A Simple Viscosity Test

Giresh Ghooray
Background
Rheology is the study of the deformation and flow of matter, which includes solids,
liquids, and gases. Rheology is derived from the Greek word rheos, which means to
flow.
Fluid rheology is a branch of rheology that mainly studies the viscosity and elasticity of
substances such as fluids. Elasticity describes the flexibility or stickiness of a
substance, while viscosity describes the “thickness” or resistance to flow of a
substance.
Different liquids have different properties. For instance, water flows easily compared to
concentrated fruit juices. The viscosity of paint and shampoo are very different. A simple
way to observe the viscosity of a liquid is to drop a steel ball into a column of the liquid
and see how long it takes to sink to the bottom of container.
Materials
To conduct this experiment, students will need:
A. A stopwatch
B. A tall graduated cylinder
C. Steel balls or marbles of the same size
D. Concentrated fruit juices, water, honey, and shampoo

The steel balls that I will use are from a magnetic building toy called Roger’s
Connection.
Procedure
Students should perform the following steps in order.
A. Fill two graduated cylinder with 2 different liquids
B. Drop 1 steel ball into the first liquid. Repeat two more times.
C. Use a stopwatch to record how long it takes the steel ball to reach the bottom
D. Record Results

Data
Time it takes for a steel Water Honey
ball to sink through a
liquid. [seconds] Trial
1
2
3
LAB MANUAL 1223.0
1223 FLAKINESS INDEX
FLH T 508 (Mn/DOT Modified)
1223.1 Scope
The Flakiness Index test determines the percentage of flat particles in a seal coat
aggregate.
1223.2 APPARATUS
A. A metal plate approximately 0.0625 inches thick with slotted openings
conforming to the design and dimensions shown in Figure 1.
B. Balance - A balance conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 231
(Class G2) with a minimum capacity of 2000g, a readability and sensitivity of
0.1g and an accuracy of 0.1g or 0.1%.
C. Oven - Capable of maintaining a temperature of 110 ± 5 °C (230 ± 9 °F).
FIGURE 1 – SLOTTED SIEVE OPENINGS.
Jan 3, 2005 LAB MANUAL 1223.3
1223.3 SAMPLE PREPARATION
Refer to Section 1201.4I1. Use the material retained on any of the following
sieves: ¾”, ½”, 3/8”, ¼” or the #4 sieve and has been placed into separate
containers. Aggregates retained on each sieve which comprises at least 4
percent of the total sample, shall be tested.
1223.4 PROCEDURE
A. Wash and oven dry samples to a constant weight at 110 ± 5 °C. (230 ± 9
°F.)
B. Test each of the particles in each size fraction using the proper slot
opening for each sieve size.
C. Separate the particles passing through the slot from those that do not
pass through the slot.
C. Weigh the particles passing the slot to the nearest 0.1 gram.
D. Weigh the particles retained on the gauge to the nearest 0.1 gram.
1223.5 CALCULATIONS FOR AN INDIVIDUAL SIEVE SIZE
% Flakiness Index = A x 100
A+B
Where:
A = Weight passing a given slot
B = Weight retained on the same slot
Report Flakiness Index to the nearest whole number.
1223.6 CALCULATIONS FOR MULTIPLE SIEVE SIZES
% Flakiness Index = A + A1 + A2 x 100
A + A1 + A2 + B + B1 + B2
Where:
A, A1, A2 = Weight passing a given slot
B, B1, B2 = Weight retained on the same slot
Report Flakiness Index to the nearest whole number.
Jan 3, 2005 LAB MANUAL 1223.7
1223.7 WORKSHEET
FLAKINESS INDEX
FLH 508
Laboratory ______________ Type of Material __________________
Source __________________________________________________
Location_________________________________________________
Tested By_______________________ Date ____________________
SIEVE SIZES WEIGHT
PASSING
(g)
WEIGHT
RETAINED
(g)
(½”)
0.375” Slot
10.1 35.0
(3/8”)
0.263” Slot
4.2 62.1
(1/4”)
0.184” Slot
22.5 57.4
(#4)

Ujian Kestabilan Marshall [Marshall Test]

Objektif | Radas | Tatacara |Pengiraan | Perbincangan | Rujukan |

Objektif Ujian kestabilan marshall inin dilakukan untuk mendapatkan satu campuran
rekabentuk supaya menepati spesifikasi yang telah ditetapkan
Radas
• Mesin penguji marshall
• Kepala penguji keluli
• Air sesuhu
• Jam randik
• Bicu penyemperit
• Mesin pemadatan marshall
• Pencampur asphalt
• Ketuhar
• Penimbang

Tatacara

(A) Penyediaan campuran kelompok

1. Kandungan aggregate dan bahan pengisi yang kan digunakan ditentukan supaya
campurn agregat dan bahan pengisi tidak terkeluar darpada limit yang ditentukan.
2. Campurkan batu baur , pasir dan bahan pengisi mengikut pecahan seperti yang
ditentukan daripada satu ke dalam sebuah kontena yang dpat mengisi sekurang –
kurangnya kuantiti aggregate yang cukup untuk mengisi satu specimen marshall (lebih
kurang 1200g).aggregat dipanaskan dalam ketuhar pada suhu 150oC selama
sekurang – kurangnya 4 jam.

3. Bitumen dipanaskan pada suhu yang sama atau suhu ketika bancuhan.

4. Aggregat yang telah dipanaskan dimasukkan kedalam mangkuk pencampur dan

bancuh tanpa bitumen selama 1 hingga 2 minit. Kemudian bitumen dicampur mengikut
kadar yang tertentu. Kandungan bitumen yang dimasukkan merupakan peratus
daripada berat keseluruhan campuran. Kandungan bitumen yang meningkat 0.5% bagi
setiap bancuhan digunakan.

5. Suhu bagi campuran kelompok yang tersedia untuk pemadatan tidak seharusnya
kurang daripada 137oC.

(B) Pemadatan
1. Sementara campuran kelompok disediakan, pelantak dan acuan pemadatan harus
dibersihkan dan dipanaskan ke suatu suhu yang tidak kurang daripada 137oC.

2. Acuan yang telah dipanaskan diletakkan diatas meja,dan masukkan sehelai kertas
turas 101.6mm ke dasar acuan. Kesemua acuan kelompok yang panas dimasukkan
kedalam acuan dan licinkan permukaan atas campuran kepada satu bentuk membulat.

3. Acuan pemadatan diletakkan (dengan campuran) di dalam mesin pemadatan dan di

padatkan. Biasanya capuran dipatkan dengan menggunakan pemadat hentakan
dengan nilai hentakan sebanyak 50 kali pada bahagian atas dan bawah specimen
untuk memastikan pemadatan berlaku dengan baik.

4. Gelang ditanggalkan dari acuan, acuan diterbalikkan dan specimen di atas palt
dasar, relang diletakkan kembali dan dikenakan hentakan yang sama diatas permukaan
specimen yang satu lagi.

5. Relang pemanjangan dan plat dasar ditanggalkan. Acuan yang mengandungi

specimen direndamkan didalam air sejuk selama 10 minit.

6 .Spesimen dikeluarkan dari acuan dengan bicu penyemperit. Specimen dibiarkan

sejuk ke suhu bilik sebelum diuji.

(C) Ujian ke atas spesimen.

1. Spesimen ditimbang didalam udara dan dicatatkan beratnya. Spesimen ditimbangkan
semula dengan membiarkannya berada di dalam air dan dicatatkan beratnya. Berat unit
bagi specimen tersebut dikirakan.

2. Specimen dipanaskan dalam air sesuhu 60 +/- 1oC selama 30 – 40 minit.

3. Permukaaan dalam kepala penguji dibersihkan dan spesimen diletakkan
ditengahnya.

4. Kepala panguji lengkap dengan specimen diletakkan diatas pedestal mesin penguji
Marshall.

5. Suis dihidupkan supaya mesin mengunakan beban mampatan kepada specimen

dengan kadar 50.8mm/minit sehingga kegagalan berlaku.

6. Bacaan daya yang maksimum dan dan aliran pada daya maksimum tersebut
dicatatkan.

  Pengiraan

(i) SGMix @ G2 =
100/( [%agg. Kasar/SGCA] + [%agg. Halus / SGCsand] +[ %pengisi/ Sgfiler]
= 100 / ((40/2.70) + (50/2.65) + (10/3.10))
= 2.71

(ii) Contoh pengiraan untuk sampel 1 :

1. d-e = 1262.3 – 702.6
= 559.7
2. d/f = 1262.3/ 559.7
= 2.3
3. Max.Theo. Sp. Gr = 100/ (( %Bit / Gb ) + ( % Agg / G2 ))
= 100/ (( 4/1) + (96/2.71)
= 2.54
4. bg / gb = (4 x 2.3) / 1
= 9.04
5 (100-b)g / g2 = (100- 4)2.26 / 2.71
= 80.06
6. 100-i-j = 100-9.04-80.06
= 10.90
7. 100-j = 100-80.06
= 19.94
8. i/l = 9.04 / 19.94
= 0.45
9. g x 1.00 = 2.26 x 1.00
= 2.26
10. p = stability x nisbah kaitan pada tebal spesimen 75 mm
= 4.99 x 0.77
= 3.86
11. q/r = 0.39 / 3.00
= 0.13
Perbincangan

Tujuan utama rekabentuk campuran konkrit asfalt ialah untuk mendapatkan nilai
kandungan asphalt yang optimum untuk kerja – kerja pembinaan turapan. Nilai
kandungan asphalt yang optimum ialah jumlah kandungan asphalt yang mencukupi
untuk melahirkan segala ciri yang baik yang diharapkan daripada turapan yang bakal
dibina.

Sekiranya kandungan asphalt terlalu rendah, aggregate tidak akan tersalut sepenuhnya
dan lompang udara akan meningkat ke aras yang berlebihan hingga menyebabkan
ketahanlasakan menurun.

Sebaliknya jika kandungan asphalt terlalu tinggi kestabilan akan menurun dan masalah
penjujuhan akan berlaku. Oleh yang demikian kandungan asphalt yang optimum perlu
diperoleh untuk campuran konkrit asphalt turapan jalan.

Selain daripada kestabilan sifat – sifat penting yang mesti dipunyai oleh sesuatu
campuran turapan berbitumen seperti berikut:

1. Kekonsistenan.
Peranan kekonsistenan dalam turapan berbitumen ialah untuk memastikan keadaan
suatu turapan itu dalam keadaan baik dalam tempoh waktu yang telah ditetapkan.
Kosistenan suatu turapan bitumen itu boleh di lihat melalui ketahanan suhu, cuaca dan
juga ketahanlaskan semasa berkhidmat. Suatu simen asphalt yang konsisten dapat
bertahan semasa berkhidmat dalam suatu tempoh yang lama walaupun dengan kesan
suhu dan cuaca yang melampau. Selain daripada itu ianya dapat mengekalkan bentuk
dan keupayaannya menahan bebanan yg diberikan oleh kenderaan.

2. Ketahanlasakan dan rintangan terhadap tidakan luluhawa.

Keadaan semasa suatu simen asphalt didalam perkhidmatan adalah sangat berbeza
dengan keadaannya semasa dijalankan ujian di makmal. Ini adalah kerana simen
asphalt menerima pelbagai jenis rintangan semasa hayat perkhidmatannya. Kesan

luluhawa adalah sslah satu tindakan cuaca yang sangat mempengaruhi kekuatan suatu
simen asphalt. Kesan luluhawa ini akan menyebabkan sifat anjal suatu bitumen akan
semakin berkurangan seterusnya membawa kepada kerapuhan bahan tesebut.
Sekiranya keadaan ini berterusan turapan akan terbentuk tetak dan menyebabkan
berlaku kegagalan kepada jalanraya terbabit. Antara factor utama yang menyebabkan
berlakunya luluhawa ialah :

1. tindakan pemeruapan dan pengoksidaan

2. kesan suhu
3. kesan luas permukaan
4. tindakan cahaya.

3. Rintangan terhadap air

Kerintangan terhadap air adalag salah satu factor yang sangat penting kepada setiap
turapan berbitumen kerana ianya adalah untuk menghalang daripada air permukaan
daripada menyerap masuk kedalam lapisan tanah dibawah permukaan turapan dan
mnyebabkan kekuatan turapan akan menurun akibat nilai daya galas tanah dibawah
permukaan tersebut turut menurun. Kerintangan terhadap air bagi sesuatu turapan
menjadikan kekuatan lapisan tanah dibawah permukaan tidak akan terganggu apabila
berlaku hujan dan juga banjir.

4. Kadar pengawetan
Kadar pengawetan sesuatu simen asphalt ialah merujuk kepada kadar kehilangan
bahan pelarut atau pun bahan yang mudah untuk meruap daripada sebatian yang
menyebabkan simen asphalt bertambah keras. Kadar pengawetan ini kadangkala
menjadi penting semasa kerja – kerja pembinaan kerana ianya menentukan masa
dimana turapan tersebut boleh dilalui selepas diturap. Terdapat tiga pelarut yang
biasanya digunakan dalam kerja – kerja pembinaan yang menentukan kecepatan
sesuatu turapan itu unutk mengeras.

Untuk turapan yang memerlukan masa yang cepat untuk mengeras biasanya petrol
digunakan untuk melarutkannya. Namun begitu pelarut ini adalah mahal berbanding
dengan pelarut yang berikutnya. Untuk turapan yang memerlukan masa yang tidak
terlalu lama untuk mengeras biasanya pelarut gasoline digunakan. Pelarut yang paling
lambat unutk meruap yang biasanya digunakan dalam melarutkan simen asphalt ialah
diesel. Pelarut ini adalah pelarut yang paling lambat untuk meruap dan teroksida yang
digunakan dalm kerja – kerja turapan.

Terdapat beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi nilai kestabilan campuran berbitumen.

Antara faktor – faktor tersebut ialah :

1. Kandungan aggregat
Jenis aggregat yang digunakan dalam kerja – kerja turapan mempengaruhi sesuatu
turapan daripada berfungsi dengan baik. Apabila nilai kekuatan aggregat yang
digunakan tidak mengikut spesifikasi yang telah ditetapkan kerosakan pada turapan
akan berlaku. Aggregat yang kuat adalah antara perkara utama yang perlu
dipertimbangkan dalam kerja – kerja turapan. Aggregat yang kekuatannya rendah akan
mudah terdedah kepada lelasan disamping tidak dapat menahan beban yang tinggi
daripada kenderaan yang berat.

2. Gred bitumen yang digunakan

Gred bitumen yang digunakan adalah perkara yang perlu dititik beratkan dalam kerja –
kerja rekabentuk sesuatu bancuhan turapan. Seseorang perekabentuk perlu
mengetahui keadaan cuaca dan jenis jalan yang akan dibina sebelum melakukan
rekabentuk campuran bitumen. Gred bitumen memainkan peranan penting untuk
kawasan yang mempunyai iklim yang kadar perubahan cuacanya adalah melampau. Ini
disebabkan oleh gred bitumen yang digunakan di kawsan yang bersuhu rendah adalah
berbeza dengan suhu bitumen yang digunakan di kawasan yang beriklim panas. Di
kawasan beriklim panas gred bitumen yang mempunyai nilai penusukan yang rendah
biasanya digunakan manakala di kawasan beriklim sejuk gred bitumen yang
mempunyai nilai penusukan yang tinggi digunakan.

3. Kekuatan lapisan subgred

Kekuatan lapisan subgred adalah satu lagi perkara yang mempengaruhi kestabilan
campuran berbitumen yang berada dilapisan permukaan. Sekiranya lapisan subgred
yang menampung beban daripada kenderaan tidak kuat, ianya akan menyebabkan
kestabilan lapisan permukaan terganggu dan akan menyebabkan kegagalan ada sistem
jalanraya. Biasanya lapisan subgred dibuat daripada tanah dan aggregat kasar yang
dimport kekawasan pembinaan.

PSV - Polished Stone Value

Test Procedures and Equipment

Introduction

In 1950 increased traffic flows and higher speeds on trunk roads, together with
concerns about road safety led to research into the relationship between road
materials and skid-resistance.

Research at the UK Road Research Laboratory showed a significant relationship

between polishing of aggregates used in road surfaces and skid resistance. Tests were
devised using an Accelerated Polishing Machine and a friction measuring device, a
Skid- Tester, to determine a Polished Stone Value.

These developments have resulted in a simple and inexpensive procedure to determine

in advance of a road being built what its resistance to skidding will be.

Our Accelerated Polishing Machine was first made 25 years ago, and we were deeply
involved both in the development in the machine and of the test procedures based on it.
More than 1000 of these machines have been supplied throughout the world to
Materials Laboratories, Consulting Engineers and Research Institutions.

The Skid Tester was first made to a design of the UK Road Research Laboratory. We
now offer this machine. Customers may now purchase the two machines required to
carry out PSV calculations from the same company, which is also able to provide a full
range of spares and technical advice and support.
Calculation of Polished Stone Value
The Polished Stone Value of aggregate gives a measure of resistance to the polishing
action of vehicle tyres under conditions similar to those occurring on the surface of a
road.

The action of road vehicle tyres on road surfaces results in polishing of the top, exposed
aggregate surface, and its state of polish is one of the main factors affecting the
resistance to skidding.

Resistance to this polishing action is determined principally by the inherent qualities of

the aggregate itself. A later section of this memorandum gives some information about
the polishing resistant qualities of different sources of aggregate.

The actual relationship between PSV and skidding resistance wilI vary with traffic
conditions,type of surfacing and other factors. All factors together with reproducibility of
the test should be taken into account when drawing up specifications for road works
which include test limits for PSV.

The PSV test is carried out in two stages - accelerated polishing of test specimens
followed by measurement of their state of polish by a friction test.

Description of the PSV Test

Full details are given in BS812Part1 14:1989. A copy of this document is essential to
understand and carry out the test.

Four curved test specimens are prepared from each sample undergoing test. Each
consists of 35 to 50 representative chippings of carefully controlled size supported in a
rigid matrix.

Fourteen specimens are clamped around the periphery of the 'road wheel' and
subjected to two phases of polishing by wheels with rubber tyres. The first phase is of
abrasion by a corn emery for three hours, followed by three hours of polishing with an
emery flour. Two of the fourteen samples are of Control stone.

The degree of polish of the specimens is then measured by means of the portable skid
resistance tester (using a special narrow slider, shorter test length and supplementary
scale) under carefully controlled conditions. Control specimens are used to condition
and check the slider before the test; also a pair of control specimens is included in each
test run of fourteen specimens to check the entire procedure and to allow for adjustment
of the result to compensate for minor variations in the polishing and or friction testing.
Results are expressed as 'polished stone values' (PSVs), the mean of the four test
specimens of each aggregate.

International Use of the PSV Test - BS 812

This British Standard has been adopted and used widely throughout the world. It is the
only test with available equipment to calculate PSVs.
The Permanent International Association of Road Congresses PIARC in conjunction
with RILEM and the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), recommend the
use of BS 812 to determine Polish Stone Values.

Use of PSV in Road Construction Contracts

In the UK the Highways Agency specify PSV tests in circumstances where resistance to
polishing have been found to be important. Table 2 shows the values required for
various conditions

Accelerated Polishing Machine

The machine consists of a road wheel, rotating at 320 rpm, to the periphery of which are
clamped 14 specimen holders. A solid rubber tyred wheel is positioned vertically above
the road wheel, and loaded to exert a force of 725 N.

There are two feed mechanisms and a water supply.

The first mechanism feeds corn emery, mixed with water to the junction of the rubber
and road wheel, while the second mechanism feeds emery flour, with water, to the
same location.

Road Safety and PSV

The fundamental purpose of the PSV is to enable safer roads to be built.

In the UK use of PSVs in road construction has had a major influence in reduction of
accidents. The following is an interesting example.

Elevated section of M4 experiment

This site, the elevated part of Motorway M4, was found to have a high proportion of
skidding accidents when wet. Examination of the records showed that the SFC
(Sideways Force Coefficient) of the surface was from 0.35 to 0.45 at 50 km/h. The road
was resurfaced with the highest PSV material available at the time. It had been intended
to use calcined bauxite (RASC Grade) for the entire site, but as insufficient material was
available, it was decided to mix it with a gritstone from Gilfach quarry near Neath, in
South Wales, with a PSV of 71.

During the first three years after resurfacing the SFC was found to have increased to
between 0.50 and 0.60 and accidents were substantially reduced.

TABLE 1

Petrology and Polishing

Extensive research has shown it is not possible to predict polishing qualities of natural
roadstone from petrological data. However some indicators have emerged:

Rocks composed of minerals of widely different hardness, and rocks that wear by the
pulling out of mineral grains from a relatively soft matrix, had relatively high resistance
to polishing. Conversely rocks consisting of minerals having nearly the same hardness
wore uniformly and tended to have a low resistance to polishing.
The gritstone group is excellent, with resistance to polishing being always high, whereas
the lime stone and flint groups yield the lowest resistance. Other groups, basalt, granite
and quartzite, yield intermediate results.

Resistance to polishing of samples from the basalt group show a wide range.
Resistance is higher when minerals of different hardness are present, and when the
ground-mass is foliated or fluxioned. The resistance is also influenced by the proportion
and hardness of secondary minerals, softer minerals giving higher resistance.

In groups of igneous rocks the petrological characteristics which most readily affect
resistance to polishing are variation in hardness between the minerals and the
proportion of soft minerals. Rocks with cracks and fractured minerals are of higher
resistance, whereas finer- grained allotriomorphic rocks tend to polish more readily.

Types of Polishing and Control Material

Four types of material are used in equipment for calculating PSVs.

Emery Corn

The first three hours of the polishing operation uses this material to remove high spots,
and condition the surface of the specimen.
Emery Flour

The second three hours of the polishing operation uses this material to polish the
samples.

Control Stone

This stone is used in the polishing Machine to provide a comparison against which the
results of the aggregate under test can be measured. 2 out of 14 samples in each test
are from this material.

Criggion Stone

Used in the Skid Tester for calibration purposes.

Skid Tester (Friction Test Machine)

The machine is based on the hod principle. It has a pendulum consisting of a tubular
arm rotating about a spindle attached to a vertical pillar. at the end of the tubular arm is
a head of constant mass with a spring loaded rubber slider. The pendulum is released
from a horizontal position so that it strikes the sample of aggregate with a constant
velocity. The distance the head travels after striking the sample is determined by the
friction of the surface of the sample, which has undergone preparation by the
Accelerated Polishing Machine.

The results shown by the Skid-Tester as Polished-Stone Values are the coefficient of
friction multiplied by 100.

The Skid-Tester is calibrated by the use of Criggion Stone, which comes from a quarry
in North Wales and is acknowledged to be a material of exceptionally consistent
characteristics.

Other Uses of the Skid Tester

Apart from it's key role in calculating Polished Stone Values in a laboratory environment,
the Skid Tester is a principal instrument for testing existing roads, and is an inexpensive
alternative to special purpose vehicles. In developing countries the use of a Skid Tester
usually precedes the purchase and use of an Accelerated Polishing Machine.

Investigations of causes of road accidents often include a Skid Test Report.

The following tests also make use of a Skid Tester:

Polished Paver Value

Polished Mortar Value

Some Other Tests on Aggregates and Surfaces

Aggregate Impact Test

This test is specified in BS812:Part 3 : 1975.

Resistance to impact of a sample of aggregate is measured by subjecting a 28mm deep

bed of 14 mm to 10 mm chippings, in a 102mm diameter hardened steel cup, to 15
blows from a 14 kg hammer falling from a height of 380mm. The percentage mass of
fines (passing a 2.80mm BS test sieve) formed in the test is known as the aggregate
impact value AIV. higher values are given by weaker materials. For the majority of
aggregates the impact value and the crushing value are similar, but brittle materials
such as flints yield impact values which are about 5 units higher than their crushing
values.

The impact test is widely used as an alternative to the crushing test.

Aggregate Abrasion Value

Dorry Abrasion Test

In the original Dorry abrasion test (also known as the Dorry hardness test) the
specimens of rock, two in number, each measuring mm in diameter by 25mm long,
were pressed against the surface of a cast steel disc, rotating in a horizontal plane, with
a force of 25 grams per square centimetre. Crushed quartz was used as an abrasive
and was fed in through two small hoppers. The amount of material abraded was
measured after 1,000 revolutions of the disc. With minor changes, the test was adopted
by the British Standards Institution and incorporated in BS812:1938.Leighton Buzzard
sand was used as the abrasive and results were expressed as the coefficient of
hardness (however results were often referred to as abrasion values). The coefficient of
hardness being calculated by subtracting from 20,one third of the loss in mass in grams.

The Dorry abrasion test was superseded by the Aggregate Abrasion Test in the 1951
revision of BS 812.

Aggregate Abrasion Test

The abrasion machine is similar to that used for the Dorry test and the test was
developed in 1949. Resistance to abrasion is measured by finding the percentage loss
in mass suffered by 33 cu. cm. of cubical (i.e. neither flaky nor elongated) 14 mm to 10
mm chippings when mounted in a single flat layer in a suitable setting medium and
subjected to a standard abrasion procedure on a lap using a standard 600 micron to
425 micron Leighton Buzzard silica sand as the abrasive. The percentage loss in mass
of chippings is known as the 'aggregate abrasion value' (AAV) and ranges from about 1
for hard flints to over 16 for aggregates that would normally be considered too soft for
use in road surfacings.

Inadequate abrasion resistance of road surfacing aggregates means an early loss of the
texture depth required to maintain high speed skidding resistance.

Polished mortar value determination

The procedure is an adaptation of the method and apparatus for measuring the PSV. A
sample of fine aggregate is mixed with ordinary Portland cement to produce a mortar
with an aggregate/cement ratio of 3.0 and a total-water/cement ratio of 0.6. Specimens
of the same size as in the PSV determination are cast so that the upper, screed, surface
is subjected to the polishing cycle. This is basically the same as for the PSV
determination except for the omission of water during the first 3 hour period and minor
adjustments to the nominal rate of feed of both grades of emery. Results are reported
as 'polished-mortar values (Pmvs),.

Polished-paver value determination

The polished paver-value determination makes use of the BS812 aggregate abrasion
method to polish the samples of pavers. the abrasion lap is modified by attaching a
standard rubber disk, and corn emery and emery flour abrasives are fed to the samples
under test in the same way as in the BS812 determination. The specimens are
prepared to aggregate abrasion test specimen dimensions and flat control specimens
(of the same control stone as the PSV test) are also made to these dimensions. After
completion of the polishing procedure, the degree of polish is measured with the
portable skid-resistance test in a similar way to the PSV test. A flat to curved correction
factor is then applied to estimate the 'polished-paver value', a correction being applied
in the same way as the PSV test according to the level of the control specimens. The
method has been published by the British Standards Institution a draft for development
(DD 155:1896). It also forms the basis of the draft European Standard - Pr EN 1344 -
1993.

B
bAB 7
SISTEM PENCEGAH KEBAKARAN
PERLINDUNGAN KEBAKARAN
PENGENALAN

Sistem pencegah kebakaran atau perlindungan kebakaran adalah salah satu

sistem yang diwajibkan pemasangannya pada sesebuah bangunan yang hendak
dibina. Dengan adanya system ini pada bangunan, ia dapat melindungi serta
menyelamatkan nyawa penghuni bangunan tersebut. Setiap pemasangan system
pencegah kebakaran termasuklah perlindungan kebakaran perlulah mengikut akta dan
standard yang bersesuaian dengan bangunan tersebut.

Sebelum sesebuah bangunan itu boleh diduduki atau didiami, bangunan

tersebut hendaklah diperiksa terlebih dahulu oleh Pihak Jabatan Bomba dan
Penyelamat bagi mendapatkan kelulusan (CF) yang mana bangunan tersebut selamat
diduduki. Antara perlindungan kebakaran adalah seperti pintu rintangan api.

Perlindungan Kebakaran
1. perlindungan pasif
jalan keluar keselamatan
pemetekan
akses perkakas bomba

2. perlindungan aktif
sistem pemadam yang menggunakan air
•
pili bomba
•
sistem penyembur air automatik
•
sistem pancur basah
•
sitem pancur kering

 sistem saluran Bantu mula (hose reel)

sistem pemadam yang menggunakan gas
sistem penggera kebakaran

PERLINDUNGAN KEBAKARAN (SISTEM PASIF)

Pengenalan
Berkaitan dengan unsure-unsur di dalam struktur bangunan yang berubapaya
melaksanakan fungsinya bagi tujuan:
i.
memberi perlindungan kepada penghuni bangunan dari kecederaan semasa
berlakunya kebakaran di dalam bangunan

ii.
memberi perlindungan kepada penghuni dari kecederaan semasa pelepasan diri
dari bangunan semasa kebakaran
iii.
memberi kemudahan semasa anggota penyelamat menjalankan tugas-tugas
kecemasan.
iv.
Mengelakkan kemerebakan api dan asap dari suatu bangunan ke bangunan yang
lain.
v.
Memberi perlindungan kepada harta benda dari kemusnahan kebakaran.
Disamping itu, system ini juga berupaya
i.
Memberi laluan perlindungan kepada penghuni bangunan kebakaran dengan
selamat diwaktu kecemasan.
ii.
Memberi laluan perlindungan kepada anggota bomba menjalankan tugas-tugas
kecemasan dengan selamat diwaktu kecemasan.
Jadual-jadual yang terdapat dalam UBBL 1984 berkaitan dengan system ini ialah
i.
Jadual keenam
ii.
Jadual ketujuh
iii.
Jadual kelapan
iv.
Jadual kesembilan

i.
Jalan keluar keselamatan
•
Peringkat jalan keluar mendatar
•
Peringkat jalan keluar menegak
•
Peringkat jalan keluar terakhir
Syarat-syarat jalan keluar keselamatan
•
Bebas daripada sebarang halangan
•
Pintu rintangan api
•
Tanda keluar dipasang pada laluan kecemasan.
•
Lampu kecemasan
•
Mempunyai pengudaraan dan pencahayaan yang cukup
Pengudaraan

Sistem ini amat penting kepada penghuni bangunan dan anggota Bomba iaitu untuk menjamin

keselamatan penghuni keluar daripada bangunan semasa menyelamatkan diri serta disamping iti ianya

juga memudahkan anggota Bomba menjalankan tugas menyelamat dan memadam kebakaran.

Tujuan Diadakan
i.
Memberi pengudaraan kepada jalan-jalan keluar keselamatan seperti lobi
melawan kebakaran, tangga keselamatan dan koridor terkawal.
ii.
Mengelakkan kemasukan asap kedalam kawasan terlindung.
iii.
Menggurangkan kemerebakan kebakaran disebabkan oleh asap.
Jenis-jenis sisten Pengudaraan yang terdapat pada bangunan ini ialah penggudaraan
biasa seperti tingkap dan struktur terbuka.
Pencahayaan
Adalah satu unsur sokongan kepada perlindungan pasif iaitu ia memberikan cahaya kepada semua laluan
keselamatan dimana semua arah dan tempat laluan keluar ditandakan. Pencahayaan ini dapat membantu
penghuni dan anggota bomba untuk mencari jalan keluar atau masuk dengan selamat di dalam bangunan semasa

kecemasan dan kebakaran.

ii.
Akses perkakas bomba
Isipadu Bangunan, V (m³)
Jarak Minimum Perimeter Bangunan
7,000 hingga 28,000
1/6
28,000 hingga 56,000
1/4
56,000 hingga 84,000
½
84,000 hingga 112,000
¾
112,000 dan ke atas
Tapak Pulau
•
Semua bangunan yang mempunyai isipadu memebihi 7000m³, dikehendaki
bersempadan dengan jalan atau lebuh atau kawasan terbuka.
•

Lebar jalan masuk bagi saiz bangunan seperti ini hendaklah tidak kurang daripada 12 (jalan 2 hala),6m (jalan sehala)

dan ianya digunakan sebagai akses perkakasan bomba.

Pengiraan:
Isipadu Bangunan
=
Perimeter Bangunan
=
Akses Perkakasan Bomba = perimeter bangunan × jarak minimum
iii.
Ruang akses menentang kebakaran.
•

Ruang akses menentang kebakaran

Peralatan yang ditempatkan di dalam ruang akses menentang kebakaran.

1.

injap pelantar sistem pancur kering dan sistem pancur basah

2.
hose dan nozel
3.
lif bomba
4.
tangga keselamatan
5.
telefon bomba

sistem
pengudar
aan dan
pencahay
aan
7.
suis
pengasin
g elektrik
•
Jalan
akses
perkakas
bomba
PERLIN
DUNGA
N
KEBAK
ARAN
(SISTEM
AKTIF)
i.
sistem
pemada
m yang
menggun
akan air
•
pili
bomba
•
sistem
penyemb
ur air
automati
k
•
sistem
pancur
basah
•
sitem
pancur
kering
•
sistem
saluran
Bantu
mula
(hose
reel)
ii.
sistem
pemada
m yang
menggun
akan gas
iii.
sistem
penggera
kebakara
n
Sistem
pemadam
yang
menggun
akan air
Sistem
Pili
Bomba
Locatioa
n
= Luar
Banguna
n
SISTEM
AUTOM
ATIK
SPRINK
LER
Location
=
•
Kepala
sprinkler
mempun
yai
pelbagai
peringkat
untuk
ianya
bertindak
.
•
Ianya
bergantu
ng
kepada
kesesuaia
n
kawasan
yang
dilindung
i dan
biasanya
dibezaka
n dengan
warna
seperti
jadual
berikut:
Fusible
Link
Sprinkler
Temperat
ure
Rating
and
Colour
Code
Temperat
ure
Rating
Colour
Of Yoke
Arms
68/74
Natural
(uncolore
d)
93/100
White
141
Blue
182
Yellow
227
Red
istem
pengudar
aan dan
pencahay
aan
7.
suis
pengasin
g elektrik
•
Jalan
akses
perkakas
bomba
PERLIN
DUNGA
N
KEBAK
ARAN
(SISTEM
AKTIF)
i.
sistem
pemada
m yang
menggun
akan air
•
pili
bomba
•
sistem
penyemb
ur air
automati
k
•
sistem
pancur
basah
•
sitem
pancur
kering
•
sistem
saluran
Bantu
mula
(hose
reel)
ii.
sistem
pemada
m yang
menggun
akan gas
iii.
sistem
penggera
kebakara
n