A
RL A
RL A
RL A
MOV R0, A
CALL BANK_3
JMP DIV_STOP
DIV_AGAIN_1:
MOV A, R0
MOV B, #10
MUL AB
MOV R0, A
MOV R1, B
CALL DIV24
CALL BANK_1
MOV A, R0
RL A
RL A
RL A
RL A
MOV R0, A
CALL BANK_3
ORL A, R4
CALL BANK_1
MOV R0, A
CALL BANK_3
61
MOV A, R0
MOV B, #0
JMP DIV_STOP
DIV_AGAIN_2:
MOV A, R0
MOV B, #10
MUL AB
MOV R0, A
MOV R1, B
CALL DIV24
MOV A, R4
CALL BANK_1
MOV R1, A
CALL BANK_3
MOV A, R0
MOV B, #0
JMP DIV_STOP
DIV_AGAIN_3:
MOV A, R0
MOV B, #10
MUL AB
MOV R0, A
MOV R1, B
CALL DIV24
CALL BANK_1
MOV A, R1
RL A
RL A
RL A
RL A
MOV R1, A
CALL BANK_3
ORL A, R4
CALL BANK_1
MOV R1, A
CALL BANK_3
DIV_STOP:
RET
62
2. Tracker & Input Controller
This part of the distributed system implements the MPPT

algorithm using the Voltage, Current, Battery Voltage which are
serially transferred from the Data Logger. In addition to this it also
sets the required voltage of battery for the Control Check Algorithm
for Battery Voltage by an input keypad. Also the whole circuitary can
be made to operate at a desired Duty Cycle which is inputted by the
same keypad.
Some part of codes of the MPPT Algorithm and the Input

Algorithms are presented:
6.2.4 Battery Voltage Testing
;-------------------------------------------BATTERY VOLTAGE TEST-------------------------------------
BATTERY_TEST:
CALL RBV_TEST ;Checking if the BSV is not Zero else it should be Default Value
BV:
;------CONVERTING BATTERY VOLTAGE INTEGRAL PART IN DECIMAL VALUE-------------------
MOV A, 42H
ANL A, #11110000B
SWAP A
MOV B, #10
MUL AB
MOV B, A
MOV A, 42H
ANL A, #00001111B
ADD A, B
MOV 57H, A
;-------CONVERTING BATTERY VOLTAGE FRACTIONAL PART IN DECIMAL VALUE----------
MOV A, 43H
ANL A, #11110000B
SWAP A
MOV B, #10
MUL AB
MOV B, A
MOV A, 43H
ANL A, #00001111B
ADD A, B
MOV 58H, A
;------CONVERTING REQUIRED VOLTAGE INTEGRAL PART IN DECIMAL VALUE----------

MOV A, 4CH
ANL A, #11110000B
SWAP A
MOV B, #10
63
MUL AB
MOV B, A
MOV A, 4CH
ANL A, #00001111B
ADD A, B
MOV 59H, A
;-----ONVERTING REQUIRED VOLTAGE FRACTIONAL PART IN DECIMAL VALUE----------

MOV A, 4DH
ANL A, #11110000B
SWAP A
MOV B, #10
MUL AB
MOV B, A
MOV A, 4DH
ANL A, #00001111B
ADD A, B
MOV 5AH, A
;------CONVERTING PANEL VOLTAGE INTEGRAL PART IN DECIMAL VALUE----------

MOV A, 40H
ANL A, #11110000B
SWAP A
MOV B, #10
MUL AB
MOV B, A
MOV A, 40H
ANL A, #00001111B
ADD A, B
MOV 5BH, A
;------CONVERTING PANEL VOLTAGE FRACTIONAL PART IN DECIMAL VALUE----------

MOV A, 41H
ANL A, #11110000B
SWAP A
MOV B, #10
MUL AB
MOV B, A
MOV A, 41H
ANL A, #00001111B
ADD A, B
MOV 5CH, A
;-------PANEL CONDITION TESTING-----------------------------------
PC:
CLR C
MOV A, 57H
SUBB A, 5BH ;SUBTRACTING INTEGRAL PART OF BV AND PV VALUES
JC BC ;JUMPING TO CHARGE IF PV IS LARGER THAN BC
MOV B, #0
CJNE A, B, NO_CHARGE ;CHECKING IF THE INTEGRAL VALUE
;CALCULATED ARE EXACTLY EQUAL OR NOT
P_B_EQUAL:
MOV A, 58H
SUBB A, 5CH ;SUBTRACTING THE FRACTIONAL PART OF A
AND B VALUES
JC BC ;JUMPING TO CHARGE IF FRACTIONAL RV PART
;IF LARGE THAN BC
MOV B, #0
64
CJNE A, B, NO_CHARGE ;CHECKING IF THE FRACTIONAL VALUE

;CALCULATED ARE EXACTLY EQUAL OR NOT
MOV R7, #0 ;INDICATION R7 TO KNOW THAT THEY ARE
;EXACTLY EQUAL
JMP BATTERY_CONCLUSION
6.2.5 MPPT Algorithm (Calculating P1 after decrementing

Duty Cycle)
;-------------------------------------------MPPT-ALGORITHM-------------------------
MPPT:
CALL BANK_0
MOV R2, 66H
;------------------------------------A CALCULATION----------------------------
A_CALCULATION:
MOV A, R2
MOV R3, A
MOV A, R3
MOV B, #0H
CJNE A, B, A_1
JMP A_2
A_1:
DEC R3
DEC R3
A_2:
MOV P2, R3 ;CHANGING THE DUTY CYCLE ON PORT 2
MOV 66H, R3
CALL D_DELAY
;CALL D_DELAY
MOV A, 46H
MOV 54H, A
MOV A, 47H
MOV 55H, A
CALL VALUE_DECIMAL
MOV A, 54H
MOV 50H, A
MOV A, 55H
MOV 51H, A
65
6.2.6 BLOCK ALWAYS RUNNING (Moving in jump

statements)
;-----------------------------------------ALWAYS BLOCK----------------------------------
BACK:
CALL DC_CALC ;Calculting DC for Display at 4Ah, 4Bh

CALL CHECK_INPUT_BUTTON ;Checking Input for RBVI or DCI
;Starting MPPT After Battery and PC Check if
ViceVersa
SJMP BACK
66
3. Display Controller
This part of the Controller displays the following items
1. Panel Voltage
2. Battery Voltage
3. Panel Current
4. Panel Power
5. Required Battery Voltage
6. Duty Cycle
on the LED display. It gets all these values serially from the Tracker
or Input Controller.
Some codes of this software section belonging to Display

Controller are shown below:
6.2.7 Button Selection for Value to be Displayed

;----------------------------------BUTTON----------------------------
BUTTON:
JB P3.2, B13
JB P3.3, B12
JB P3.5, B2
JMP B1
B1:
JB P3.6, B4
JMP B3
B2:
JB P3.6, B6
JMP B5
B3:
JB P3.7, B8
JMP B7
B4:
JB P3.7, B10
JMP B9
B5:
JB P3.7, B12
JMP B11
B6:
JB P3.7, B14
JMP B13
B7:
MOV R3, #1
MOV R0, #2
RET
B8:
MOV R3, #2
MOV R0, #2
RET
B9:
67
MOV R3, #3
MOV R0, #2
RET
B10:
MOV R3, #4
MOV R0, #3
RET
B11:
MOV R3, #5
MOV R0, #2
RET
B12:
MOV R3, #6
MOV R0, #3
RET
B13:
MOV R3, #7
MOV R0, #2
RET
B14:
RET
6.2.8 Serially Receiving Data from Tracker & Input

Controller Code
SERIAL:
JB TI, TRANS
MOV 60H, A
MOV 61H, B
MOV 62H, PSW
MOV 64H, SBUF ;copy received data
CALL VALUE_R
CALL CHECK_R
MOV A, 60H
MOV B, 61H
MOV PSW, 62H
CLR RI ;clear RI
RETI
TRANS:
CLR TI ;do nothing
RETI ;ISR does not handle TXend
;---------CHECKING R4 FOR NO OF VALUE ENTERED OR TO BE ENTERED (RECIEVE)--------
CHECK_R:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #15
CJNE A,B, INC_R
MOV 63H, #0
RET
INC_R:
MOV A, 63H
INC A
MOV 63H, A
68
RET
;------------VALUE RECIEVING WITH RESPECT TO ITS ORIGINAL CODE (RECIEVE)-----------
VALUE_R:
V1:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #0
CJNE A, B, V2
MOV A, 64H
MOV 40H, A
RET
V2:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #1
CJNE A, B, V3
MOV A, 64H
MOV 41H, A
RET
V3:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #2
CJNE A, B, V4
MOV A, 64H
MOV 42H, A
RET
V4:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #3
CJNE A, B, V5
MOV A, 64H
MOV 43H, A
RET
V5:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #4
CJNE A, B, V6
MOV A, 64H
MOV 44H, A
RET
V6:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #5
CJNE A, B, V7
MOV A, 64H
MOV 45H, A
RET
V7:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #6
CJNE A, B, V8
MOV A, 64H
MOV 46H, A
RET
V8:
69
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #7
CJNE A, B, V9
MOV A, 64H
MOV 47H, A
RET
V9:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #8
CJNE A, B, V10
MOV A, 64H
MOV 48H, A
RET
V10:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #9
CJNE A, B, V11
MOV A, 64H
MOV 49H, A
RET
V11:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #10
CJNE A, B, V12
MOV A, 64H
MOV 4AH, A
RET
V12:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #11
CJNE A, B, V13
MOV A, 64H
MOV 4BH, A
RET
V13:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #12
CJNE A, B, V14
MOV A, 64H
MOV 4CH, A
RET
V14:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #13
CJNE A, B, V15
MOV A, 64H
MOV 4DH, A
RET
V15:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #14
CJNE A, B, V16
MOV A, 64H
MOV 4EH, A
RET
70
V16:
MOV A, 63H
MOV B, #15
CJNE A, B, VALUE_RET
MOV A, 64H
MOV 4FH, A
RET
VALUE_RET:
RET
71
Chapter 7 SIMULATIONS
7 SIMULATIONS
Simulations of the circuits developed were done in the following
softwares for the validations of the results:
1 Protues v6.3
2. Orcad v10.0
3. Pspice
7.1 Solar Tracker Simulations

Since all the implementation of ideas was purely my effort, step
by step conversion of programs was done to reach the final software
embedded in the micro-controller.
Firstly a digital clock was made which did not used Interrupt. It
had problem of accuracy. Its circuit implemented in the simluation
software Proteus are presented for review on the next page
Due to the lack of accuracy I shifted the digital clock to interrupt

based and now adding the relay mechanism to reverse the polarity of
the 36V DC supply applied to the Linear Actuator speed motor.
Simulated circuit is presented in the subsequent pages to follow.
Also the 36V DC Supply Simulations in Orcad are shown
72
Simulated Solar Tracker Circuit
Chapter 7
73
SIMULATIONS
Fig 7.1.1
Practical Solar Tracker Circuit
Chapter 7
74
SIMULATIONS
Fig 7.1.2
36V Regulated DC Supply
Chapter 7
75
SIMULATIONS
Fig 7.1.3
7.1.1 Simulation Results
Fig 7.1.4
76
7.2 MPPT Controller Simulations

Since the micro-controller used is the AT89S51, Proteus
provides a good simulations for these micro-controller so I used it for
the MPPT Controller too.
Before using any component or interfacing it with the micro-

controller, I tried to use it independantly so to work out all the control
specifications needed. Those circuits are also included in the
diagrams presented below
7.2.1 ADC Simulation
Testing the ADC using the below circuit
Fig 7.2.1
77
7.2.2 DAC Simulation
DAC Simulations using the Op-amp to get the final voltage

level
Fig 7.2.2
7.2.3 Tracker & Input Controller Keypad Simulations
Fig 7.2.3
78
7.2.4 MPPT Controller (not showing the MOSFET Driver &

MOSFET)
MPPT Controller Circuit

Fig 7.2.4
79
7.2.5 MOSFET Driver & MOSFET
MOSFET Driver & MOSFET

Fig 7.2.5
80
7.2.6 Mosfet Driver Simulation Results (Graphs)
Fig 7.2.6
81
Fig 7.2.7
82
Chapter 8 HARDWARE
8 HARDWARE
Being a big project, hardware for different items were to be

developed. Hardware were done in the following order
1. 36V DC Supply
2. Time Dependant Solar Tracker
3. MPPT Controller
4. MOSFET Driver & MOSFET
8.1 DC Supply
The hardware used in this is as follows
S.No Item Quantity

1 220V AC to 40V AC Transformer 1
2 Diode 2A Rating 4
3 2200uF Capacitor 1
4 2SD1051 (2A npn Transistor) 1
5 2SC1384 (Driver Transistor) 1
6 Zener 3.3V 1
7 Resistance 220Ω, 1KΩ, 3.77KΩ 1 each
All this hardware was implemented on a varo-board and installed in a

box which supplies the 36 V supply to the Time Dependant Solar
Tracker.
83
Chapter 8 HARDWARE
8.2 Time Dependant Solar Tracker
S.No Item Quantity

1 AT89S51 1
2 74LS47 1
3 2N3904 as Driver Transistor 5
4 2N3906 as Relay Driver 2
5 7 Segment Display 1
6 Relay (5V) 2
7 Resistance 10KΩ, 4.7KΩ 5 each
8 Resistance 35Ω 2
9 78L05 Regulator 1
10 LED 4
All these items on two varo-boards.
84
Chapter 8 HARDWARE
8.2.1 Hardware Abstracts:
• Ports & Pins Classification:
Pin # Work Color of Wire

P0.0 Relay 1 Turn-On Bit Yellow
P0.1 Relay 2 Turn-On Bit Green
P0.2 Blue LED (Jan-March) Black
P0.3 Green LED (April-June) Light Purple
P0.4 Red LED (July-Sept) Red
P0.5 Yellow LED (Oct-Dec) Green
P0.6
P0.7
P1.0 Digit # 1 Select on Display
P1.4 Blue LED Button (Jan-March) Dark Purple
P1.5 Green LED Button (April-June) Brown
P1.6 Red LED Button (July-Sept) Orange
P1.7 Yellow LED Button (Oct-Dec) Grey
P2.0 Bit 0 for 74LS47 Chip (Display)
P2.4
P2.5
P2.6
P2.7
P3.0
P3.1
P3.2 Button for Fast Minute Movement Yellow
P3.3 Button for Fast Hour Movement Blue
P3.4 Button for Force Movement (Clockwise) White
Button for Force Movement (Anti- Bluish Black
P3.5
Clockwise)
P3.6 Blinking Dots in Display Input
P3.7 Blinking Dots in Display Output
85
Chapter 8 HARDWARE
8.3 MPPT Controller

S.No Item Quantity

1 AT89S51 3
2 74LS47 1
3 74LS148 1
4 ADC0808 1
5 DAC0808 1
6 TL494 1
7 LM358 1
8 LM1458L 1
9 74LS373 2
10 NE555 1
11 LED 4
12 12MHz Oscillator 3
13 Capacitor 10uF 5
14 Capacitor 0.1uF 2
15 Capacitor 22uF 1
16 Resistance 4.7K Ω 4
17 Resistance 35Ω, 10K Ω 5 each
18 4 x 3 Keypad 1
19 78L05 Regulator 1
20 7 Segment Display 1
21 Capacitor 500pF 2
86
Chapter 8 HARDWARE
8.4 MOSFET Driver & MOSFET

S.No Item Quantity

1 IRF540 1
2 Diode 6A 1
3 Capacitor 2200uF 1
4 Resistance 1.5Ω (5W) 2
5 Resistance 1KΩ (2W) 1
6 Resistance 47KΩ (2W) 1
7 BD139 1
8 BD140 1
9 Zener 3.3V 2
10 Capacitor 47uF 2
11 Capacitor 0.1uF 2
It is a high power circuit so it is preferable to keep it away from the

sensitive electronic circuit comprising of the Micro-controllers.
87
Chapter 8
88
HARDWARE
Solar Tracker Solar Module Stand

Chapter 8 HARDWARE
Solar Tracker with Power Supply
Batteries with Inverter
89
Chapter 8
90
HARDWARE
MPPT Controller with Solar Tracker and Power Supply

Chapter 9 RESULTS
9 RESULTS
The results achieved were encouraging in the sense that it
resembled a great resemblance in the simulated results and the
practical results.
Although the inductor value in between the MOSFET and the

Battery could not be decided because there was a large difference in
the simulated and the practical value but the MOSFET Switching at
10Khz produced an isolation between the Solar Panel and the
Battery and due to the duty cycle variation the panel worked at the
maximum Power Point Voltage of the available conditions.
The Solar Tracker successfully tracked the sun for 3 months for
which it was intended. For the next months the settings were to be
re-programmed taking in consideration the positions of sun round the
day. The Digital Clock included in this design was a great success
which almost performed with accuracy with an error of 2 min/20days.
91
Chapter 10 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
10 RENEWABLE ENERGY
RESOURCES
Apart from the Solar Photovoltaic energy discussed in the
above chapters, there are various other forms of energy as well
which are categorized as Alternate or Renewable Energy Resources.
These are the following
1. Solar Thermal Energy
2. Wind Energy
3. Tidal Energy
A brief knowledge of these is given in this text.
10.1 Solar Thermal Energy

Solar thermal power plants use the sun's rays to heat a fluid,
from which heat transfer systems may be used to produce steam.
The steam, in turn, is converted into mechanical energy in a turbine
and into electricity from a conventional generator coupled to the
turbine. Solar thermal power generation is essentially the same as
conventional technologies except that in conventional technologies
the energy source is from the stored energy in fossil fuels released
by combustion. Solar thermal technologies use concentrator
systems due to the high temperatures needed for the working fluid.
The three types of solar-thermal power systems in use or under

development are:
1. Parabolic Trough
2. Central Reciever
3. Dish Reciever
92
In the figure, a schematic of a large-scale solar thermal power

station developed, designed, built, tested, and operated with the U.S.
Department of Energy funding. In this plant, the solar energy is
collected by thousands ofsun-tracking mirrors, called heliostats, that
reflect the sun’s energy to a single receiver atop a centrally located
tower. The enormous amount of energy focused on the receiver is
used to generate high temperature to melt a salt.The hot molten salt
is stored in a storage tank, and is used, when needed,to generate
steam and drive the turbine generator. After generating the steam,
the used molten salt at low temperature is returned to the cold salt
storage tank. From here it is pumped to the receiver tower to get
heated again for the next thermal cycle. The usable energy extracted
during such athermal cycle depends on the working temperatures.
Fig 10.1.1
93
A major benefit of this scheme is that it incorporates the

thermal energy storage for duration in hours with no degradation in
performance, or longer with some degradation. This feature makes
the technology capable of producing high value electricity for meeting
peak demands. Moreover, compared to the solar photovoltaic, the
solar thermal system is economical, as it eliminates the costly
semiconductor cells.
10.1.1 Parabolic Trough
The parabolic trough system is by far the most commercially

matured of thethree technologies. It focuses the sunlight on a glass-
encapsulated tube run-ning along the focal line of the collector. The
tube carries heat absorbing liquid, usually oil, which in turn, heats
water to generate steam.
Fig 10.1.2
More than 350 MW of parabolic trough capacity is operating in

the California Mojave Desert and is connected to the Southern
California Edison’s utility grid. This is more than 90 percent of the
world’s solar thermal capacity at present.
94
10.1.2 Central Reciever
In the central receiver system, an array of field mirrors

focus the sunlight on the central receiver mounted on a tower. To
focus the sun on the central receiver at all times, each heliostat is
mounted on the dual-axis suntracker to seek position in the sky that
is midway between the receiver and the sun.Compared to the
parabolic trough, this technology produces higher concentration, and
hence, higher temperature working medium, usually a
salt.Consequently, it yields higher Carnot efficiency, and is well
suited for utilityscale power plants in tens or hundreds of megawatt
capacity.
World’s Largest
Solar Thermal
Power Plant in
California Mojave
Desert
Fig 10.1.3
95
10.1.3 Dish Reciever
The parabolic dish tracks the sun to focus heat, which drives a
sterling heat engine-generator unit. This technology has applications
in relatively small capacity (tens of kW) due the size of available
engines and wind loads on the dish collectors. Because of their small
size, it is more modular than other solar thermal power systems, and
can be assembled in a few hundred kW to few MW capacities. This
technology is particularly attractive for small stand-alone remote
applications.
Fig 10.1.4
10.2 Wind Energy

The wind energy stands out to be one of the most promising
new sources of electrical power in the near future. Many countries
promote the wind-power technology by national programs and market
incentives.
96
The average turbine size of the wind installations has been 300
kW until the recent past. The newer machines of 500 to 1,000 kW
capacity have beendeveloped and are being installed. Prototypes of
a few MW wind turbinesare under test operations in several
countries, including the U.S.A.
Improved turbine designs and plant utilization have contributed

to adecline in large-scale wind energy generation costs from 35 cents
per kWhin 1980 to less than 5 cents per kWh in 1997 in favorable
locations
At this price, wind energy has become one of the least-

costpower sources. Major factors that have accelerated the wind-
power technol-ogy development are as follows:
1. High-strength fiber composites for constructing large low-cost

blades
2. Falling prices of the power electronics
3. Variable-speed operation of electrical generators to capture
maxi-mum energy
4. Improved plant operation, pushing the availability up to 95
percent
5. Economy of scale, as the turbines and plants are getting larger
in size
6. Accumulated field experience (the learning curve effect)
improving the capacity factor.
In Pakistan wind corridor has been

discovered where average summer wind
direction from Gharo to Hyderabad flows
where a considerable amount of power could
be generated. For this AEDB is doing
wonderful work for inviting investors to
Pakistan.
Due to the efforts about 700MW
capacity would be installed till early 2007 in
Private sector.
Fig 10.2.1
97
10.3 Tidal Energy

Tidal energy is the utilization of the sun and moon's
gravitational forces - as the tide is the result of their influences. Like
other alternative energies, tidal energy is not really anything new.
Tidal-power is the power achieved by capturing the energy

contained in moving water mass due to tides. Two types of tidal
energy can be extracted: kinetic energy of currents between ebbing
and surging tides and potential energy from the difference in height
(or head) between high and low tides. The former method -
generating energy from tidal currents - is considered much more
feasible today than building ocean-based dams or barrages, and
many coastal sites worldwide are being examined for their suitability
to produce tidal (current) energy. The tide moves a huge amount of
water twice each day, and harnessing it could provide a great deal of
energy
These work rather like a hydro-electric scheme, except that the

dam is much bigger. A huge dam (called a "barrage") is built across a
river estuary. When the tide goes in and out, the water flows through
tunnels in the dam.
The ebb and flow of the tides can be used to turn a turbine, or it
can be used to push air through a pipe, which then turns a turbine.
Large lock gates, like the ones used on canals, allow ships to pass.
The largest tidal power station in the world (and the only one in
Europe) is in the Rance estuary in northern France. It was built in
1966.
Fig 10.3.1
98
10.3.1 Advantages
The major advantage of tidal energy is its economical benefits.

For example, tidal energy does not require any fuel. Tides rise and
fall every day in a very consistent pattern. Another benefit is the
economic life of a tidal power plant. A plant is expected to be in
production for 75 to 100 years, in comparison with the 35 years of a
conventional fossil fuel plant. Besides the economical factors, tidal
energy is clean and renewable, unlike fossil fuels.
10.3.2 Disadvantages
The altering of the ecosystem at the bay is the biggest

drawback of tidal power. Damages like reduced flushing, winter icing
and erosion can change the vegetation of the area and disrupt the
balance. Similar to other ocean energies, tidal energy has several
prerequisites that make it only available in a small number of regions.
Another option is to use offshore turbines, rather like an

underwater wind farm. This has the advantage of being much
cheaper to build, and does not have the environmental problems that
a tidal barrage would bring.
Fig 10.3.2
99
Fig 10.3.3
A tidal power scheme is a long-term source of electricity. More

importantly, as the fossil fuel resource is likely to be eliminated by the
end of the twenty-first century, tidal power is one of the alternative
source of energy that will need to be developed to satisfy the human
demand for Energy.
100
Chapter 11 APPENDIX
11 APPENDIX
101

Full Report Changed

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Full Report Changed

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Design of Converting Solar Energy

into Electrical Energy for Domestic

Department of Electrical Engineering

I express my sincere appreciation for the

My special thanks goes to my friend Mr Zafar for

Finally, my deepest and most sincere thanks to my

Chapter 2 Project Abstracts 7

Chapter 3 Scope, Socio-Economic Benefits & Utilization 21

Chapter 4 Purchased Hardware Items 33

Chapter 5 Problem Statement 39

Chapter 6 Software Development 52

Chapter 10 Alternate Energy Resources 92

Chapter 11 Appendix 101

Due to the following economical, political and geological problems

• No national consensus on the construction of new Dams due to

• Limited sites for construction of Dams

• Increasing oil prices for Thermal Power Plants around the

• Non-availability of civilian nuclear technology with refusal of

• Large Transmission Line Losses due to distances between

• Non-usage of biggest coal reserviours in Sindh for power

In the light of the above mentioned points, it is desirable that a

Significance of the proposed research and application duly

The Electricity in Pakistan is an expensive source of energy &

1.1 Alternate Energy Development Board

Some of the main features and targets assigned to the board

• More than 800 million dollars investment has been offered to

• 2% of investment made in power sector should be dedicated to

• All localities not planned/anticipated to be connected with

• All industrial production related to Alternative/ Renewable

The Board has also tabulated some graphs

9 Proposed Growth of Alternate Renewable Energy in Pakistan

Which are presented for an insight in the whole matter.

So as the development of Alternate Energy Resources in

Enough sunlight falls on the Earth's surface each minute to

The United States receives more energy in the form of sunlight

Solar energy can be converted directly or indirectly into other

1. The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the

2.1 Solar Cells

The photovoltaic effect is the electrical potential developed

These early solar cells however, still had energy-conversion

In 1954, three other American researchers, G.L. Pearson,

By the late 1980s silicon cells, as well as those made of gallium

In 1989 a concentrator solar cell, a type of device in which

Modern solar cells are based on semiconductor physics .They

The first of these three layers necessary for energy conversion

The last of the energy-conversion layers is the back junction

Sunlight is composed of photons or particles of solar energy.

When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed.

2.1.3 Size & Wattage

The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a PV

As one cell only produces 1 or 2 watts which isn't enough

The solar array is defined as a group of several modules

Fig 2.1 Fig 2.1.4 Fig 2.1.5

2.1.6 General Diagram of a Module

Source: Solarex Corporation, Frederick, Maryland,

2.2 Solar Insolation

By knowing the insolation levels of a particular region we can

The values are generally expressed in kWh/m2/day. This is the

The conversions based on surface area as follows:

1 KWh/m2/day = 317.1 btu/ft2/day = 3.6MJ/m2/day

The raw energy conversions are:

1kWh = 3412 Btu = 3.6MJ = 859.8kcal

It is presumed that at "peak sun", 1000 W/m² of power reaches