Cell (biology)

The cell is the functional basic unit of life. It was discovered by Robert Hooke and is the functional unit of
all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often
called the building block of life.[1] Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a
single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are multicellular. Humans have about 100 trillion or 1014
cells; a typical cell size is 10 µm and a typical cell mass is 1 nanogram. The largest cells are about 135 µm
in the anterior horn in the spinal cord while granule cells in the cerebellum, the smallest, can be some 4 µm
and the longest cell can reach from the toe to the lower brain stem (Pseudounipolar cells).[2] The largest
known cells are unfertilised ostrich egg cells which weigh 3.3 pounds.[3][4]

Structures outside the cell wall

Capsule

A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell wall. The capsule may be polysaccharide
as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in
streptococci.[citation needed] Capsules are not marked by ordinary stain and can be detected by special stain. The
capsule is antigenic. The capsule has antiphagocytic function so it determines the virulence of many
bacteria. It also plays a role in attachment of the organism to mucous membranes.[citation needed]

Flagella

Flagella are the organelles of cellular mobility. They arise from cytoplasm and extrude through the cell
wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. Are most commonly found in
bacteria cells but are found in animal cells as well.

Fimbriae (pili)

They are short and thin hair like filaments, formed of protein called pilin (antigenic). Fimbriae are
responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific receptors of human cell (adherence). There are special
types of pili called (sex pili) involved in conjunction.[

Functions

Growth and metabolism

Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism. Cell
metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two
distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and
reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex
molecules and perform other biological functions. Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be
broken down into a less chemically complex sugar molecule called glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is
broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a form of energy, through two different pathways.

The first pathway, glycolysis, requires no oxygen and is referred to as anaerobic metabolism. Each reaction
is designed to produce some hydrogen ions that can then be used to make energy packets (ATP). In
prokaryotes, glycolysis is the only method used for converting energy.

The second pathway, called the Krebs cycle, or citric acid cycle, occurs inside the mitochondria and can
generate enough ATP to run all the cell functions.
Creation

Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to
growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative reproduction) in
unicellular organisms.

Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. Eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division,
called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis
to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to
form new diploid cells.

DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, is required every time a cell divides.
Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job.

ANIMAL CELL
Animal cells are typical of the eukaryotic cell, enclosed by a plasma membrane and containing a
membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. Unlike the cells of the two other eukaryotic kingdoms, plants and
fungi, animal cells don't have a cell wall. This feature was lost in the distant past by the single-celled
organisms that gave rise to the kingdom Animalia.

The lack of a rigid cell wall allowed animals to develop a greater diversity of cell types, tissues, and organs.
Specialized cells that formed nerves and muscles -- tissues impossible for plants to evolve -- gave these
organisms mobility. The ability to move about by the use of specialized muscle tissues is the hallmark of
the animal world. (Protozoans locomote, but by nonmuscular means, i.e. cilia, flagella, pseudopodia.)

The animal kingdom is unique amongst eukaryotic organisms because animal tissues are bound together by
a triple helix of protein, called collagen. Plant and fungal cells are bound together in tissues or aggregations
by other molecules, such as pectin. The fact that no other organisms utilize collagen in this manner is one
of the indications that all animals arose from a common unicellular ancestor.

Animals are a large and incredibly diverse group of organisms. Making up about three-quarters of the
species on Earth, they run the gamut from sponges and jellyfish to ants, whales, elephants, and -- of course
-- human beings. Being mobile has given animals the flexibility to adopt many different modes of feeding,
defense, and reproduction.

Centrioles - Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of microtubules and are
found only in animal cells. They appear to help in organizing cell division, but aren't essential to the
process.

• Cilia and Flagella - For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the
locomotion of individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or
materials past an immobile cell as well as moving a cell or group of cells.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that manufactures,
processes, and transports chemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. It is
connected to the double-layered nuclear envelope, providing a connection between the nucleus
and the cytoplasm.
• Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for the cell's
chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares
them for export to the outside of the cell.
• Lysosomes - The main function of these microbodies is digestion. Lysosomes break down cellular
waste products and debris from outside the cell into simple compounds, which are transferred to
the cytoplasm as new cell-building materials.
• Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called actin. These
filaments are primarily structural in function and are an important component of the cytoskeleton.
• Microtubules - These straight, hollow cylinders, composed of tubulin protein, are found
throughout the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells and perform a number of functions.
• Mitochondria - Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles that are found in the cytoplasm of
every eukaryotic cell. In the animal cell, they are the main power generators, converting oxygen
and nutrients into energy.
• Nucleus - The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information and
administrative center of the cell.
• Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in the cytoplasm,
roughly spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several types of microbodies but
peroxisomes are the most common.
• Plasma Membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their contents. In
prokaryotes, the membrane is the inner layer of protection surrounded by a rigid cell wall.
Eukaryotic animal cells have only the membrane to contain and protect their contents. These
membranes also regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the cells.
• Ribosomes - All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny organelles composed of approximately 60
percent RNA and 40 percent protein. In eukaryotes, ribosomes are made of four strands of RNA.
In prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of RNA.

Plant cell
amyloplast - an organelle in some plant cells that stores starch. Amyloplasts are found in starchy plants
like tubers and fruits.
cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell, but is inside the cell wall. The cell
membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass into the cell and blocking others.
cell wall - a thick, rigid membrane that surrounds a plant cell. This layer of cellulose fiber gives the cell
most of its support and structure. The cell wall also bonds with other cell walls to form the structure of the
plant.
centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located near the nucleus - it
has a dense center and radiating tubules. The centrosomes is where microtubules are made. During cell
division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell.
Unlike the centrosomes in animal cells, plant cell centrosomes do not have centrioles.
Golgi body - (also called the golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle that
looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. The golgi body packages proteins and
carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.
mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is
infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the
energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.
nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced.
nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The nucleus controls many
of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The
nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane
ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein
synthesis.
rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and
convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear
membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transport
materials through the cell and produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi body,
or inserted into the cell membrane).